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7,000 | County_Mayo | County Mayo () is one of the traditional Counties of Ireland. It is located within the province of Connacht in the Republic of Ireland. It was named after the village of Mayo (). Geography The highest point in Mayo and Connacht is Mweelrea (). The river Moy in the northeast of the county is renowned for its salmon fishing. Ireland's largest island, Achill, lies off Mayo's west coast. Towns and villages Castlebar and Ballina are by far the two most populous towns in the county, with 10,729 and 10,146 residents respectively according to the 2006 census; with Ballina being much larger by land area. These are followed by Westport, a popular tourist town, which has 5,140 residents. The fourth largest town is Claremorris, a market town, with a population of 3,170. Achill Island Balla, Ballina, Ballinrobe, Ballintober, Ballycastle, Ballyhaunis, Ballyglass, Ballyvary, Bangor, Belmullet, Bohola, Boytown Castlebar, Charlestown, Claremorris, Cong, Crossmolina Derrew Foxford Geesala Islandeady Keel, Kilkelly, Killala, Kilmaine, Kiltimagh, Knock, Knockmore Louisburgh Mayo, Mulrany Newport Shrule, Swinford Tourmakeady Westport Demographics The county has experienced perhaps the highest emigration out of Ireland. In the 1840s-1880s, waves of emigrants left the rural townlands of the county. Initially triggered by the Great Famine and then in search of work in the newly industrialising England, Scotland and the United States, the population fell considerably. This can still be seen today with communities in Manchester, Preston, Birmingham, North London, Nottingham, Huddersfield and Middlesbrough openly proud of their Mayo roots, reflected in songs and the use of Gaelic football shirts. Places of interest Cliffs along the Atlantic coastline of County Mayo, near Ballycastle The Knock Shrine is in Mayo, close to the border with County Roscommon. Mayo is also home to Croagh Patrick, a mountain where St Patrick is said to have fasted for forty days and nights, although worship connected with the mountain is believed to have preceded the arrival of Christianity. Achill Island () Ashford Castle Ballintubber Abbey Ceide Fields Clare Island Clew Bay Croagh Patrick Ireland West Airport Knock Lough Mask () Mullet Peninsula Nephin Beg Mountains Partry Mountains Rockfleet Castle Westport House Famous People from Mayo Michael Davitt, founder of the Land League, was born in Mayo. The bridge to Achill is named after him as well as Castlebar's local secondary school (Davitt College). Patrick Browne (1720–1790), Doctor and botanist of Jamaica. Admiral William Brown (1777 to 1857), Born in Foxford, founder of the Argentine Navy Seán Flanagan (1922– 1993) was a senior Fianna Fáil politician and Gaelic footballer in Ireland. He served under Taoiseach Jack Lynch as Minister for Health (1966-1969) and Minister for Lands (1969-1973). William O'Dwyer, mayor of New York City from 1946-1950. Grace O'Malley, the pirate queen and chieftain of the clan O’Malley. Ciarán McDonald, Gaelic football player. John McDonnell (born July 2, 1938), coach. He has won more national championships (42) than any coach in any sport in the history of American collegiate athletics. Mary Robinson, First Female President of the Irish Republic (1990-1997), born in Ballina in 1944. Robinson became the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on 12 September 12, 1997, resigning the Presidency a few weeks early with the approval of Irish political parties in order to take up the post. Louis Walsh (born 5 August, 1952), music mogul. Aoibhinn Ní Shúilleabháin (born in Carnacon in 1983), won the 2005 Rose of Tralee contest. She is the 47th Rose and the first from County Mayo. Sport Mayo is also noted for its Gaelic football team, and their struggle to capture the All-Ireland Football Title in recent years. They last won the Sam Maguire Cup in 1951, when the team was captained by Seán Flanagan. Mayo's most recent All-Ireland final losses have been in 1989, 1996, 1997, 2004 and 2006. They defeated a hotly tipped Dublin team in the 2006 All Ireland Semi Final; In what match commentators said was one of the best games ever in Croke Park, Mayo won by one point. Energy resources controversy Since 2005 in Erris in the northwest of the county, the Shell to Sea campaign has organised protests at the decision of the Royal Dutch Shell oil company (they represent 45% of the investments to the project)to refine raw gas from the Corrib Gas Field onshore. This would entail piping the gas through inhabited areas at high pressure and without the chemical that allows people to smell the gas when there is a leak. Five men were jailed in 2005 for refusing to allow the pipeline through their lands. Opinion is divided on the project locally. On the one hand, the project has been seen as a source of much-needed jobs, on the other, many are opposed to the environmental degradation they believe will result. They are also unhappy with the Garda Síochána tactics surrounding the protests, which have resulted Gardaí in Mayo having a higher per capita rate of complaints against them than in any other part of the state, despite the county having one of the lowest crime levels. http://www.mayonews.ie/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=4021&Itemid=38 See also Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo, Viceroy of India 1869-72 Castlebar transmitter Connacht Irish Earl of Mayo List of abbeys and priories in the Republic of Ireland (County Mayo) Marquess of Sligo Mayo College Mayo County Council Westport House External links Mayo.ie Mayo County Council's website Connaught Telegraph Western People | County_Mayo |@lemmatized county:14 mayo:23 one:5 traditional:1 ireland:10 locate:1 within:1 province:1 connacht:3 republic:3 name:2 village:2 geography:1 high:5 point:2 mweelrea:1 river:1 moy:1 northeast:1 renowned:1 salmon:1 fishing:1 large:3 island:4 achill:4 lie:1 west:2 coast:1 town:5 castlebar:4 ballina:4 far:1 two:1 populous:1 resident:2 respectively:1 accord:1 census:1 much:2 land:4 area:2 follow:1 westport:4 popular:1 tourist:1 fourth:1 claremorris:2 market:1 population:2 balla:1 ballinrobe:1 ballintober:1 ballycastle:2 ballyhaunis:1 ballyglass:1 ballyvary:1 bangor:1 belmullet:1 bohola:1 boytown:1 charlestown:1 cong:1 crossmolina:1 derrew:1 foxford:2 geesala:1 islandeady:1 keel:1 kilkelly:1 killala:1 kilmaine:1 kiltimagh:1 knock:3 knockmore:1 louisburgh:1 mulrany:1 newport:1 shrule:1 swinford:1 tourmakeady:1 demographic:1 experience:1 perhaps:1 emigration:1 wave:1 emigrant:1 leave:1 rural:1 townlands:1 initially:1 trigger:1 great:1 famine:1 search:1 work:1 newly:1 industrialising:1 england:1 scotland:1 united:2 state:2 fell:1 considerably:1 still:1 see:3 today:1 community:1 manchester:1 preston:1 birmingham:1 north:1 london:1 nottingham:1 huddersfield:1 middlesbrough:1 openly:1 proud:1 root:1 reflect:1 song:1 use:1 gaelic:4 football:4 shirt:1 place:1 interest:1 cliff:1 along:1 atlantic:1 coastline:1 near:1 shrine:1 close:1 border:1 roscommon:1 also:4 home:1 croagh:2 patrick:4 mountain:4 st:1 say:2 fast:1 forty:1 day:1 night:1 although:1 worship:1 connect:1 believe:2 precede:1 arrival:1 christianity:1 ashford:1 castle:2 ballintubber:1 abbey:2 ceide:1 field:2 clare:1 clew:1 bay:1 airport:1 lough:1 mask:1 mullet:1 peninsula:1 nephin:1 beg:1 partry:1 rockfleet:1 house:2 famous:1 people:3 michael:1 davitt:2 founder:2 league:1 bear:5 bridge:1 well:1 local:1 secondary:1 school:1 college:2 browne:1 doctor:1 botanist:1 jamaica:1 admiral:1 william:2 brown:1 argentine:1 navy:1 seán:2 flanagan:2 senior:1 fianna:1 fáil:1 politician:1 footballer:1 serve:1 taoiseach:1 jack:1 lynch:1 minister:2 health:1 dwyer:1 mayor:1 new:1 york:1 city:1 grace:1 malley:2 pirate:1 queen:1 chieftain:1 clan:1 ciarán:1 mcdonald:1 player:1 john:1 mcdonnell:1 july:1 coach:2 win:4 national:1 championship:1 sport:2 history:1 american:1 collegiate:1 athletics:1 mary:1 robinson:2 first:2 female:1 president:1 irish:3 become:1 nation:1 commissioner:1 human:1 right:1 september:1 resign:1 presidency:1 week:1 early:1 approval:1 political:1 party:1 order:1 take:1 post:1 louis:1 walsh:1 born:1 august:1 music:1 mogul:1 aoibhinn:1 ní:1 shúilleabháin:1 carnacon:1 rise:2 tralee:1 contest:1 note:1 team:3 struggle:1 capture:1 title:1 recent:2 year:1 last:1 sam:1 maguire:1 cup:1 captain:1 final:2 loss:1 defeat:1 hotly:1 tip:1 dublin:1 semi:1 match:1 commentator:1 best:1 game:1 ever:1 croke:1 park:1 energy:1 resource:1 controversy:1 since:1 erris:1 northwest:1 shell:2 sea:1 campaign:1 organise:1 protest:2 decision:1 royal:1 dutch:1 oil:1 company:1 represent:1 investment:1 project:3 refine:1 raw:1 gas:4 corrib:1 onshore:1 would:1 entail:1 pip:1 inhabit:1 pressure:1 without:1 chemical:1 allow:2 smell:1 leak:1 five:1 men:1 jail:1 refuse:1 pipeline:1 opinion:1 divide:1 locally:1 hand:1 source:1 need:1 job:1 many:1 oppose:1 environmental:1 degradation:1 result:2 unhappy:1 garda:1 síochána:1 tactic:1 surround:1 gardaí:1 per:1 caput:1 rate:1 complaint:1 part:1 despite:1 low:1 crime:1 level:1 http:1 www:1 mayonews:1 ie:2 index:1 php:1 option:1 task:1 view:1 id:1 itemid:1 richard:1 bourke:1 earl:2 viceroy:1 india:1 transmitter:1 list:1 priory:1 marquess:1 sligo:1 council:2 external:1 link:1 website:1 connaught:1 telegraph:1 western:1 |@bigram michael_davitt:1 fianna_fáil:1 croke_park:1 environmental_degradation:1 garda_síochána:1 per_caput:1 http_www:1 index_php:1 id_itemid:1 connacht_irish:1 external_link:1 |
7,001 | Geography_of_Niger | Niger is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. Its geographic coordinates are a longitude of 16°N and a latitude off 8°E. Its area is 1.267 million square kilometers, of which 1 266 700 km² is land and 300 km² water. This makes Niger slightly less than twice the size of the U.S. state of Texas. Political geography Map of Niger Niger's cities, main towns and other centres Niger borders seven countries and has a total of 5 697 km of borders. The longest border is Nigeria to the south, at 1 497 km. This is followed by Chad to the east (1 175 km), Algeria to the northnorthwest (956 km), and Mali at 821 km. Niger also has short borders in its far southwest frontier (Burkina Faso at 628 km and Benin at 266 km) and to the northnortheast (Libya at 354 km). Physical geography Climate Niger's climate is mainly hot and dry, with much desert area. In the extreme south there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River Basin. The terrain is predominantly desert plains and sand dunes, with flat to rolling plains in the south and hills in the north. Terrain Topography of Niger The lowest point is the Niger River, with an elevation of 200 m, and the highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Massif at 2,022 metres (6,634 ft). Natural resources Niger possesses the following natural resources: uranium coal iron ore tin phosphates gold petroleum Agricultural geography Land in Niger is used as arable land (660 km² of land in Niger is irrigated), and as pasture. There are some forests and woodland. The table below describes the land us in Niger, as of 1993. +Land use Use Percentage of Area arable land 3 permanent pastures 7 forests and woodland 2 other 88 Environment Natural hazards Recurring droughts are a hazard in Niger. Current issues Current environmental issues in Niger include: overgrazing, soil erosion, deforestation, desertification and endangered wildlife populations (such as elephant, hippopotamus, giraffe, and lion), which are threatened because of poaching and habitat destruction. International agreements Niger is a party to the following agreements: Biodiversity Climate Change Desertification Endangered Species Environmental Modification Hazardous Wastes Nuclear Test Ban Ozone Layer Protection Wetlands Niger has signed, but not ratified the Kyoto Protocol and Law of the Sea. See also List of extreme points of Niger References L. Herrmann, K. Stahr and K. Vennemann. Atlas of Natural and Agronomic Resources of Niger and Benin, "Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft" (German Research Foundation), the University of Hohenheim. (No date). Accessed 2008-02-22. | Geography_of_Niger |@lemmatized niger:20 landlocked:1 nation:1 west:1 africa:1 locate:1 along:1 border:5 sahara:1 sub:1 saharan:1 region:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 longitude:1 n:2 latitude:1 e:1 area:3 million:1 square:1 kilometer:1 land:7 water:1 make:1 slightly:1 less:1 twice:1 size:1 u:2 state:1 texas:1 political:1 geography:3 map:1 city:1 main:1 town:1 centre:1 seven:1 country:1 total:1 km:8 long:1 nigeria:1 south:3 follow:1 chad:1 east:1 algeria:1 northnorthwest:1 mali:1 also:2 short:1 far:1 southwest:1 frontier:1 burkina:1 faso:1 benin:2 northnortheast:1 libya:1 physical:1 climate:4 mainly:1 hot:1 dry:1 much:1 desert:2 extreme:2 tropical:1 edge:1 river:2 basin:1 terrain:2 predominantly:1 plain:2 sand:1 dune:1 flat:1 roll:1 hill:1 north:1 topography:1 low:1 point:3 elevation:1 high:1 mont:1 idoukal:1 taghès:1 aïr:1 massif:1 metre:1 ft:1 natural:4 resource:3 possess:1 following:2 uranium:1 coal:1 iron:1 ore:1 tin:1 phosphate:1 gold:1 petroleum:1 agricultural:1 use:3 arable:2 irrigate:1 pasture:2 forest:2 woodland:2 table:1 describe:1 percentage:1 permanent:1 environment:1 hazard:2 recur:1 drought:1 current:2 issue:2 environmental:2 include:1 overgrazing:1 soil:1 erosion:1 deforestation:1 desertification:2 endanger:2 wildlife:1 population:1 elephant:1 hippopotamus:1 giraffe:1 lion:1 threaten:1 poaching:1 habitat:1 destruction:1 international:1 agreement:2 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 specie:1 modification:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 wetlands:1 sign:1 ratify:1 kyoto:1 protocol:1 law:1 sea:1 see:1 list:1 reference:1 l:1 herrmann:1 k:2 stahr:1 vennemann:1 atlas:1 agronomic:1 deutsche:1 forschungsgemeinschaft:1 german:1 research:1 foundation:1 university:1 hohenheim:1 date:1 access:1 |@bigram sub_saharan:1 geographic_coordinate:1 square_kilometer:1 burkina_faso:1 sand_dune:1 metre_ft:1 iron_ore:1 arable_land:2 pasture_forest:2 forest_woodland:2 permanent_pasture:1 soil_erosion:1 deforestation_desertification:1 desertification_endanger:2 biodiversity_climate:1 endanger_specie:1 modification_hazardous:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 ratify_kyoto:1 kyoto_protocol:1 |
7,002 | Margaret_Mead | Margaret Mead (December 16, 1901, Philadelphia – November 15, 1978, New York City) was an American cultural anthropologist, who was frequently a featured writer and speaker in the mass media throughout the 1960s and 1970s. She was both a popularizer of the insights of anthropology into modern American and Western culture, and also a respected, if controversial, academic anthropologist. Her reports about the purportedly healthy attitude towards sex in South Pacific and Southeast Asian traditional cultures amply informed the 1960s sexual revolution. Mead was a champion of broadened sexual mores within a context of traditional western religious life. A committed Anglican Christian, she took a considerable part in the drafting of the 1979 American Episcopal Book of Common Prayer. Howard, 347-348. She was a recognizable figure in academia, usually wearing a distinctive cape and carrying a tall, forked walking stick. Biography Birth, early family life and education Mead was the first of five children, born into a Quaker family, Margaret Mead Biography and Bibliography at LitWeb.net raised in Doylestown, Pennsylvania by her finance professor father at the University at Pennsylvania, Edward Sherwood Mead, and mother, Emily Fogg Mead, Shaping Forces - Margaret Mead: Human Nature and the Power of Culture (Library of Congress Exhibition) a sociologist who studied Italian immigrants. "Margaret Mead" by Wilton S. Dillon Her family moved frequently, so her early education alternated between home-schooling and traditional schools. Margaret studied one year, 1919, at DePauw University, then transferred to Barnard College where she earned her Bachelor's Degree in 1923. She studied with Professor Franz Boas and Dr. Ruth Benedict at Columbia University before earning her Master's in 1924. Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Women's History Mead set out in 1925 to do fieldwork in Polynesia. Great Lecture Library . com : Chautauqua Institution In 1926, she joined the American Museum of Natural History, New York City, as assistant curator. Margaret Mead She received her Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1929. Margaret Mead Personal life Margaret Mead was married three times. Her first marriage, from 1923 to 1928, was to Luther Cressman, a theological student during his marriage to Mead, and later an anthropologist himself. Mead dismissively characterized her marriage to Cressman as "my student marriage" in Blackberry Winter, a sobriquet with which Cressman took vigorous issue. She was then married to New Zealander Reo Fortune, a Cambridge graduate, from 1928 to 1935; Fortune was also an anthropologist — his Sorcerers of Dobu remains the locus classicus of eastern Papuan anthropology — but he is best known for his Fortunate number theory. Her marriage to Fortune was described by her as a more passionate one, embarked upon when she was told that she could not have children and abandoned when she was given hope by another physician that childbearing might indeed be possible. Her third and longest-lasting marriage (from 1936 to 1950) was to British anthropologist Gregory Bateson, also a Cambridge graduate, with whom she had a daughter, Mary Catherine Bateson who would also become an anthropologist. Early in his career, Dr. Benjamin Spock was her pediatrician for the baby. Mead's experiences observing how babies were raised in other cultures, and her implementation of some of the same techniques such as breastfeeding on demand according to the baby's need rather than a schedule, were influential on Spock's subsequent writings on child-rearing. She readily acknowledged that Bateson was the one she loved most of her three husbands, possibly in part because he was the father of her only child. She was devastated when he left her, and she remained his loving friend to her life's end, keeping his photograph by her bedside wherever she travelled, including beside her hospital deathbed. Howard, 428. Mead also had an exceptionally close relationship with Ruth Benedict. Mead's daughter, Mary Catherine Bateson, in her memoir of her parents With a Daughter's Eye, implies that the relationship between Benedict and Mead contained an erotic element. M.C. Bateson, 117-18. See also Lapsley (1999) While Margaret Mead never openly identified herself as lesbian or bisexual, the details of her relationship with Benedict have led others to identify her thus; in her writings she proposed that it is to be expected that an individual's sexual orientation may evolve throughout life. M.C. Bateson, 120-22. She spent her last years in a close personal and professional collaboration with anthropologist Rhoda Metraux, with whom she lived from 1955 until her death in 1978. Letters between the two published in 2006 with the permission of Mead's daughter To Cherish the Life of the World: Selected Letters of Margaret Mead. Margaret M. Caffey and Patricia A. Francis, eds. With foreword by Mary Catherine Bateson. New York. Basic Books. 2006. clearly express a romantic relationship. Mead's granddaughter, Sevanne Margaret Kassarjian, is a stage and television actress who works professionally under the name Sevanne Martin, New York Times wedding announcement. Retrieved 9 November 2007. Martin having been the intended name for her prematurely born elder brother, who lived only long enough to be christened. M.C. Bateson. Both of Mead's surviving sisters were married to famous men. Elizabeth Mead (1909-1983), an artist and teacher, married cartoonist William Steig, and Priscilla Mead (1911-1959) married author Leo Rosten. Both of these marriages produced children, but ended in divorce. Mead also had a brother, Richard Mead (1904-1975), a professor of business. Mead's sister Katharine (1906-1907) died at the age of nine months. This was a traumatic event for Mead, who had named this baby, and thoughts of her lost sister permeated her daydreams for many years. Howard, Jane (1984) Margaret Mead: A Life. New York: Simon and Schuster Career and later life During World War II, Mead served as executive secretary of the National Research Council's Committee on Food Habits. She served as curator of ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History from 1946 to 1969. She taught at Columbia University as adjunct professor from 1954 to 1978. She was a professor of anthropology and chair of Division of Social Sciences at Fordham University's Lincoln Center campus from 1968 to 1970, founding their anthropology department. Following the example of her instructor Ruth Benedict, Mead concentrated her studies on problems of child rearing, personality, and culture. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Fifth Edition, 1993. She held various positions in the American Association for the Advancement of Science, notably president in 1975 and chair of the executive committee of the board of directors in 1976. Margaret Mead Mead was featured on two Folkways Records albums. The first, released in 1959, An Interview With Margaret Mead, explored the topics of morals and anthropology. In 1971, Mead was again featured on, But the Women Rose, Vol.2: Voices of Women in American History, a compilation album of female leaders. Mead at Smithsonian Folkways In later life, Mead was a mentor to many young anthropologists and sociologists, including Jean Houston. Howard, 370-71. Mead died of pancreatic cancer on November 15, 1978. Shortly after her death, Mead's youthful work in Samoa was resoundingly attacked by Derek Freeman, an anthropologist at the Australian National University; most anthropologists eventually supported Mead's work. With a Daughter's Eye, by Mead's daughter (with Gregory Bateson) Mary Catherine Bateson, provides an intimate portrait of Mead. Work Coming of Age in Samoa In the foreword to Coming of Age in Samoa, Mead's advisor, Franz Boas, wrote of its significance that Courtesy, modesty, good manners, conformity to definite ethical standards are universal, but what constitutes courtesy, modesty, very good manners, and definite ethical standards is not universal. It is instructive to know that standards differ in the most unexpected ways. Boas went on to point out that at the time of publication, many Americans had begun to discuss the problems faced by young people (particularly women) as they pass through adolescence as "unavoidable periods of adjustment." Boas felt that a study of the problems faced by adolescents in another culture would be illuminating. And so, as Mead herself described the goal of her research: "I have tried to answer the question which sent me to Samoa: Are the disturbances which vex our adolescents due to the nature of adolescence itself or to the civilization? Under different conditions does adolescence present a different picture?" To answer this question, she conducted her study among a small group of Samoans — a village of 600 people on the island of Ta‘ū — in which she got to know, lived with, observed, and interviewed (through an interpreter) 68 young women between the ages of 9 and 20. She concluded that the passage from childhood to adulthood (adolescence) in Samoa was a smooth transition and not marked by the emotional or psychological distress, anxiety, or confusion seen in the United States. As Boas and Mead expected, this book upset many Westerners when it first appeared in 1928. Many American readers felt shocked by her observation that young Samoan women deferred marriage for many years while enjoying casual sex but eventually married, settled down, and successfully reared their own children. In 1983, five years after Mead had died, anthropologist Derek Freeman published Margaret Mead and Samoa: The Making and Unmaking of an Anthropological Myth, in which he challenged Mead's major findings about sexuality in Samoan society, claiming evidence that her informants had misled her. After years of discussion, many anthropologists concluded that the truth would probably never be known, although most published accounts of the debate have also raised serious questions about Freeman's critique. See Appell 1984, Brady 1991, Feinberg 1988, Leacock 1988, Levy 1984, Marshall 1993, Nardi 1984, Patience and Smith 1986, Paxman 1988, Scheper-Hughes 1984, Shankman 1996, and Young and Juan 1985. His obituary concludes that "many anthropologists have agreed to disagree over the findings of one of the science's founding mothers, acknowledging both Mead's pioneering research and the fact that she may have been mistaken on details." Research in other societies Another extremely influential book by Mead was Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies. This became a major cornerstone of the women's liberation movement, since it claimed that females are dominant in the Tchambuli (now spelled Chambri) Lake region of the Sepik basin of Papua New Guinea (in the western Pacific) without causing any special problems. The lack of male dominance may have been the result of the Australian administration's outlawing of warfare. According to contemporary research, males are dominant throughout Melanesia (although some believe that female witches have special powers). Others have argued that there is still much cultural variation throughout Melanesia, and especially in the large island of New Guinea. Moreover, anthropologists often overlook the significance of networks of political influence among females. The formal male-dominated institutions typical of some high-population density areas were not, for example, present in the same way in Oksapmin, West Sepik Province, a more sparsely populated area. Cultural patterns there were different from, say, Mt. Hagen. They were closer to those described by Mead. Mead stated that the Arapesh people, also in the Sepik, were pacifists, although she noted that they do on occasion engage in warfare. Meanwhile, her observations about the sharing of garden plots amongst the Arapesh, the egalitarian emphasis in child-rearing, and her documentation of predominantly peaceful relations among relatives hold up. These descriptions are very different from the "big-man" displays of dominance that were documented in more stratified New Guinea cultures — e.g., by Andrew Strathern. They are, indeed, as she wrote, a cultural pattern. In brief, her comparative study revealed a full range of contrasting gender roles: "Among the Arapesh, both men and women were peaceful in temperament and neither men nor women made war. "Among the Mundugumor, the opposite was true: both men and women were warlike in temperament. "And the Tchambuli were different from both. The men 'primped' and spent their time decorating themselves while the women worked and were the practical ones — the opposite of how it seemed in early 20th century America." Mead also researched the European shtetl, financed by the American Jewish Committee. Although her interviews at Columbia University with 128 European-born Jews disclosed a wide variety of family structures and experiences, the publications resulting from this study and the many citations in the popular media resulted in the Jewish mother stereotype, intensely loving but controlling to the point of smothering, and engendering enormous guilt in her children through the enormous suffering she professed to undertake for their sakes. The Jewish Mother, Slate, June 13, 2007 She also was a co-founder and supporter of "The Parapsychological Association ", for the advancement of parapsychology and psychical research. Death Margaret Mead is buried at Trinity Episcopal Church in Buckingham, PA. See also Elsie Clews Parsons Tim Asch Visual anthropology Zora Neale Hurston Publications As a sole author Coming of Age in Samoa (1928) ISBN 0-688-05033-6 Growing Up in New Guinea (1930) ISBN 0-688-17811-1 The Changing Culture of an Indian Tribe (1932) Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935) And Keep Your Powder Dry: An Anthropologist Looks at America (1942) Male and Female (1949) ISBN 0-688-14676-7 New Lives for Old: Cultural Transformation in Manus, 1928-1953 (1956) People and Places (1959; a book for young readers) Continuities in Cultural Evolution (1964) Culture and Commitment (1970) Blackberry Winter (1972; a biographical account of her early years) ISBN 0-317-60065-6 As editor or co-author Cultural Patterns and Technical Change, ed. (1953) Primitive Heritage: An Anthropological Anthology, ed. with Nicholas Calas (1953) An Anthropologist at Work, ed. (1959, repr. 1966; a volume of Ruth Benedict's writings) "The Study of Culture At A Distance" Edited with Rhoda Metraux, 1953 "Themes in French Culture" Co-authored with Rhoda Metraux, 1954 A Rap on Race, Co-authored with James Baldwin, 1971 "A Way of Seeing" Co-authored with Rhoda Metraux, 1975 References Further reading Gregory Acciaioli, ed. 1983 "Fact and Context in Etnography: The Samoa Controversy" Canberra Anthropology (special issue) 6(1): 1-97. George Appell, 1984 "Freeman's Refutation of Mead's Coming of Age in Samoa: The Implications for Anthropological Inquiry" Eastern Anthropology 37: 183-214. Mary Catherine Bateson, With a Daughter's Eye. 1984 ISBN 0-688-03962-6 , (2003 ppb ISBN 0-06-097573-3) Ivan Brady, 1991 "The Samoa Reader: Last Word or Lost Horizon?" Current Anthropology 32: 263-282. Hiram Caton, Editor (1990). "The Samoa Reader: Anthropologists Take Stock". University Press of America. ISBN 0-8191-7720-2. Richard Feinberg 1988 "Margaret Mead and Samoa: Coming of Age in Fact and Fiction" American Anthropologist 90: 656-663 Leonora Foerstel and Angela Gilliam (eds) (1992). Confronting the Margaret Mead Legacy: Scholarship, Empire and the South Pacific. Philadelphia: Temple University Press Derek Freeman (1983). Margaret Mead and Samoa. Cambridge, London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-54830-2. Derek Freeman (1999). The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead: A Historical Analysis of Her Samoan Research. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3693-7. Hilary Lapsley (1999) Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict: The Kinship of Women University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 1-55849-181-3 Lowell D. Holmes (1987) Quest for the Real Samoa: the Mead/Freeman Controversy and Beyond. South Hadley: Bergin and Garvey Howard, Jane (1984) Margaret Mead: A Life. New York: Simon and Schuster. Eleanor Leacock 1988 "Anthropologists in Search of a Culture: Margaret Mead, Derek Freeman and All the Rest of Us" in Central Issues in Anthropology 8(1): 3-20. Robert Levy 1984 "Mead, Freeman, and Samoa: The Problem of Seeing Things as They Are" Ethos 12: 85-92 Jeannette Mageo 1988 Mālosi: A Psychological Exploration of Mead's and Freeman's Work and of Samoan Aggression" Pacific Studies 11(2): 25-65 Mac Marshall 1993 "The Wizard from Oz Meets the Wicked Witch of the East: Freeman, Mead, and Ethnographic Authority" in American Ethnologist20(3): 604-617. Bonnie Nardi 1984 "The Height of Her Powers: Margaret Mead's Samoa" Feminist Studies 10: 323-337. Allan Patience and Josephy Smith 1987 "Derek Freeman in Samoa: The Making and Unmaking of a Biobehavioral Myth" American Anthropologist 88: 157-162. David B. Paxman 1988 "Freeman, Mead, and the Eighteenth-Century Controversy over Polynesian Society" Pacific Studies 1(3): 1-19 Roger Sandall 2001 The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism and Other Essays ISBN 0-8133-3863-8 Nancy Scheper-Hughes 1984 "The Margaret Mead Controversy: Culture, Biology, and Anthropological Inquiry" in Human Organization 43(1): 85-93. Paul Shankman 1996 "The History of Samoan Sexual Conduct and the Mead-Freeman Controversy" in American Anthropologist98(3): 555-567. Brad Shore 1982 Sala'ilua: A Samoan Mystery New York: Columbia University Press. R.E. Young and S. Juan 1985 "Freeman's Margaret Mead Myth: The Ideological Virginity of Anthropologists Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 21: 64-81. Mary E. Virginia, "DISCovering U.S. History", Benedict, Ruth (1887-1948), Online Edition, (ed Detroit: Gale), 2003 External links Creative Intelligence: Female ("The Silent Revolution: Creative Man In Contemporary Society" Talk at UC Berkeley, 1962 (online audio file) The Institute for Intercultural Studies - ethnographic institute founded by Mead, with resources relating to Mead's work Margaret Mead biography at IIS Library of Congress, Margaret Mead: Human Nature and the Power of Culture American Museum of Natural History, Margaret Mead Film & Video Festival | Margaret_Mead |@lemmatized margaret:30 mead:77 december:1 philadelphia:2 november:3 new:14 york:7 city:2 american:15 cultural:7 anthropologist:21 frequently:2 featured:1 writer:1 speaker:1 mass:1 medium:2 throughout:4 popularizer:1 insight:1 anthropology:10 modern:1 western:3 culture:15 also:12 respect:1 controversial:1 academic:1 report:1 purportedly:1 healthy:1 attitude:1 towards:1 sex:4 south:3 pacific:5 southeast:1 asian:1 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7,003 | Andronikos_I_Komnenos | Billon trachy (a cup-shaped coin) of Andronikos I Komnenos (1183-1185) Andronikos I Komnenos or Andronicus I Comnenus (; c. 1118 – September 12, 1185) was a Byzantine emperor (r. 1183-1185), son of prince Isaac Komnenos. His paternal grandparents were Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Eirene Doukaina. Biography Early years Andronikos Komnenos was born early in the twelfth century, around 1118. He was endowed by nature with the most remarkable gifts both of mind and body: he was handsome and eloquent, but licentious; and, at the same time, active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician. Andronikos' early years were spent in alternate pleasure and military service. In 1141 he was taken captive by the Seljuk Turks and remained in their hands for a year. On being ransomed he went to Constantinople, where was held the court of his cousin, the Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, with whom he was a great favourite. Here the charms of his niece, the princess Eudoxia, attracted him and she became his mistress. In 1152, accompanied by Eudoxia, he set out for an important command in Cilicia. Failing in his principal enterprise, an attack upon Mopsuestia, he returned, but was again appointed to the command of a province. This second post he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared again in Constantinople, and narrowly escaped death at the hands of the brothers of Eudoxia. About this time (1153) a conspiracy against the emperor, in which Andronikos participated, was discovered and he was thrown into prison. There he remained for about twelve years, during which time he made repeated but unsuccessful attempts to escape. Exile At last, in 1165, he was successful in escaping. After passing through many dangers, he reached the court of Prince Yaroslav of Galicia (Ruthenia). While under the protection of the prince, Andronikos brought about an alliance between him and the emperor Manuel I, and so restored himself to the emperor's favour. With a Russian army he joined Manuel in the invasion of Hungary and assisted at the siege of Semlin. After a successful campaign Manuel I and Andronikos returned together to Constantinople (1168); but a year later, Andronikos refused to take the oath of allegiance to the future king Béla III of Hungary, whom Manuel desired to become his successor. He was removed from court, but received the province of Cilicia. Being still under the displeasure of the emperor, Andronikos fled to the court of Raymond, prince of Antioch. While residing here he captivated and seduced the beautiful daughter of the prince, Philippa, sister of the empress Maria. The anger of the emperor was again roused by this dishonour, and Andronikos was compelled to flee. He took refuge with King Amalric I of Jerusalem, whose favour he gained, and who invested him with the Lordship of Beirut. In Jerusalem he saw Theodora Komnene, the beautiful widow of the late King Baldwin III and niece of the emperor Manuel. Although Andronikos was at that time fifty-six years old, age had not diminished his charms, and Theodora became the next victim of his artful seduction. To avoid the vengeance of the Emperor, she fled with Andronikos to the court of Nur ad-Din, the Sultan of Damascus; but not deeming themselves safe there, they continued their perilous journey through Persia and Turkestan, round the Caspian Sea and across the Caucasus, until at length they settled in the ancestral lands of the Komnenoi at Oinaion, on the shores of the Black Sea, between Trebizond and Sinope. While Andronikos was on one of his incursions, his castle was surprised by the governor of Trebizond, and Theodora and her two children were captured and sent to Constantinople. To obtain their release Andronikos in early 1180 made abject submission to the Emperor and, appearing in chains before him, besought pardon. This he obtained, and was allowed to retire with Theodora into banishment at Oinaion. Emperor In 1180 the Emperor Manuel died and was succeeded by his 10 year old son Alexios II, who was under the guardianship of his mother, Empress Maria. Her Latin origins and culture however led to creeping resentment from her Greek subjects (who felt insulted enough by the late Manuel's Western tastes, let alone being ruled by his Western wife), building up to an explosion of rioting that almost became a full civil war. This gave Andronikos the opportunity to seize the crown for himself, leaving his retirement in 1182 and marching to Constantinople with an army that (according to non-Byzantine sources) included Muslim contingents. Ibn Jubayr p. 355 Broadhurst (Turks and Arabs); William of Tyre, Historia Transmarina 22.11 (innumeras Barbararum nationum secum trahens copias); Walter Map, De Nugis Curialium 2.18 (Turks). The defection of the commander of the Byzantine navy, megas doux Andronikos Kontostephanos, and the general Andronikos Angelos, played a key role in allowing the rebellious forces to enter Constantinople. Angold p. 267 Andronikos Komnenos' arrival was soon followed by a massacre of the Latin inhabitants of the city, who virtually controlled the economy of the city. The massacre resulted in the deaths of 80,000 "Latins". He was believed to have arranged the poisoning of Alexios II's elder sister Maria the Porphyrogenita and her husband Renier of Montferrat, although Maria herself had encouraged him to intervene. The poisoner was said to be the eunuch Pterygeonites. Soon afterwards he had the empress Maria imprisoned and then killed (forcing a signature from the child Emperor Alexius to put his mother to death), by Pterygeonites and the hetaireiarches Constantine Tripsychos. Alexios II was compelled to acknowledge Andronikos as colleague in the empire and was then quickly put to death in turn; the killing was carried out by Tripsychos, Theodore Dadibrenos and Stephen Hagiochristophorites. Niketas Choniates, Histories pp. 260-274 van Dieten. Andronikos, now (1183) sole emperor, married Agnes of France, a child twelve years of age, formerly betrothed to Alexios II. Agnes was a daughter of King Louis VII of France and his third wife Adèle of Champagne. By November 1183, Andronikos associated his younger legitimate son John Komnenos on the throne. A Venetian embassy visited Constantinople in 1184 and an agreement was reached that compensation of 1,500 gold pieces would be paid for the losses incurred in 1171. His short reign was characterized by strong and harsh measures. He resolved to suppress many abuses, but above all things, to check feudalism and limit the power of the nobles, who were rivals for his throne. The people, who felt the severity of his laws, at the same time acknowledged their justice and found themselves protected from the rapacity of their superiors who had grown corrupt under the opulent and mercurial rule of Manuel I. However, as Andronikos' rule went on, the Emperor became increasingly paranoid and violent - in September 1185, Andronikos ordered the execution of all prisoners, exiles and their families for collusion with the invaders - and the Byzantine Empire descended into a terror state. The aristocrats in turn were infuriated against him. There were several revolts, the stories of chaos leading to an invasion by King William of the Norman Sicilians. William (with a fleet of 200 ships) landed in Epirus with a strong force (80,000 men including 5,000 knights), and marched as far as Thessalonica, which he took and pillaged ruthlessly (7,000 Greeks died). Andronikos hastily assembled five different armies to stop the Sicilian army from reaching Constantinople, but none of these five smaller armies would stand against the Sicilian forces and retreated to the outlying hills. Andronikos also assembled a fleet of 100 ships to stop the Norman fleet from entering the Sea of Marmara. The invaders were finally driven out in 1186 by his successor, Isaac Angelos. Death A medieval depiction of the death of Andronikos. Original in the Bibliothèque Nationale, France. Andronikos seems then to have resolved to exterminate the aristocracy, and his plans were nearly crowned with success. But on September 11, 1185, during his absence from the capital, Stephen Hagiochristophorites moved to arrest Isaac Angelos, whose loyalty was suspect. Isaac killed Hagiochristophorites and took refuge in the church of Hagia Sophia. He appealed to the populace, and a tumult arose which spread rapidly over the whole city. When Andronikos arrived he found that his authority was overthrown: Isaac had been proclaimed Emperor. The deposed Emperor attempted to escape in a boat with his wife Agnes and his mistress, but was captured (note that by some, Andronikos not only survived, but also managed to escape to the then self-proclaimed Kingdom of Cyprus). Isaac handed him over to the city mob and for three days he was exposed to their fury and resentment, remaining for that period tied to a post and beaten. His right hand was cut off, his teeth and hair were pulled out, one of his eyes was gouged out, and, among many other sufferings, boiling water was thrown in his face, punishment probably associated to his handsomness and life of licentiosity. At last, led to the Hippodrome of Constantinople, he was hung up by the feet between two pillars, and two Latin soldiers competed as to whose sword would penetrate his body more deeply, and finally his body, according to the representation of his death, was torn apart. He died on September 12, 1185. At the news of the emperor's death, his son and co-emperor John was murdered by his own troops in Thrace. Andronikos I was the last of the Komnenoi to rule Constantinople, although his grandsons Alexios and David founded the Empire of Trebizond in 1204. Their branch of the dynasty was known as the "Great Komnenoi" (Megaskomnenoi). Family Andronikos I Komnenos was married twice and had numerous mistresses. By his first wife, whose name is not known, he had three children: Manuel Komnenos (born 1145), who married Rusudan of Georgia and was the father of Emperor Alexios I and David Komnenos John Komnenos (apparently born 1159 or 1160), who was co-emperor with his father from 1183 to 1185 and was killed in that year Maria Komnene By his mistress Theodora Komnene, Andronikos I had the following issue: Alexios Komnenos, an alleged forefather of the Georgian noble family of Andronikashvili. Kelsey Jackson Williams (2006), A Genealogy of the Grand Komnenoi of Trebizond. Foundations - the Journal of the Foundation for Medieval Genealogy – Vol. 2, No. 3. Eirene Komnene, who was briefly married to Alexios Komnenos, a son of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos by Theodora Batatzina. Portrayal in fiction Andronikos is said to be a character in Michael Arnold's Against the Fall of Night (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975). He is among the main characters of the historical novel Agnes of France (1980) by Greek writer Kostas Kyriazis (b. 1920). The novel describes the events of the reigns of Manuel I, Alexios II and Andronikos I through the eyes of Agnes. The novel ends with the death of Andronikos. Andronikos was also portrayed in the novel Baudolino by Umberto Eco, with much detail being given to his grisly end. Notes References Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204. Longman. ISBN 0-582-29468-1. Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 48. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991. K. Varzos, Ē genealogia tōn Komnēnōn (Thessalonica, 1984) vol. 1 pp. 493-638. Mihai Tiuliumeanu, Andronic I Comnenul, Iasi, 2000 (in Romanian) External links | Andronikos_I_Komnenos |@lemmatized billon:1 trachy:1 cup:1 shaped:1 coin:1 andronikos:36 komnenos:15 andronicus:1 comnenus:1 c:1 september:4 byzantine:5 emperor:23 r:1 son:5 prince:5 isaac:6 paternal:1 grandparent:1 alexios:10 eirene:2 doukaina:1 biography:1 early:4 year:9 bear:2 twelfth:1 century:1 around:1 endow:1 nature:1 remarkable:1 gift:1 mind:1 body:3 handsome:1 eloquent:1 licentious:1 time:5 active:1 hardy:1 courageous:1 great:3 general:2 able:1 politician:1 spend:1 alternate:1 pleasure:1 military:1 service:1 take:5 captive:1 seljuk:1 turk:3 remain:3 hand:4 ransom:1 go:2 constantinople:10 hold:1 court:5 cousin:1 manuel:12 favourite:1 charm:2 niece:2 princess:1 eudoxia:3 attract:1 become:5 mistress:4 accompany:1 set:1 important:1 command:2 cilicia:2 fail:1 principal:1 enterprise:1 attack:1 upon:1 mopsuestia:1 return:2 appoint:1 province:2 second:1 post:2 seem:2 also:4 leave:2 short:2 interval:1 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7,004 | Foreign_relations_of_Ecuador | This article deals with the diplomatic affairs, foreign policy and international relations of Ecuador. Ecuador is a member of the United Nations and many of its specialized agencies, as well as the Organization of American States. It is also a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and the Andean Pact. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35761.htm Ecuador's principal foreign-policy objectives have included defense of the national territory from both external aggression and internal subversion as well as support for the objectives of the UN and the OAS. Although Ecuador's foreign relations were traditionally centered on the United States, Ecuador's membership in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in the 1970s and 1980s allowed some Ecuadorian leaders to exercise somewhat greater foreign policy autonomy. Ecuador's foreign policy goals under the Borja government in the late 1980s were more diversified than those of the Febres Cordero administration, which closely identified with the United States. For example, Ecuador was more active in its relations with the Third World, multilateral organizations, Western Europe, and socialist countries. http://countrystudies.us/ecuador/76.htm Ecuador has offered humanitarianian aid to many countries and a supporter of the United Nations and is now contributing troops in the UN mission in Haiti. Ecuador has also served in the elective seats of the UN Security Council. Specific countries Antarctica Ecuador has maintained a peaceful research station for scientific study in the British-claimed territory and is a member nation of the Antarctica Treaty. China On January 2, 1980, the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Ecuador formally established diplomatic relations. In July of the same year, China set up its embassy in Ecuador. In July 1981, Ecuador set up its embassy in China. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations, Sino-Ecuadorian relations have been advancing smoothly. The two sides maintain high level political contacts and exchanges in fields of trade and economy, science and technology, culture and education grow steadily. In international affairs, the two countries understand and support each other. Colombia and Venezuela Ecuador's President Rafael Correa withdrew his government's ambassador in Bogotá, Colombia, and ordered troops to the country's border following a Colombian raid against leftist rebels inside Ecuador March 2 2008. http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/03/02/chavez.colombia/index.html The Colombian director of national police claimed three captured computers from the deceased FARC rebel leader Raúl Reyes document "tremendously revealing" and "very grave" links between Ecuador and Colombian rebels.March 2 2008. http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/03/03/ecuador.colombia/index.html However, Colombia's actions were condemned across the board by all South American nations, with only the US supporting Colombia. For example, Brazil's foreign minister, Celso Amorim, condemned the Colombian incursion into Ecuador. http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/03/03/ecuador.colombia/index.html Furthermore, he suggested that Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez recently gave the leftist Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia $300 million. http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/03/03/ecuador.colombia/index.html Ecuador's president Rafael Correa said March 3 2008 that a deal to release political prisoners -- including former Colombian Sen. Ingrid Betancourt -- was nearly complete before the March 1 2008 Colombian raid into his country. http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/03/03/ecuador.colombia/index.html Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez on March 5 2008 called the announced movement of Colombian forces in Ecuador a "war crime," and joined Ecuador's president Rafael Correa in demanding international condemnation of the cross-border attack. The presidents of Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador March 7 2008 signed a declaration to end a crisis sparked when Colombian troops killed a rebel leader and 21 others inside Ecuadoran territory (2008 Andean diplomatic crisis). http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/03/07/samerica.summit/index.html India On November 16, 2008, the Foreign Minister of Ecuador Maria Isabel Salvador met her counterpart, Pranab Mukherjee, with a close relationship in oil and defence between these geographically distant countries high on the agenda. On the oil front, the new government in Ecuador has reversed the earlier revenue-sharing arrangements with western oil companies and is now keen on striking new partnerships with state-owned ONGC Videsh of India. In the defence sector, Ecuador became the first country to sign a contract for purchasing the Indian made Dhruv helicopters of which one will be for use by its President. The Embassy here has expanded its setup with the appointment of a Military Attache and prospects appear bright for more defence exports as Ecuador has agreed to be the servicing hub in South America for Indian defence equipment. http://www.thehindu.com/2008/11/18/stories/2008111860331100.htm Iran Ecuador has maintained trade relations with Iran. In December 2008, Iran’s Supreme National Security Council Secretary Saeed Jalili visited Ecuador. Alongside president Rafael Correa he called for greater "South-South" co-operation, a term denoting greater exchange of resources, technology, and knowledge between the global South. Iranian president Ahmadinejad also attended the inauguration of President Correa in January 2007. Peru Since the 1990s, Ecuadoran foreign policy has been focused on the country's border dispute with Peru, an issue that has festered since independence. The boundary dispute led to the Cenepa War between Ecuador and Peru in early 1995; after a peace agreement brokered by the four Guarantors of the Rio Protocol (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States), the Military Observers Mission to Ecuador-Peru (MOMEP) was set up to monitor the zone. In 1998, Presidents Jamil Mahuad of Ecuador and Alberto Fujimori or Peru signed a comprehensive settlement over control of the disputed zone. 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7,005 | Logarithm | Logarithm functions, graphed for various bases: red is to base e, green is to base 10, and purple is to base 1.7. Each tick on the axes is one unit. Logarithms of all bases pass through the point (1, 0), because any number raised to the power 0 is 1, and through the points (b, 1) for base b, because a number raised to the power 1 is itself. The curves approach the y-axis but do not reach it because of the singularity at x = 0. The 1797 Britannica explains logarithms as "a series of numbers in arithmetical progression, corresponding to others in geometrical progression; by means of which, arithmetical calculations can be made with much more ease and expedition than otherwise." In mathematics, the logarithm of a number to a given base is the power or exponent to which the base must be raised in order to produce the number. For example, the logarithm of 1000 to the base 10 is 3, because 3 is how many 10s you must multiply to get 1000: thus 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000; the base 2 logarithm of 32 is 5 because 5 is how many 2s one must multiply to get 32: thus 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32. In the language of exponents: 103 = 1000, so log<sub>10</sup>1000 = 3, and 25 = 32, so log232 = 5. The logarithm of x to the base b is written logb(x) or, if the base is implicit, as log(x). So, for a number x, a base b and an exponent y, An important feature of logarithms is that they reduce multiplication to addition, by the formula: That is, the logarithm of the product of two numbers is the sum of the logarithms of those numbers. The use of logarithms to facilitate complicated calculations was a significant motivation in their original development. Properties of the logarithm When x and b are restricted to positive real numbers, logb(x) is a unique real number. The magnitude of the base b must be neither 0 nor 1; the base used is typically 10, e, or 2. Logarithms are defined for real numbers and for complex numbers. In general, x and b both can be complex numbers; see Kwok below, and imaginary-base logarithms. The major property of logarithms is that they map multiplication to addition. This ability stems from the following identity: which by taking logarithms becomes For example, A related property is reduction of exponentiation to multiplication. Using the identity: it follows that c to the power p (exponentiation) is: or, taking logarithms: In words, to raise a number to a power p, find the logarithm of the number and multiply it by p. The exponentiated value is then the inverse logarithm of this product; that is, number to power = bproduct. For example, Besides reducing multiplication operations to addition, and exponentiation to multiplication, logarithms reduce division to subtraction, and roots to division. For example, Logarithms make lengthy numerical operations easier to perform. The whole process is made easy by using tables of logarithms, or a slide rule, antiquated now that calculators are available. Although the above practical advantages are not important for numerical work today, they are used in graphical analysis (see Bode plot). The logarithm as a function Though logarithms have been traditionally thought of as arithmetic sequences of numbers corresponding to geometric sequences of other (positive real) numbers, as in the 1797 Britannica definition, they are also the result of applying an analytic function. The function can therefore be meaningfully extended to complex numbers. The function logb(x) depends on both b and x, but the term logarithm function (or logarithmic function) in standard usage refers to a function of the form logb(x) in which the base b is fixed and so the only argument is x. Thus there is one logarithm function for each value of the base b (which must be positive and must differ from 1). Viewed in this way, the base-b logarithm function is the inverse function of the exponential function bx. The word "logarithm" is often used to refer to a logarithm function itself as well as to particular values of this function. Logarithm of a negative or complex number There is no real-valued logarithm for negative or non-real complex numbers. The logarithm function can be extended to the complex logarithm, which does apply to these cases. The value is not unique though, since for example which implies that both and 0 are equally valid logarithms to base e of 1. When z is a complex number, say z = x + iy where x and y are real, the logarithm of z is found by putting z in polar form that is, z = reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ), where and θ = arg(z) is any angle such that x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. The function arg is a multi-valued function. If the base of the logarithm is chosen as e See e (mathematical constant) , that is, using loge (denoted by ln and called the natural logarithm), the complex logarithm is: which is, just like arg, also a multi-valued function. The principal value of the logarithm, Log (denoted by a capital first letter), is a single-valued function and is defined as where is the (only) value in the range which is The function Arg is the principal argument. It is a single-valued function and defined as the branch of in which the values are in the range leaving a branch cut at the negative reals. The principal argument of any positive real number is 0; hence the principal logarithm of such a number is always real and equals the natural logarithm. The principal value of the logarithm of a negative number r is: For a base b other than e the complex logarithm logb(z) can be defined as ln(z)/ln(b), the principal value of which is given by the principal values of ln(z) and ln(b). Note that log(zp) is not in general the same as p log(z); see failure of power and logarithm identities. Group theory From the pure mathematical perspective, the identity is fundamental in two senses. First, the remaining three arithmetic properties can be derived from it. Furthermore, it expresses an isomorphism between the multiplicative group of the positive real numbers and the additive group of all the reals. Logarithmic functions are the only continuous isomorphisms from the multiplicative group of positive real numbers to the additive group of real numbers. Bases The most widely used bases for logarithms are 10, the mathematical constant e ≈ 2.71828... and 2. When "log" is written without a base (b missing from logb), the intent can usually be determined from context: natural logarithm (log<sub>e</sub>, ln, log, or Ln) in mathematical analysis, statistics, economics and some engineering fields. The reasons to consider e the natural base for logarithms, though perhaps not obvious, are numerous and compelling. (Euler's identity is important to fields that deal with cyclic components.) common logarithm (log10 or simply log; sometimes lg) in various engineering fields, especially for power levels and power ratios, such as acoustical sound pressure, and in logarithm tables to be used to simplify hand calculations. Use is historically grounded. (see dB) Also, the approximation 210≈103 leads to the approximations 3 dB per octave (power doubling) – a useful result that occurs with the use of log10. binary logarithm (log2; sometimes lg, lb, or ld), in computer science and information theory. Information theory calculations carried out using log2 will lead to results in bits, which has an intuitive meaning; corresponding calculations carried out using loge will lead to results in nats, which lack the intuitive interpretation, although the units have equivalent function, differing only in scale. indefinite logarithm (Log or [log ] or simply log) when the base is irrelevant, e.g. in complexity theory when describing the asymptotic behavior of algorithms in big O notation, which describes the character of the algorithm, i.e. "the behavior is logarithmic", not the exact measure of performance of the algorithm in a given situation. To avoid confusion, it is best to specify the base if there is any chance of misinterpretation. Notations of bases and implicit bases The notation "ln(x)" invariably means loge(x), i.e., the natural logarithm of x. However, if, as in "log(x)", the base is not given explicitly, it may be understood implicitly by discipline: Mathematicians understand "log(x)" to mean loge(x). Calculus textbooks will occasionally write "lg(x)" to represent "log10(x)". Many engineers, biologists, astronomers, and some others write only "ln(x)" or "loge(x)" when they mean the natural logarithm of x, and take "log(x)" to mean log10(x) or, in computer science, log2(x). On most calculators, the LOG button is log10(x) and LN is loge(x). In most commonly used computer programming languages, including C, C++, Java, Haskell, Fortran, Python, Ruby, and BASIC, the "log" function returns the natural logarithm. The base-10 function, if it is available, is generally "log10." Some people use Log(x) (capital L) to mean log10(x), and use log(x) with a lowercase l to mean loge(x). The notation Log(x) is also used by mathematicians to denote the principal branch of the (natural) logarithm function. In some European countries, a frequently used notation is blog(x) instead of logb(x). This chaos, historically, originates from the fact that the natural logarithm has nice mathematical properties (such as its derivative being 1/x, and having a simple definition), while the base 10 logarithms, or decimal logarithms, were more convenient for speeding calculations (back when they were used for that purpose). Thus natural logarithms were only extensively used in fields like calculus while decimal logarithms were widely used elsewhere. Criticism of the "ln()" notation As recently as 1984, Paul Halmos in his "automathography" I Want to Be a Mathematician heaped contempt on what he considered the childish "ln" notation, which he said no mathematician had ever used. The notation was in fact invented in 1893 by Irving Stringham, professor of mathematics at Berkeley. Computer science In computer science, the base 2 logarithm is sometimes written as lg(x), as suggested by Edward Reingold and popularized by Donald Knuth. However, lg(x) is also sometimes used for the common log, and lb(x) for the binary log. In Russian literature, the notation lg(x) is also generally used for the base 10 logarithm. In German, lg(x) also denotes the base 10 logarithm, while sometimes ld(x) or lb(x) is used for the base 2 logarithm. The PL/I Programming language uses log2(x) for the base 2 logarithm. Recommendations and standards The clear advice of the United States Department of Commerce National Institute of Standards and Technology is to follow the ISO standard Mathematical signs and symbols for use in physical sciences and technology, ISO 31-11:1992, which suggests these notations: The notation "ln(x)" means loge(x); The notation "lg(x)" means log10(x); The notation "lb(x)" means log2(x). Equivalence of logarithms As the difference between logarithms to different bases is one of scale, it is possible to consider all logarithm functions to be the same, merely giving the answer in different units, such as dB, neper, bits, decades, etc.; see the section Science and engineering below. Logarithms to a base less than 1 have a negative scale, or a flip about the x axis, relative to logarithms of base greater than 1. Change of base While there are several useful identities, the most important for calculator use lets one find logarithms with bases other than those built into the calculator (usually loge and log10). To find a logarithm with base b, using any other base k: This is because the definition of logarithm says that but we can also get a by using the base k logarithm and then get with b ≠ 1, because logk 1 = 0. Any number to the power of 0 (except 0) is equal to 1. Moreover, this result implies that all logarithm functions (whatever the base) are similar to each other. Uses of logarithms Logarithms are useful in solving equations in which exponents are unknown. They have simple derivatives, so they are often used in the solution of integrals. The logarithm is one of three closely related functions. In the equation bn = x, b can be determined with radicals, n with logarithms, and x with exponentials. See logarithmic identities for several rules governing the logarithm functions. Science Various quantities in science are expressed as logarithms of other quantities; see logarithmic scale for an explanation and a more complete list. In chemistry, the negative of the base-10 logarithm of the activity of hydronium ions (H3O+, the form H+ takes in water) is the measure known as pH. The activity of hydronium ions in neutral water is 10−7 mol/L at 25 °C, hence a pH of 7. (This is a result of the equilibrium constant, the product of the concentration of hydronium ions and hydroxyl ions, in water solutions being 10-14 M2.) The bel (symbol B) is a unit of measure which is the base-10 logarithm of ratios, such as power levels and voltage levels. It is mostly used in telecommunication, electronics, and acoustics. The Bel is named after telecommunications pioneer Alexander Graham Bell. The decibel (dB), equal to 0.1 bel, is more commonly used. The neper is a similar unit which uses the natural logarithm of a ratio. The Richter scale measures earthquake intensity on a base-10 logarithmic scale. In spectrometry and optics, the absorbance unit used to measure optical density is equivalent to −1 B. In astronomy, the apparent magnitude measures the brightness of stars logarithmically, since the eye also responds logarithmically to brightness. In psychophysics, the Weber–Fechner law proposes a logarithmic relationship between stimulus and sensation. In computer science, logarithms often appear in bounds for computational complexity. For example, to sort N items using comparison can require time proportional to the product N × log N. Similarly, base-2 logarithms are used to express the amount of storage space or memory required for a binary representation of a number—with k bits (each a 0 or a 1) one can represent 2k distinct values, so any natural number N can be represented in no more than (log2 N) + 1 bits. Similarly, in information theory logarithms are used as a measure of quantity of information. If a message recipient may expect any one of N possible messages with equal likelihood, then the amount of information conveyed by any one such message is quantified as log2 N bits. In geometry the logarithm is used to form the metric for the half-plane model of hyperbolic geometry. Many types of engineering and scientific data are typically graphed on log-log or semilog axes, in order to most clearly show the form of the data. In inferential statistics, the logarithm of the data in a dataset can be used for parametric statistical testing if the original data do not meet the assumption of normality. Musical intervals are measured logarithmically as semitones. The interval between two notes in semitones is the base-21/12 logarithm of the frequency ratio (or equivalently, 12 times the base-2 logarithm). Fractional semitones are used for non-equal temperaments. Especially to measure deviations from the equal tempered scale, intervals are also expressed in cents (hundredths of an equally-tempered semitone). The interval between two notes in cents is the base-21/1200 logarithm of the frequency ratio (or 1200 times the base-2 logarithm). In MIDI, notes are numbered on the semitone scale (logarithmic absolute nominal pitch with middle C at 60). For microtuning to other tuning systems, a logarithmic scale is defined filling in the ranges between the semitones of the equal tempered scale in a compatible way. This scale corresponds to the note numbers for whole semitones. (see microtuning in MIDI). Exponential functions One way of defining the exponential function ex, also written as exp(x), is as the inverse of the natural logarithm. It is positive for every real argument x. The operation of "raising b to a power p" for positive arguments b and all real exponents p is defined by Easier computations Logarithms can be used to replace difficult operations on numbers by easier operations on their logs (in any base), as the following table summarizes. In the table, upper-case variables represent logs of corresponding lower-case variables: Operation with numbers Operation with exponents Logarithmic identity These arithmetic properties of logarithms make such calculations much faster. The use of logarithms was an essential skill until electronic computers and calculators became available. Indeed the discovery of logarithms, just before Newton's era, had an impact in the scientific world that can be compared with that of the advent of computers in the 20th century because it made feasible many calculations that had previously been too laborious. As an example, to approximate the product of two numbers one can look up their logarithms in a table, add them, and, using the table again, proceed from that sum to its antilogarithm, which is the desired product. The precision of the approximation can be increased by interpolating between table entries. For manual calculations that demand any appreciable precision, this process, requiring three lookups and a sum, is much faster than performing the multiplication. To achieve seven decimal places of accuracy requires a table that fills a single large volume; a table for nine-decimal accuracy occupies a few shelves. Similarly, to approximate a power cd one can look up log c in the table, look up the log of that, and add to it the log of d; roots can be approximated in much the same way. The C and D scales on this slide rule are marked off at positions corresponding to the logarithms of the numbers shown. By mechanically adding the logs of 1.3 and 2, the cursor shows the product is 2.6. One key application of these techniques was celestial navigation. Once the invention of the chronometer made possible the accurate measurement of longitude at sea, mariners had everything necessary to reduce their navigational computations to mere additions. A five-digit table of logarithms and a table of the logarithms of trigonometric functions sufficed for most purposes, and those tables could fit in a small book. Another critical application with even broader impact was the slide rule, an essential calculating tool for engineers. Many of the powerful capabilities of the slide rule derive from a clever but simple design that relies on the arithmetic properties of logarithms. The slide rule allows computation much faster still than the techniques based on tables, but provides much less precision, although slide rule operations can be chained to calculate answers to any arbitrary precision. Related operations Cologarithms The cologarithm of a number is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the number: cologb(x) = logb(1/x) = −logb(x). This terminology is found primarily in older books. Wooster Woodruff B, Smith David E: "Academic Algebra", page 360. Ginn & Company, 1902 Antilogarithms The antilogarithm function antilogb(y) is the inverse function of the logarithm function logb(x); it can be written in closed form as by. The antilog notation was common before the advent of modern calculators and computers: tables of antilogarithms to the base 10 were useful in carrying out computations by hand. The notation still appears in some modern books, and is still used in some situations. For example, certain electronic circuit components are known as antilog amplifiers. Lambert W function The Lambert W function is the inverse function of ƒ(w) = wew. Calculus The natural logarithm of a positive number x can be defined as This function is also commonly denoted by log. This definition satisfies the usual properties of a logarithm. For example, it can be shown as follows that ln(xr) = r ln(x). To see this, consider the definition and the change of variable u := t1/r. Then, by the integration by substitution theorem: Likewise, it can be shown that this function verifies the property ln(xy) = ln(x) + ln(y) using Using the change of variable u := t/x in the last integral yields as desired. Using the last two properties, the rule ln(x / y) = ln(x) − ln(y) can be proved: The derivative of the natural logarithm function is By applying the change-of-base rule, the derivative for other bases is The antiderivative of the natural logarithm ln(x) is and so the antiderivative of the logarithm for other bases is See also: Table of limits, list of integrals of logarithmic functions. Series for calculating the natural logarithm Basic series There are several series for calculating natural logarithms. Handbook of Mathematical Functions, National Bureau of Standards (Applied Mathematics Series no.55), June 1964, page 68. The simplest, though inefficient, is: To derive this series, start with (|x| < 1) Integrate both sides to obtain Letting z = 1 − x and thus x = 1 − z, we get More efficient series A more efficient series is for z with positive real part. To derive this series, we begin by substituting −x for x and get Subtracting, we get Letting and thus , we get The series converges most quickly if z is close to 1. For high-precision calculations, we can first obtain a low-accuracy approximation y ≈ ln(z), then let A = z/exp(y), where exp(y) can be calculated using the exponential series, which converges quickly provided y is not too large. Then ln(z) = y + ln(A), where A is close to 1 as desired. Larger z can be handled by writing z = a × 10b, whence ln(z) = ln(a) + b × ln(10) (using 10 as an example base). High precision calculations can be first obtained by low accuracy as mentioned above, this helps in the mathematical process. Example For example, applying this series to we get and thus where we factored 2/10 out of the sum in the first line. For any other base b, we use About convergence The above series for converges for all complex number , . In fact, as seen by the ratio test, it has radius of convergence equal to 1, therefore converges absolutely on every disk with radius r<1. Moreover, it converges uniformly on every nibbled disk , with . This follows at once from the algebraic identity: , just observing that the right-hand side is uniformly convergent on the whole closed unit disk. Computers Many computer languages use log(x) for the natural logarithm, while the common log is typically denoted log10(x). The argument and return values are typically a floating point (or double precision) data type. As the argument is floating point, it can be useful to consider the following: A floating point value x is represented by a significand m and exponent n to form (Sometimes a base other than 2 is used.) Therefore Thus, instead of computing we compute for some m such that 1 ≤ m < 2. Having m in this range means that the value is always in the range . Some machines use the mantissa in the range and in that case the value for u will be in the range In either case, the series is even easier to compute. To compute a base 2 logarithm on a number between 1 and 2 in an alternate way, square it repeatedly. Every time it goes over 2, divide it by 2 and write a "1" bit, else just write a "0" bit. This is because squaring doubles the logarithm of a number. The integer part of the logarithm to base 2 of an unsigned integer is given by the position of the leftmost bit, and can be computed in O(n) steps using the following algorithm: int log2(unsigned int x) { int r = 0; while ((x >> r) != 0) { r++; } return r-1; // returns -1 for x==0, floor(log2(x)) otherwise } However, it can also be computed in O(log n) steps by trying to shift by powers of 2 and checking that the result stays nonzero: for example, first >>16, then >>8, ... (Each step reveals one bit of the result) Generalizations The ordinary logarithm of positive reals generalizes to negative and complex arguments, though it is a multivalued function that needs a branch cut terminating at the branch point at 0 to make an ordinary function or principal branch. The logarithm (to base e) of a complex number z is the complex number ln(|z|) + i arg(z), where |z| is the modulus of z, arg(z) is the argument, and i is the imaginary unit; see complex logarithm for details. The discrete logarithm is a related notion in the theory of finite groups. It involves solving the equation bn = x, where b and x are elements of the group, and n is an integer specifying a power in the group operation. For some finite groups, it is believed that the discrete logarithm is very hard to calculate, whereas discrete exponentials are quite easy. This asymmetry has applications in public key cryptography. The logarithm of a matrix is the inverse of the matrix exponential. It is possible to take the logarithm of a quaternions and octonions. A double logarithm, , is the inverse function of the double exponential function. A super-logarithm or hyper-4-logarithm is the inverse function of tetration. The super-logarithm of x grows even more slowly than the double logarithm for large x. For each positive b not equal to 1, the function logb (x) is an isomorphism from the group of positive real numbers under multiplication to the group of (all) real numbers under addition. They are the only such isomorphisms that are continuous. The logarithm function can be extended to a Haar measure in the topological group of positive real numbers under multiplication. History A more modern definition and explanation from 1866 A Dictionary of Science, Literature, & Art: Comprising the Definitions and Derivations of the Scientific Terms in General Use, together with the History and Descriptions of the Scientific Principles of Nearly Every Branch of Human Knowledge The method of logarithms was first publicly propounded in 1614, in a book entitled Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio, by John Napier, Baron of Merchiston, in Scotland. Much of the history of logarithms is derived from The Elements of Logarithms with an Explanation of the Three and Four Place Tables of Logarithmic and Trigonometric Functions, by James Mills Peirce, University Professor of Mathematics in Harvard University, 1873. (Joost Bürgi independently discovered logarithms; however, he did not publish his discovery until four years after Napier.) Early resistance to the use of logarithms was muted by Kepler's enthusiastic support and his publication of a clear and impeccable explanation of how they worked. http://turnbull.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Kepler.html (section "Astronomical Tables") Their use contributed to the advance of science, and especially of astronomy, by making some difficult calculations possible. Prior to the advent of calculators and computers, they were used constantly in surveying, navigation, and other branches of practical mathematics. It supplanted the more involved method of prosthaphaeresis, which relied on trigonometric identities as a quick method of computing products. Besides the utility of the logarithm concept in computation, the natural logarithm presented a solution to the problem of quadrature of a hyperbolic sector at the hand of Gregoire de Saint-Vincent in 1647. At first, Napier called logarithms "artificial numbers" and antilogarithms "natural numbers". Later, Napier formed the word logarithm to mean a number that indicates a ratio: (logos) meaning proportion, and (arithmos) meaning number. Napier chose that because the difference of two logarithms determines the ratio of the numbers they represent, so that an arithmetic series of logarithms corresponds to a geometric series of numbers. The term antilogarithm was introduced in the late 17th century and, while never used extensively in mathematics, persisted in collections of tables until they fell into disuse. Napier did not use a base as we now understand it, but his logarithms were, up to a scaling factor, effectively to base 1/e. For interpolation purposes and ease of calculation, it is useful to make the ratio r in the geometric series close to 1. Napier chose r = 1 - 10−7 = 0.999999 (Bürgi chose r = 1 + 10−4 = 1.0001). Napier's original logarithms did not have log 1 = 0 but rather log 107 = 0. Thus if N is a number and L is its logarithm as calculated by Napier, N = 107(1 − 10−7)L. Since (1 − 10−7)107 is approximately 1/e, this makes L/107 approximately equal to log1/e N/107. Tables of logarithms Part of a 20th century table of common logarithms in the reference book Abramowitz and Stegun. Prior to the advent of computers and calculators, using logarithms meant using tables of logarithms, which had to be created manually. Base-10 logarithms are useful in computations when electronic means are not available. See common logarithm for details, including the use of characteristics and mantissas of common (i.e., base-10) logarithms. In 1617, Henry Briggs published the first installment of his own table of common logarithms, containing the logarithms of all integers below 1000 to eight decimal places. This he followed, in 1624, by his Arithmetica Logarithmica, containing the logarithms of all integers from 1 to 20,000 and from 90,000 to 100,000 to fourteen places of decimals, together with a learned introduction, in which the theory and use of logarithms are fully developed. The interval from 20,000 to 90,000 was filled up by Adriaan Vlacq, a Dutch mathematician; but in his table, which appeared in 1628, the logarithms were given to only ten places of decimals. Vlacq's table was later found to contain 603 errors, but "this cannot be regarded as a great number, when it is considered that the table was the result of an original calculation, and that more than 2,100,000 printed figures are liable to error." Athenaeum, 15 June 1872. See also the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for May 1872. An edition of Vlacq's work, containing many corrections, was issued at Leipzig in 1794 under the title Thesaurus Logarithmorum Completus by Jurij Vega. François Callet's seven-place table (Paris, 1795), instead of stopping at 100,000, gave the eight-place logarithms of the numbers between 100,000 and 108,000, in order to diminish the errors of interpolation, which were greatest in the early part of the table; and this addition was generally included in seven-place tables. The only important published extension of Vlacq's table was made by Mr. Sang in 1871, whose table contained the seven-place logarithms of all numbers below 200,000. Briggs and Vlacq also published original tables of the logarithms of the trigonometric functions. Besides the tables mentioned above, a great collection, called Tables du Cadastre, was constructed under the direction of Gaspard de Prony, by an original computation, under the auspices of the French republican government of the 1700s. This work, which contained the logarithms of all numbers up to 100,000 to nineteen places, and of the numbers between 100,000 and 200,000 to twenty-four places, exists only in manuscript, "in seventeen enormous folios," at the Observatory of Paris. It was begun in 1792; and "the whole of the calculations, which to secure greater accuracy were performed in duplicate, and the two manuscripts subsequently collated with care, were completed in the short space of two years." English Cyclopaedia, Biography, Vol. IV., article "Prony." Cubic interpolation could be used to find the logarithm of any number to a similar accuracy. See also List of logarithm topics List of logarithmic identities Logarithmic scale Natural logarithm Common logarithm Complex logarithm Imaginary-base logarithm Indefinite logarithm Iterated logarithm Logarithmic units Discrete logarithm Zech's logarithms Logarithm of a matrix Log-normal distribution Decibel Equal temperament Richter magnitude scale pH Slide rule References External links Logarithm Calculator Explaining Logarithms Logarithm on MathWorld Jost Burgi, Swiss Inventor of Logarithms Translation of Napier's work on logarithms Logarithms - from The Little Handbook of Statistical Practice Algorithm for determining Log values for any base | Logarithm |@lemmatized logarithm:160 function:53 graph:2 various:3 base:73 red:1 e:18 green:1 purple:1 tick:1 ax:2 one:14 unit:9 pass:1 point:6 number:61 raise:5 power:16 b:27 curve:1 approach:1 axis:2 reach:1 singularity:1 x:86 britannica:2 explain:2 series:17 arithmetical:2 progression:2 correspond:6 others:2 geometrical:1 mean:13 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7,006 | Analog_computer | A page from the Bombardier's Information File (BIF) that describes the components and controls of the Norden bombsight. The Norden bombsight was a highly sophisticated optical/mechanical analog computer used by the United States Army Air Force during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War to aid the pilot of a bomber aircraft in dropping bombs accurately. An analog computer (spelled analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, Universiteit van Amsterdam Computer Museum, (2007) mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. Timeline of analog computers The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer. The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 2007-07-01 It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the first or second centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. Muslim astronomers later produced many different types of astrolabes and used them for over a thousand different problems related to astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla (direction of Mecca), Salah (prayer), etc. Dr. Emily Winterburn (National Maritime Museum), Using an Astrolabe, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 2005. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, D. De S. Price (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines", IEEE Micro 4 (1), p. 22-52. an early fixed-wired knowledge processing machine Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents", Turk J Elec Engin 9 (1), p. 63-70 [64]. with a gear train and gear-wheels, Donald Routledge Hill (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", Annals of Science 42, p. 139-163. circa 1000 AD. The Planisphere was a star chart astrolabe also invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century. Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, UNESCO. The Equatorium was an astrometic calculating instrument invented by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain circa 1015. The "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, Al-Jazari - the Mechanical Genius, MuslimHeritage.com is considered to be the first programmable analog computer. It displayed the zodiac, the solar and lunar orbits, a crescent moon-shaped pointer travelling across a gateway causing automatic doors to open every hour, Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, p. 184, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0292781490 Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64-9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering) and five robotic musicians who play music when struck by levers operated by a camshaft attached to a water wheel. The length of day and night could be re-programmed every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235. Silvio A. Bedini, Francis R. Maddison (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 56 (5), p. 1-69. A slide rule The slide rule is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division, invented around 1620–1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. Invented in 1876 by James Thomson (engineer), they were first built in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1912 Arthur Pollen had developed an electrically driven mechanical analog computer for fire-control system, based on the differential analyser. It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I. World War II era gun directors and bomb sights used mechanical analog computers. The MONIAC Computer was a hydraulic model of a national economy first unveiled in 1949. Computer Engineering Associates was spun out of Caltech in 1950 to provide commercial services using the "Direct Analogy Electric Analog Computer" ("the largest and most impressive general-purpose analyzer facility for the solution of field problems") developed there by Gilbert D. McCann, Charles H. Wilts, and Bart Locanthi. Caltech NASTRAN history Analog Simulation: Solution of Field Problems Heathkit EC-1, an educational analog computer made by the Heath Company, USA c. 1960. Comdyna GP-6 analog computer introduced in 1968 and produced for 36 years. Electronic analog computers Polish analog computer AKAT-1. The similarity between linear mechanical components, such as springs and dashpots, and electrical components, such as capacitors, inductors, and resistors is striking in terms of mathematics. They can be modeled using equations that are of essentially the same form. However, the difference between these systems is what makes analog computing useful. If one considers a simple mass-spring system, constructing the physical system would require buying the springs and masses. This would be proceeded by attaching them to each other and an appropriate anchor, collecting test equipment with the appropriate input range, and finally, taking (somewhat difficult) measurements. The electrical equivalent can be constructed with a few operational amplifiers (Op amps) and some passive linear components; all measurements can be taken directly with an oscilloscope. In the circuit, the (simulated) 'mass of the spring' can be changed by adjusting a potentiometer. The electrical system is an analogy to the physical system, hence the name, but it is less expensive to construct, safer, and easier to modify. Also, an electronic circuit can typically operate at higher frequencies than the system being simulated. This allows the simulation to run faster than real time, for quicker results. The drawback of the mechanical-electrical analogy is that electronics are limited by the range over which the variables may vary. This is called dynamic range. They are also limited by noise levels. These electric circuits can also easily perform other simulations. For example, voltage can simulate water pressure and electric current can simulate water flow in terms of cubic metres per second. A digital system uses discrete electrical voltage levels as codes for symbols. The manipulation of these symbols is the method of operation of the digital computer. The electronic analog computer manipulates the physical quantities of waveforms, (voltage or current). The precision of the analog computer readout is limited chiefly by the precision of the readout equipment used, generally three or four significant figures. The digital computer precision must necessarily be finite, but the precision of its result is limited only by time. A digital computer can calculate many digits in parallel, or obtain the same number of digits by carrying out computations in time sequence. Analog digital hybrid computers There is an intermediate device, a 'hybrid' computer, in which an analog output is convert into standard digits. The information then can be sent into a standard digital computer for further computation. Because of their ease of use and because of technological breakthroughs in digital computers in the early 70s, the analog-digital hybrids were replacing the analog-only systems. Hybrid computers are used to obtain a very accurate but not very mathematically precise 'seed' value, using an analog computer front-end, which value is then fed into a digital computer iterative process to achieve the final desired degree of precision. With a three or four digit precision, highly accurate numerical seed, the total computation time necessary to reach the desired precision is dramatically reduced, since many fewer digital iterations are required (and the analog computer reaches its result almost instantaneously). Or, for example, the analog computer might be used to solve a non-analytic differential equation problem for use at some stage of an overall computation (where precision is not very important). In any case, the hybrid computer is usually substantially faster than a digital computer, but can supply a far more precise computation than an analog computer. It is useful for real-time applications requiring such a combination (e.g., a high frequency phased-array radar or a weather system computation). Polish Analog computer ELWAT. Mechanisms In analog computers, computations are often performed by using properties of electrical resistance, voltages and so on. For example, a simple two variable adder can be created by two current sources in parallel. The first value is set by adjusting the first current source (to say x milliamperes), and the second value is set by adjusting the second current source (say y milliamperes). Measuring the current across the two at their junction to signal ground will give the sum as a current through a resistance to signal ground, i.e., x+y milliamperes. (See Kirchhoff's current law) Other calculations are performed similarly, using operational amplifiers and specially designed circuits for other tasks. The use of electrical properties in analog computers means that calculations are normally performed in real time (or faster), at a significant fraction of the speed of light (in the case of purely arithmetic operations), without the relatively large calculation delays of digital computers. This property allows certain useful calculations that are comparatively "difficult" for digital computers to perform, for example numerical integration. Analog computers can integrate a voltage waveform, usually by means of a capacitor, which accumulates charge over time. Nonlinear functions and calculations can be constructed to a limited precision (three or four digits) by designing function generators— special circuits of various combinations of capacitance, inductance, resistance, in combination with diodes (e.g., Zener diodes) to provide the nonlinearity. Generally, a nonlinear function is simulated by a nonlinear waveform whose shape varies with voltage (or current). For example, as voltage increases, the total impedance may change as the diodes successively permit current to flow. Any physical process which models some computation can be interpreted as an analog computer. Some examples, invented for the purpose of illustrating the concept of analog computation, include using a bundle of spaghetti as a model of sorting numbers; a board, a set of nails, and a rubber band as a model of finding the convex hull of a set of points; and strings tied together as a model of finding the shortest path in a network. These are all described in A.K. Dewdney (see citation below). Components A 1960 Newmark analogue computer, made up of five units. This computer was used to solve differential equations and is currently housed at the Cambridge Museum of Technology. Analog computers often have a complicated framework, but they have, at their core, a set of key components which perform the calculations, which the operator manipulates through the computer's framework. Key hydraulic components might include pipes, valves or towers; mechanical components might include gears and levers; key electrical components might include: potentiometers operational amplifiers integrators fixed-function generators The core mathematical operations used in an electric analog computer are: summation inversion exponentiation logarithm integration with respect to time differentiation with respect to time multiplication and division Differentiation with respect to time is not frequently used. It corresponds in the frequency domain to a high-pass filter, which means that high-frequency noise is amplified. Limitations In general, analog computers are limited by real, non-ideal effects. An analog signal is composed of four basic components: DC and AC magnitudes, frequency, and phase. The real limits of range on these characteristics limit analog computers. Some of these limits include the noise floor, non-linearities, temperature coefficient, and parasitic effects within semiconductor devices, and the finite charge of an electron. For commercially available electronic components, ranges of these aspects of input and output signals are always figures of merit. Current research While digital computation is extremely popular, research in analog computation is being done by a handful of people worldwide. In the United States, Jonathan Mills from Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana has been working on research using Extended Analog Computers. At the Harvard Robotics Laboratory, analog computation is a research topic. Practical examples These are examples of analog computers that have been constructed or practically used: Antikythera mechanism astrolabe differential analyzer Deltar Kerrison Predictor mechanical integrator (the planimeter) is an example of a m.i.) MONIAC Computer (hydraulic model of UK economy) nomogram Norden bombsight operational amplifier planimeter Rangekeeper slide rule thermostat tide predictor Torpedo Data Computer Torquetum Water integrator Mechanical computer Analog synthesizers can also be viewed as a form of analog computer, and their technology was originally based on electronic analog computer technology. Real computers Computer theorists often refer to idealized analog computers as real computers (because they operate on the set of real numbers). Digital computers, by contrast, must first quantize the signal into a finite number of values, and so can only work with the rational number set (or, with an approximation of irrational numbers). These idealized analog computers may in theory solve problems that are intractable on digital computers; however as mentioned, in reality, analog computers are far from attaining this ideal, largely because of noise minimization problems. Moreover, given unlimited time and memory, the (ideal) digital computer may also solve real number problems. See also Signal (electrical engineering) Signal (computing) Differential equation Dynamical system Chaos theory Slide rule Analogical models Antikythera mechanism Other types of computers: DNA computer Molecular computer Quantum computer Wetware computer Digital computer People associated with analog computer development: George A. Philbrick Notes References A.K. Dewdney. "On the Spaghetti Computer and Other Analog Gadgets for Problem Solving", Scientific American, 250(6):19-26, June 1984. Reprinted in The Armchair Universe, by A.K. Dewdney, published by W.H. Freeman & Company (1988), ISBN 0-7167-1939-8. Universiteit van Amsterdam Computer Museum. (2007). Analog Computers. Jackson, Albert S., "Analog Computation", McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1960, ASIN: B0006AW3BS, ISBN 59-11934. External links Large collection of electronic analog computers with lots of pictures and documentation Simulation of a car suspension system with an electronic analog computer Introduction to Analog-/Hybrid-Computing (pdf) Example programs for Analog Computers (pdf) Large collection of old analog and digital computers at Old Computer Museum A great disappearing act: the electronic analogue computer Chris Bissell, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK Accessed February 2007 German computer museum with still runnable analog computers Analog computer basics Lecture 20: Analog vs Digital (in a series of lectures on "History of computing and information technology") Analog computer trumps Turing model Jonathan W. Mills's Analog Notebook Indiana University Extended Analog Computer Harvard Robotics Laboratory Analog Computation Comdyna - a current manufacturer of analog computing hardware The Enns Power Network Computer - an analog computer for the analysis of electric power systems (advertisement from 1955) | Analog_computer |@lemmatized page:1 bombardier:1 information:4 file:1 bif:1 describe:2 component:11 control:2 norden:3 bombsight:3 highly:2 sophisticated:1 optical:1 mechanical:18 analog:66 computer:91 use:25 united:2 state:2 army:1 air:1 force:1 world:4 war:5 ii:2 korean:1 vietnam:1 aid:1 pilot:1 bomber:1 aircraft:1 drop:1 bomb:2 accurately:1 spelled:1 analogue:3 british:1 english:1 form:3 continuous:1 physical:5 phenomenon:1 electrical:10 universiteit:2 van:2 amsterdam:2 museum:6 hydraulic:4 quantity:2 model:10 problem:10 solve:7 timeline:1 antikythera:8 mechanism:8 believe:1 early:4 known:1 research:6 project:2 retrieved:1 design:4 calculate:3 astronomical:2 position:1 discover:1 wreck:1 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7,007 | History_of_Niue | Niue was first settled by Polynesian sailors from Tonga around 900 AD Encyclopedia Britannica, "Niue" . Than further settlers arrived from Samoa around 1440 AD. Until the beginning of the eighteenth century, there appears to have been no national government or national leader in Niue. Before that time, chiefs and heads of family exercised authority over segments of the population. Around 1700, the concept and practice of kingship appears to have been introduced through contact with Samoa or Tonga. From then on, a succession of putu-iki (kings) ruled the island, the first of whom was Puni-mata. Tui-toga, who reigned from 1875 to 1887, was the first Christian king of Niue. S. Percy Smith, Niuē-fekai (or Savage) Island and its People, 1903, pp.36-44 (See: List of Niuean monarchs) Captain James Cook was the first European to sight the island, but he was unable to land there due to fierce opposition by the local population. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica claimed this was due to native fear of foreign disease 1911 Encyclopedia, "Niue" .In response, Cook named Niue the Savage Island. Christian missionaries from the London Missionary Society converted most of the population circa 1846. In 1887, King Fataaiki wrote to Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, requesting that Niue be placed under British protection, but his request was turned down. In 1900, in response to renewed requests, the island became a British protectorate, and the following year it was annexed by New Zealand. Niue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguistic differences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the Cook Islands, caused it to be separately administered. 150 Niuean men, 4% of the island's population, served as soldiers in the New Zealand armed forces during World War I. Pointer, Margaret. Tagi tote e loto haaku - My heart is crying a little: Niue Island involvement in the great war, 1914-1918. Alofi: Government of Niue; Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2000, ISBN 9820201578 "Niuean war heroes marked", Susana Talagi, Western Leader, May 22, 2008 Niue gained its autonomy in 1974 in free association with New Zealand, which handles the island's military and foreign affairs. Niue had been offered autonomy in 1965 (along with the Cook Islands, which accepted), but had asked for its autonomy to be deferred another decade. In January of 2004, Niue was struck by a devastating cyclone (Cyclone Heta) which left 200 of the islands' 1600 inhabitants homeless. As a number of local residents chose afterwards not to rebuild, New Zealand's Foreign Affairs Minister Phil Goff speculated that Niue's status as a self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand might come into question if too many residents departed the island to maintain basic services. Soon afterwards, Niue Premier Young Vivian categorically rejected the possibility of altering the existing relationship with New Zealand. The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200 in 1966 to 2,100 in 2000), with substantial emigration to New Zealand. External links A Brief History of Niue History of Niue See also HEKAU, Maihetoe & al., Niue: A History of the Island, Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies (USP) & the government of Niue, 1982 [no ISBN] References | History_of_Niue |@lemmatized niue:19 first:4 settle:1 polynesian:2 sailor:1 tonga:2 around:3 ad:2 encyclopedia:2 britannica:2 settler:1 arrive:1 samoa:2 beginning:1 eighteenth:1 century:1 appear:2 national:2 government:3 leader:2 time:1 chief:1 head:1 family:1 exercise:1 authority:1 segment:1 population:5 concept:1 practice:1 kingship:1 introduce:1 contact:1 succession:1 putu:1 iki:1 king:3 rule:1 island:14 puni:1 mata:1 tui:1 toga:1 reign:1 christian:2 percy:1 smith:1 niuē:1 fekai:1 savage:2 people:1 pp:1 see:2 list:1 niuean:3 monarch:1 captain:1 james:1 cook:4 european:1 sight:1 unable:1 land:1 due:2 fierce:1 opposition:1 local:2 encyclopaedia:1 claim:1 native:1 fear:1 foreign:3 disease:1 response:2 name:1 missionary:2 london:1 society:1 convert:1 circa:1 fataaiki:1 write:1 queen:1 victoria:1 united:1 kingdom:1 request:3 place:1 british:2 protection:1 turn:1 renew:1 become:1 protectorate:1 following:1 year:1 annex:1 new:7 zealand:7 remoteness:1 well:1 cultural:1 linguistic:1 difference:1 inhabitant:2 cause:1 separately:1 administer:1 men:1 serve:1 soldier:1 arm:1 force:1 world:1 war:3 pointer:1 margaret:1 tagi:1 tote:1 e:1 loto:1 haaku:1 heart:1 cry:1 little:1 involvement:1 great:1 alofi:1 suva:2 institute:2 pacific:3 study:2 university:1 south:1 isbn:2 hero:1 mark:1 susana:1 talagi:1 western:1 may:1 gain:1 autonomy:3 free:2 association:2 handle:1 military:1 affair:2 offer:1 along:1 accept:1 ask:1 defer:1 another:1 decade:1 january:1 strike:1 devastate:1 cyclone:2 heta:1 leave:1 homeless:1 number:1 resident:2 choose:1 afterwards:2 rebuild:1 minister:1 phil:1 goff:1 speculate:1 status:1 self:1 govern:1 nation:1 might:1 come:1 question:1 many:1 depart:1 maintain:1 basic:1 service:1 soon:1 premier:1 young:1 vivian:1 categorically:1 reject:1 possibility:1 alter:1 exist:1 relationship:1 continue:1 drop:1 peak:1 substantial:1 emigration:1 external:1 link:1 brief:1 history:3 also:1 hekau:1 maihetoe:1 al:1 usp:1 reference:1 |@bigram encyclopedia_britannica:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 queen_victoria:1 foreign_affair:2 devastate_cyclone:1 cyclone_heta:1 soon_afterwards:1 external_link:1 |
7,008 | Ethnologue | Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics), a Christian linguistic service organization, which studies lesser-known languages, primarily to provide the speakers with Bibles in their native language. The Ethnologue contains statistics for 6,912 languages in the 15th edition, released in 2005 (up from 6,809 in the 14th edition, released 2000) and gives the number of speakers, location, dialects, linguistic affiliations, availability of the Bible and so forth. It is currently the most comprehensive existing language inventory, along with the Linguasphere Observatory Register. However, some information is dated. What counts as a language depends on socio-linguistic evaluation: see Dialect. Some accuse the Ethnologue of dividing languages, preferring to call the different varieties "dialects". In other cases, the Ethnologue has been accused of lumping together different languages as "dialects" of single languages. As the preface says, "Not all scholars share the same set of criteria for what constitutes a 'language' and what features define a 'dialect.'" In 1984, the Ethnologue released a three-letter coding system, called a SIL code, to identify each language that it describes. This set of codes significantly exceeded the scope of previous standards, e.g., ISO 639-1. The 14th edition, published in 2000, included 7148 language codes which generally did not match the ISO 639-2 codes. In 2002 the Ethnologue was asked to work with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to integrate its codes into a draft international standard. The Ethnologue now uses this standard, called ISO 639-3. The 15th edition which was published in 2005 includes 7299 codes. A 16th edition will be released early 2009. In addition to choosing a primary name for the language, it also gives some of the names by which a language is called by its speakers, by the government, by foreigners and by neighbors, as well as how it has been named and referenced historically, regardless of which designation is considered official, politically correct or offensive or by whom. Errors are fixed in every new edition; for instance, en route to the 14th edition, some languages such as Chenoua were added, and some rumoured "languages" such as Nemadi or Wutana were removed. Some possible remaining errors are discussed at Imraguen language, Senhaja de Srair language, Ghomara language, Kwavi language, Molengue language, Yauma language, Fer language, Yeni language, Phla-Pherá languages and Ofayé. Bill Bright, editor of Language: Journal of the Linguistic Society of America, wrote that it "is indispensable for any reference shelf on the languages of the world" (1986:698). Statistics In some cases Ethnologue's estimates about the number of the speakers of the languages do not concur with other sources. For example, in Ethnologue, the speakers of Persian and Azerbaijani languages in Iran are estimated as 36% and 37% Ethnologue estimation of languages in Iran , respectively. In The World Factbook, these percentages are estimated as 51% and 24% Languages spoken in Iran according to CIA Factbook . Sometimes the total numbers of speakers of languages in a country differ from the overall population figure: for example, for Croatia, Ethnologue gives a total population of 4,496,869 while the number of Croatian speakers in Croatia is reported to be 4,800,000. Old information Although Ethnologue is updated periodically, much of the information is old: The editors do not re-examine each entry for each new edition and generally rely on users to submit change requests. One example is the figures for Ireland, which rely on the census of 1983 even though three censuses have been held since then. Another is the classification of the Khoisan languages, which dates from the 1960s and includes several spurious language entries, though some of these were deleted for the 15th edition. Language families Following are the language families listed in the Ethnologue language family index of the 15th edition. The first column gives the Ethnologue name for the group, followed by the location by continent and Ethnologue'''s count of the number of languages in the family. In addition to language families, Ethnologue lists three artificial languages, one 'cant' (Pitkern), 86 creoles, 18 pidgins, 121 Deaf sign languages, three other sign languages, 21 mixed languages, forty language isolates, and 78 unclassified languages. Family Continent CountAfro-AsiaticAfrica/Asia375AlacalufanSouth America2AlgicNorth America44AltaicEurope/Asia66Amto-MusanAustralasia2AndamaneseAsia13ArauanSouth America8AraucanianSouth America2ArawakanSouth America64Arutani-SapeSouth America2AustralianAustralasia263Austro-AsiaticAsia169AustronesianAsia/Australasia1268AymaranSouth America3BarbacoanSouth America7BasqueEurope3Bayono-AwbonoAustralasia2CaddoanNorth America5CahuapananSouth America2CaribSouth America32Chapacura-WanhamSouth America5ChibchanSouth America22ChimakuanNorth America2ChocoSouth America12ChonSouth America2Chukotko-KamchatkanAsia5ChumashNorth America7CoahuiltecanNorth America1DravidianAsia73East Bird's HeadAustralasia3East PapuanAustralasia36Eskimo-AleutNorth America11Geelvink BayAustralasia33GuahibanSouth America5GulfNorth America4HarakmbetSouth America2Hibito-CholonSouth America2Hmong-MienAsia35HokanNorth America28HuaveanNorth America4Indo-EuropeanEurope/Asia449IroquoianNorth America11JapaneseAsia12JivaroanSouth America4KartvelianAsia5KatukinanSouth America3KeresNorth America2KhoisanAfrica27Kiowa TanoanNorth America6Kwomtari-BaibaiAustralasia6Left MayAustralasia6Lower MamberamoAustralasia2Lule-VilelaSouth America1Macro-GeSouth America32MakuSouth America6MascoianSouth America5Mataco-GuaicuruSouth America12MayanNorth America69MisumalpanNorth America4Mixe-ZoqueNorth America17MuraSouth America1MuskogeanNorth America6Na-DenéNorth America47NambiquaranSouth America3Niger-CongoAfrica1514Nilo-SaharanAfrica204North CaucasianEurope/Asia34Oto-MangueanNorth America174PanoanSouth America28Peba-YaguanSouth America2PenutianNorth America33QuechuanSouth America46SalishanNorth America27SalivanSouth America3Sepik-RamuAustralasia100Sino-TibetanAsia403SiouanNorth America17SkoAustralasia7Subtiaba-TlapanecNorth America5TacananSouth America6Tai-KadaiAsia76TarascanNorth America2TorricelliAustralasia53TotonacanNorth America11Trans-New GuineaAustralasia564TucanoanSouth America25TupiSouth America76UralicEurope/Asia39Uru-ChipayaSouth America2Uto-AztecanNorth America61WakashanNorth America5West PapuanAustralasia26WitotoanSouth America6YanomamSouth America4YeniseianAsia2YukaghirAsia2YukiNorth America2ZamucoanSouth America2ZaparoanSouth America7 See also Ethnologue list of most-spoken languages Language Lists of languages List of language families Notes References Bright, William. 1986. Book Notice on Ethnologue. Language62:698. External links Web version of The Ethnologue Ethnologue - History Review of the 15th edition, by Ole Stig Andersen (Danmarks Radio) How Linguists and Missionaries Share a Bible of 6,912 Languages (The New York Times'') | Ethnologue |@lemmatized ethnologue:20 language:49 world:3 web:2 print:1 publication:1 sil:2 international:3 formerly:1 know:2 summer:1 institute:1 linguistics:1 christian:1 linguistic:4 service:1 organization:2 study:1 lesser:1 primarily:1 provide:1 speaker:7 bible:3 native:1 contain:1 statistic:2 edition:11 release:4 give:4 number:5 location:2 dialect:5 affiliation:1 availability:1 forth:1 currently:1 comprehensive:1 existing:1 inventory:1 along:1 linguasphere:1 observatory:1 register:1 however:1 information:3 date:2 count:2 depend:1 socio:1 evaluation:1 see:2 accuse:2 divide:1 prefer:1 call:4 different:2 variety:1 case:2 lump:1 together:1 single:1 preface:1 say:1 scholar:1 share:2 set:2 criterion:1 constitute:1 feature:1 define:1 three:4 letter:1 cod:1 system:1 code:6 identify:1 describe:1 significantly:1 exceed:1 scope:1 previous:1 standard:3 e:1 g:1 iso:4 publish:2 include:3 generally:2 match:1 ask:1 work:1 standardization:1 integrate:1 draft:1 use:1 early:1 addition:2 choose:1 primary:1 name:4 also:2 government:1 foreigner:1 neighbor:1 well:1 reference:3 historically:1 regardless:1 designation:1 consider:1 official:1 politically:1 correct:1 offensive:1 error:2 fix:1 every:1 new:4 instance:1 en:1 route:1 chenoua:1 add:1 rumour:1 nemadi:1 wutana:1 remove:1 possible:1 remaining:1 discuss:1 imraguen:1 senhaja:1 de:1 srair:1 ghomara:1 kwavi:1 molengue:1 yauma:1 fer:1 yeni:1 phla:1 pherá:1 ofayé:1 bill:1 bright:2 editor:2 journal:1 society:1 america:1 write:1 indispensable:1 shelf:1 estimate:3 concur:1 source:1 example:3 persian:1 azerbaijani:1 iran:3 estimation:1 respectively:1 factbook:2 percentage:1 speak:1 accord:1 cia:1 sometimes:1 total:2 country:1 differ:1 overall:1 population:2 figure:2 croatia:2 croatian:1 report:1 old:2 although:1 update:1 periodically:1 much:1 examine:1 entry:2 rely:2 user:1 submit:1 change:1 request:1 one:2 ireland:1 census:2 even:1 though:2 hold:1 since:1 another:1 classification:1 khoisan:1 several:1 spurious:1 delete:1 family:7 follow:2 list:5 index:1 first:1 column:1 group:1 continent:2 artificial:1 cant:1 pitkern:1 creole:1 pidgin:1 deaf:1 sign:2 mixed:1 forty:1 isolates:1 unclassified:1 countafro:1 asiaticafrica:1 sapesouth:1 wanhamsouth:1 bird:1 aleutnorth:1 cholonsouth:1 europeaneurope:1 tanoannorth:1 vilelasouth:1 gesouth:1 guaicurusouth:1 zoquenorth:1 denénorth:1 caucasianeurope:1 mangueannorth:1 yaguansouth:1 tlapanecnorth:1 chipayasouth:1 aztecannorth:1 spoken:1 languages:1 note:1 william:1 book:1 notice:1 external:1 link:1 version:1 history:1 review:1 ole:1 stig:1 andersen:1 danmarks:1 radio:1 linguist:1 missionary:1 york:1 time:1 |@bigram organization_standardization:1 standardization_iso:1 politically_correct:1 en_route:1 cia_factbook:1 external_link:1 |
7,009 | Oort_cloud | The Oort cloud ( ort, alternatively the Öpik-Oort Cloud ) is a hypothetical spherical cloud of comets which may lie roughly 50,000 AU, or nearly a light-year, from the Sun. This places the cloud at nearly a quarter of the distance to Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun. The Kuiper belt and scattered disc, the other two known reservoirs of trans-Neptunian objects, are less than one thousandth the Oort cloud's distance. The outer extent of the Oort cloud defines the gravitational boundary of our Solar System. The Oort cloud is thought to comprise two separate regions: a spherical outer Oort cloud and a disc-shaped inner Oort cloud, or Hills cloud. Objects in the Oort cloud are largely composed of ices, such as water, ammonia, and methane. Astronomers believe that the matter comprising the Oort cloud formed closer to the Sun and was scattered far out into space by the gravitational effects of the giant planets early in the Solar System's evolution. Although no confirmed direct observations of the Oort cloud have been made, astronomers believe that it is the source of all long-period and Halley-type comets entering the inner Solar System and many of the Centaurs and Jupiter-family comets as well. The outer Oort cloud is only loosely bound to the Solar System, and thus is easily affected by the gravitational pull both of passing stars and of the Milky Way galaxy itself. These forces occasionally dislodge comets from their orbits within the cloud and send them towards the inner Solar System. Based on their orbits, most of the short-period comets may come from the scattered disc, but some may still have originated from the Oort Cloud. Although the Kuiper belt and the farther scattered disc have been observed and mapped, only four currently known trans-Neptunian objects—90377 Sedna, 2000 CR105, 2006 SQ372 and 2008 KV42—are considered possible members of the inner Oort cloud. Hypothesis In 1932, Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik postulated that long-period comets originated in an orbiting cloud at the outermost edge of the Solar System. In 1950, the idea was independently revived by Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort as a means to resolve a paradox: over the course of the Solar System's existence, the orbits of comets are unstable; eventually, dynamics dictate that a comet must either collide with the Sun or a planet, or else be ejected from the Solar System by planetary perturbations. Moreover, their volatile composition means that as they repeatedly approach the Sun, radiation gradually boils the volatiles off until the comet splits or develops an insulating crust that prevents further outgassing. Thus, reasoned Oort, a comet could not have formed on its current orbit, and must have been held in an outer reservoir for almost all of its existence. There are two main classes of comet: short-period comets (also called ecliptic comets) and long-period comets (also called nearly isotropic comets). Ecliptic comets have relatively short orbits, below 10 AU, and follow the ecliptic plane, the same plane in which the planets lie. Nearly all isotropic comets have very long orbits, on the order of thousands of AU, and appear from every corner of the sky. Oort noted that there was a peak in numbers of nearly isotropic comets with aphelia—their farthest distance from the Sun—of roughly 20,000 AU, which suggested a reservoir at that distance with a spherical, isotropic distribution. Those relatively rare comets with orbits of about 10,000 AU have probably gone through one or more orbits through the Solar System and have had their orbits drawn inward by the gravity of the planets. Structure and composition The presumed distance of the Oort cloud compared to the rest of the Solar System An artist's rendering of the Oort cloud, the Hills cloud, and the Kuiper belt (inset) The Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space from somewhere between 2,000 and 5,000 AU to as far as 50,000 AU from the Sun. Some estimates place the outer edge at between 100,000 and 200,000 AU. The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud (20,000–50,000 AU), and a doughnut-shaped inner Oort cloud (2,000–20,000 AU). The outer cloud is only weakly bound to the Sun and supplies the long-period (and possibly Halley-type) comets to inside the orbit of Neptune. The inner Oort cloud is also known as the Hills Cloud, named after J. G. Hills, who proposed its existence in 1981. Models predict that the inner cloud should have tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer halo; it is seen as a possible source of new comets to resupply the relatively tenuous outer cloud as the latter's numbers are gradually depleted. The Hills cloud explains the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years. The outer Oort cloud is believed to contain several trillion individual comet nuclei larger than approximately 1.3 km (about 500 billion with absolute magnitudes Absolute magnitude is a measure of how bright an object would be if it were exactly 1 AU from the Sun and Earth; as opposed to apparent magnitude, which measures how bright an object appears from Earth. Because all measurements of absolute magnitude assume the same distance, absolute magnitude is in effect a measurement of an object's true brightness. The lower an object's absolute magnitude, the brighter it is. brighter than 10.9), with neighboring comets typically tens of millions of kilometres apart. Its total mass is not known with certainty, but, assuming that Halley's comet is a suitable prototype for all comets within the outer Oort cloud, the estimated combined mass is 3x1025 kilograms, or roughly five times the mass of the Earth. Earlier it was thought to be more massive (up to 380 Earth masses), but improved knowledge of the size distribution of long-period comets has led to much lower estimates. The mass of the inner Oort cloud is not currently known. If analyses of comets are representative of the whole, the vast majority of Oort cloud objects consist of various ices such as water, methane, ethane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. However, the discovery of the object 1996 PW, an asteroid in an orbit more typical of a long-period comet, suggests that the cloud may also be home to rocky objects. Analysis of the carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in both the Oort cloud and Jupiter-family comets shows little difference between the two, despite their vastly separate regions of origin. This suggests that both originated from the original protosolar cloud, a conclusion also supported by studies of granular size in Oort cloud comets and by the recent impact study of Jupiter-family comet Tempel 1. Origin The Oort cloud is thought to be a remnant of the original protoplanetary disc that formed around the Sun approximately 4.6 billion years ago. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that the Oort cloud's objects initially coalesced much closer to the Sun as part of the same process that formed the planets and asteroids, but that gravitational interaction with young gas giant planets such as Jupiter ejected the objects into extremely long elliptic or parabolic orbits. Simulations of the evolution of the Oort cloud from the beginnings of the Solar System to the present suggest that the cloud's mass peaked around 800 million years after formation, as the pace of accretion and collision slowed and depletion began to overtake supply. Models by Julio Ángel Fernández suggest that the scattered disc, which is the main source for periodic comets in the Solar System, might also be the primary source for Oort cloud objects. According to the models, about half of the objects scattered travel outward towards the Oort cloud, while a quarter are shifted inward to Jupiter's orbit, and a quarter are ejected on hyperbolic orbits. The scattered disc might still be supplying the Oort cloud with material. A third of the scattered disc's population is likely to end up in the Oort cloud after 2.5 billion years. Computer models suggest that collisions of cometary debris during the formation period play a far greater role than was previously thought. According to these models, the number of collisions early in the Solar System's history was so great that most comets were destroyed before they reached the Oort cloud. Therefore, the current cumulative mass of the Oort cloud is far less than was once suspected. The estimated mass of the cloud is only a small part of the 50–100 Earth masses of ejected material. Gravitational interaction with nearby stars and galactic tides modified cometary orbits to make them more circular. This explains the nearly spherical shape of the outer Oort cloud. On the other hand, the Hills cloud, which is bound more strongly to the Sun, has yet to acquire a spherical shape. Recent studies have shown that the formation of the Oort cloud is broadly compatible with the hypothesis that the Solar System formed as part of an embedded cluster of 200–400 stars. These early stars likely played a role in the cloud's formation, since the number of close stellar passages within the cluster was much higher than today, leading to far more frequent perturbations. Comets Comet Hale-Bopp, an archetypal Oort cloud comet Comets are believed to have two separate points of origin in the Solar System. Short-period comets (those with orbits of up to 200 years) are generally accepted to have emerged from the Kuiper belt or scattered disc, two linked flat discs of icy debris beyond Neptune's orbit at 30 AU and jointly extending out beyond 100 AU from the Sun. Long-period comets, such as comet Hale-Bopp, whose orbits last for thousands of years, are thought to originate in the Oort cloud. The orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable, and so very few comets are believed to originate there. The scattered disc, however, is dynamically active, and is far more likely to be the place of origin for comets. Comets pass from the scattered disc into the realm of the outer planets, becoming what are known as centaurs. These centaurs are then sent farther inward to become the short-period comets. There are two main varieties of short-period comet: Jupiter-family comets (those with semi-major axes of less than 5 AU) and Halley-family comets. Halley-family comets, named for their prototype, Halley's Comet, are unusual in that while they are short-period comets, their ultimate origin lies in the Oort cloud, not in the scattered disc. Based on their orbits, it is believed they were long-period comets that were captured by the gravity of the giant planets and sent into the inner Solar System. This process may have also created the present orbits of a significant fraction of the Jupiter-family comets, although the majority of such comets are thought to have originated in the scattered disc. Oort noted that the number of returning comets was far less than his model predicted, and this issue, known as "cometary fading", has yet to be resolved. No known dynamical process can explain this undercount of observed comets. Hypotheses for this discrepancy include the destruction of comets due to tidal stresses, impact or heating; the loss of all volatiles, rendering some comets invisible, or the formation of a non-volatile crust on the surface. Dynamical studies of Oort cloud comets have shown that their occurrence in the outer planet region is several times higher than in the inner planet region. This discrepancy may be due to the gravitational attraction of Jupiter, which acts as a kind of barrier, trapping incoming comets and causing them to collide with it, just as it did with Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 in 1994. Tidal effects Most of the comets seen close to the Sun are believed to have reached their current positions through gravitational distortion of the Oort cloud by the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way galaxy. Just as the Moon's tidal force bends and deforms the Earth's oceans, causing the tides to rise and fall, so the galactic tide also bends and distorts the orbits of bodies in the outer Solar System, pulling them towards the galactic centre. In the charted regions of the Solar System, these effects are negligible compared to the gravity of the Sun. At the outer reaches of the system, however, the Sun's gravity is weaker and the gradient of the Milky Way's gravitational field plays a far more noticeable role. Because of this gradient, galactic tides can deform an otherwise spherical Oort cloud, stretching the cloud in the direction of the galactic centre and compressing it along the other two axes. These small galactic perturbations may be enough to dislodge members of the Oort cloud from their orbits, sending them towards the Sun. The point at which the Sun's gravity concedes its influence to the galactic tide is called the tidal truncation radius. It lies at a radius of 100,000 to 200,000 AU, and marks the outer boundary of the Oort cloud. Some scholars theorise that the galactic tide may have contributed to the formation of the Oort cloud by increasing the perihelia—closest distances to the Sun—of planetesimals with large aphelia. The effects of the galactic tide are quite complex, and depend heavily on the behaviour of individual objects within a planetary system. Cumulatively, however, the effect can be quite significant: up to 90% of all comets originating from the Oort cloud may be the result of the galactic tide. Statistical models of the observed orbits of long-period comets argue that the galactic tide is the principal means by which their orbits are perturbed toward the inner Solar System. Star perturbations and stellar companion hypotheses Besides the galactic tide, the main trigger for sending comets into the inner Solar System is believed to be interaction between the Sun's Oort cloud and the gravitational fields of near-by stars or giant molecular clouds. The orbit of the Sun through the plane of the Milky Way sometimes brings it in relatively close proximity to other stellar systems. For example, during the next 10 million years the known star with the greatest possibility of perturbing the Oort cloud is Gliese 710. This process also serves to scatter the objects out of the ecliptic plane, potentially also explaining the cloud's spherical distribution. In 1984, Physicist Richard A. Muller postulated that the Sun has a heretofore undetected companion, either a brown dwarf or gaseous giant planet, in an elliptical orbit within the Oort cloud. This object, known as Nemesis, is hypothesized to pass through a portion of the Oort cloud approximately every 26 million years, bombarding the inner Solar System with comets. However, no direct evidence of Nemesis has been found. A somewhat similar hypothesis was advanced by astronomer John J. Matese of the University of Louisiana in 2002. He contends that more comets are arriving in the inner Solar System from a particular region of the Oort cloud than can be explained by the galactic tide or stellar perturbations alone, and that the most likely cause is a Jupiter-mass object in a distant orbit. Oort cloud objects (OCOs) Sedna, a possible inner Oort cloud object discovered in 2003 Apart from long-period comets, only four known objects have orbits which suggest that they may belong to the Oort Cloud: 90377 Sedna, 2000 CR105, 2006 SQ372 and 2008 KV42. The first two, unlike scattered disc objects, have perihelia outside the gravitational reach of Neptune, and thus their orbits cannot be explained by perturbations from the gas giant planets. If they formed in their current locations, their orbits must originally have been circular; otherwise accretion (the coalescence of smaller bodies into larger ones) would not have been possible because the large relative velocities between planetesimals would have been too disruptive. Their present-day elliptical orbits can be explained by a number of hypotheses: These objects could have had their orbits and perihelion distances "lifted" by the passage of a nearby star when the Sun was still embedded in its birth star cluster. Their orbits could have been disrupted by an as-yet-unknown planet-sized body within the Oort cloud. They could have been scattered by Neptune during a period of particularly high eccentricity or by the gravity of a far larger primordial trans-Neptunian disc. They could have been captured from around smaller passing stars. Of these, the stellar disruption and “lift” hypothesis appears to agree most closely with observations. Some astronomers prefer to refer to Sedna and 2000 CR105 as belonging to the "extended scattered disc" rather than to the inner Oort cloud. + Oort cloud object candidates Number Name Equatorial diameter(km) Perihelion (AU) Aphelion (AU) Year discovered Discoverer Diameter method 90377 Sedna 1,180–1,800 km 76.1 892 2003 Brown, Trujillo, Rabinowitz thermal (arxiv.org) 148209 2000 CR105 ~250 km 44.3 397 2000 Lowell Observatory assumed (PDF) - 2006 SQ372 50–100 km 24.17 2,005.38 2006 SDSS assumed - 2008 KV42 58.9 km http://www.hohmanntransfer.com/mn/08/08198_0716.htm 20.217 71.760 2008 Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope assumed See also List of plutoid candidates List of trans-Neptunian objects References External links Oort Cloud Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration The Kuiper Belt and The Oort Cloud The effect of perturbations by the Alpha Cen A/B system on the Oort Cloud be-x-old:Воблака Аорта | Oort_cloud |@lemmatized oort:65 cloud:81 ort:1 alternatively:1 öpik:2 hypothetical:1 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find:1 somewhat:1 similar:1 advance:1 john:1 matese:1 university:1 louisiana:1 contend:1 arrive:1 particular:1 alone:1 distant:1 ocos:1 discover:2 belong:1 first:1 unlike:1 perihelia:1 outside:1 cannot:1 location:1 originally:1 coalescence:1 relative:1 velocity:1 disruptive:1 day:1 lift:2 embed:1 birth:1 disrupt:1 unknown:1 particularly:1 eccentricity:1 primordial:1 disruption:1 agree:1 closely:1 prefer:1 refer:1 belonging:1 rather:1 candidate:2 equatorial:1 diameter:2 discoverer:1 method:1 trujillo:1 rabinowitz:1 thermal:1 arxiv:1 org:1 lowell:1 observatory:1 pdf:1 sd:1 http:1 www:1 hohmanntransfer:1 com:1 mn:1 htm:1 canada:1 france:1 hawaii:1 telescope:1 list:2 plutoid:1 reference:1 external:1 profile:1 nasa:1 exploration:1 alpha:1 cen:1 b:1 x:1 old:1 воблака:1 аорта:1 |@bigram oort_cloud:61 proxima_centauri:1 kuiper_belt:6 scattered_disc:10 trans_neptunian:4 neptunian_object:3 outer_oort:6 inner_oort:7 ammonia_methane:1 milky_way:4 jan_hendrik:1 cometary_nucleus:1 absolute_magnitude:5 apparent_magnitude:1 halley_comet:2 vast_majority:1 methane_ethane:1 carbon_monoxide:1 hydrogen_cyanide:1 comet_tempel:1 periodic_comet:1 galactic_tide:10 comet_hale:2 hale_bopp:2 comet_halley:1 gravitational_attraction:1 comet_shoemaker:1 shoemaker_levy:1 molecular_cloud:1 elliptical_orbit:2 arxiv_org:1 lowell_observatory:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
7,010 | International_reply_coupon | International reply coupon, centenary special version An international reply coupon (IRC) is a coupon that can be exchanged for one or more postage stamps representing the minimum postage for an unregistered priority airmail letter of up to twenty grams sent to another Universal Postal Union (UPU) member country. IRCs are accepted by all UPU member countries. UPU member postal services are obliged to exchange an IRC for postage, but are not obliged to sell them. The purpose of the IRC is to be able to send someone in another country a letter, along with the cost of postage for them to reply. If the addressee is within the same country, there is no need for an IRC because a self-addressed stamped envelope (SASE) will suffice; but if the addressee is in another country an IRC removes the necessity of acquiring foreign postage or sending appropriate currency. History The IRC was introduced in 1906 at a Universal Postal Union congress in Rome. At the time an IRC could be exchanged for a single-rate, ordinary postage stamp for surface delivery to a foreign country, as this was before the introduction of airmail services. As of 2006 an IRC is exchangeable in a UPU member country for the minimum postage of a priority or unregistered airmail letter to a foreign country. As of February 2007, the current IRC is called "Beijing Model No. 2" and is available from post offices in more than 70 countries. They have an expiry date of 31 December 2009. IRCs are ordered from the UPU headquarters in Berne, Switzerland, by postal authorities. They are generally available at large post offices; in the U.S., they are requisitioned along with regular domestic stamps by any post office that has sufficient demand for them. Prices for IRCs vary by country. In the United States in late 2008, the purchase price was $2.10 USD. IRCs purchased in foreign countries could be used in United States toward the purchase of postage stamps and embossed stamped envelopes at the rate of $0.94 USD per coupon. IRCs are often used by amateur radio operators sending QSL cards to each other; it has traditionally been considered good practice and common courtesy to include an IRC when writing to a foreign operator and expecting a reply by mail. The Ponzi scheme The profit that could be made by taking advantage of the differing postal rates in different countries to buy IRCs cheaply in one country and exchange them for stamps to a larger value in another country was the intended profit generator for a scheme operated by Charles Ponzi, which became the fraudulent Ponzi scheme; in practice the overhead on buying and selling the very low-value IRCs precluded profitability. The selling price and exchange value in stamps in each country were since adjusted to some extent to remove some of the potential for profit, but ongoing fluctuations in cost of living and exchange rates make it impossible to achieve this completely. Notes External links UPU IRC main webpage IRC info Amateur Radio Hams IRC info Some IRC illustrations and exchange guidelines | International_reply_coupon |@lemmatized international:2 reply:4 coupon:4 centenary:1 special:1 version:1 irc:14 exchange:7 one:2 postage:8 stamp:7 represent:1 minimum:2 unregistered:2 priority:2 airmail:3 letter:3 twenty:1 gram:1 send:4 another:4 universal:2 postal:5 union:2 upu:6 member:4 country:15 ircs:7 accept:1 service:2 oblige:2 sell:2 purpose:1 able:1 someone:1 along:2 cost:2 addressee:2 within:1 need:1 self:1 address:1 stamped:1 envelope:2 sase:1 suffice:1 remove:2 necessity:1 acquire:1 foreign:5 appropriate:1 currency:1 history:1 introduce:1 congress:1 rome:1 time:1 could:3 single:1 rate:4 ordinary:1 surface:1 delivery:1 introduction:1 exchangeable:1 february:1 current:1 call:1 beijing:1 model:1 available:2 post:3 office:3 expiry:1 date:1 december:1 order:1 headquarters:1 berne:1 switzerland:1 authority:1 generally:1 large:2 u:1 requisition:1 regular:1 domestic:1 sufficient:1 demand:1 price:3 vary:1 united:2 state:2 late:1 purchase:3 usd:2 use:2 toward:1 emboss:1 per:1 often:1 amateur:2 radio:2 operator:2 qsl:1 card:1 traditionally:1 consider:1 good:1 practice:2 common:1 courtesy:1 include:1 write:1 expect:1 mail:1 ponzi:3 scheme:3 profit:3 make:2 take:1 advantage:1 differ:1 different:1 buy:2 cheaply:1 value:3 intended:1 generator:1 operate:1 charles:1 become:1 fraudulent:1 overhead:1 low:1 preclude:1 profitability:1 selling:1 since:1 adjust:1 extent:1 potential:1 ongoing:1 fluctuation:1 living:1 impossible:1 achieve:1 completely:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 main:1 webpage:1 info:2 ham:1 illustration:1 guideline:1 |@bigram postage_stamp:3 universal_postal:2 expiry_date:1 berne_switzerland:1 ponzi_scheme:2 external_link:1 |
7,011 | Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meeting | The Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, abbreviated to CHOGM, is a biennial summit meeting of the heads of government from all Commonwealth nations. Every two years the meeting is held in a different member state, and is chaired by that nation's respective Prime Minister or President, who becomes the Commonwealth Chairperson-in-Office. Recently, meetings have been attended by Queen Elizabeth II, who is the Head of the Commonwealth, although the Queen's formal appearance only began in 1997. The first CHOGM was held in 1971, and there have been twenty held in total: the most recent in Uganda in 2007. They are held once every two years, although this pattern has twice been interrupted. They are held around the Commonwealth, rotating by invitation amongst its members. In the past, CHOGMs have attempted to orchestrate common policies on certain contentious issues and current events, with a special focus on issues affecting member nations. CHOGMs have discussed the continuation of apartheid rule in South Africa and how to end it, military coups in Pakistan and Fiji, and allegations of electoral fraud in Zimbabwe. Sometimes the member states agree on a common idea or solution, and release a joint statement declaring their opinion. More recently, beginning at the 1997 CHOGM, the meeting has had an official 'theme', set by the host nation, on which the primary discussions have been focused. History The meetings originated with the meetings of the leaders of the self-governing colonies of the British Empire. The First Colonial Conference in 1887 was followed by periodic meetings, known as Imperial Conferences from 1911, of government leaders of the Empire. The development of the independence of the dominions, and the creation of a number of new dominions, as well as the invitation of Southern Rhodesia (which also attended as a sui generis colony), changed the nature of the meetings. As the dominion leaders asserted themselves more and more at the meetings, it became clear that the time for 'imperial' conferences was over. From the ashes of the Second World War, seventeen Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conferences were held between 1944 and 1969. Of these, sixteen were held in London, reflecting then-prevailing views of the Commonwealth as the continuation of the Empire and the centralisation of power in the British Commonwealth Office (the one meeting outside London, in Lagos, was an extraordinary meeting held in January 1966 to coordinate policies towards Rhodesia). Two supplementary meetings were also held during this period: a Commonwealth Statesmen's meeting to discuss peace terms in April 1945, and a Commonwealth Economic Conference in 1952. The 1960s saw an overhaul of the Commonwealth. The swift expansion of the Commonwealth after decolonisation saw the newly-independent countries demand the creation of the Commonwealth Secretariat, and the United Kingdom, in response, successfully founding the Commonwealth Foundation. This decentralisation of power demanded a reformulation of the meetings. Instead of the meetings always being held in London, they would rotate across the membership, subject to countries' ability to host the meetings: beginning with Singapore in 1971. They were also renamed the 'Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings' to reflect the growing diversity of the constitutional structures in the Commonwealth. Structure The core of the CHOGM are the executive sessions, which are the formal gatherings of the heads of government to do business. However, the majority of the important decisions are held not in the main meetings themselves, but at the informal 'retreats': introduced at the second CHOGM, in Ottawa, by Prime Minister of Canada Pierre Trudeau, but reminiscent of the excursions to Chequers or Dorneywood in the days of the Prime Ministers' Conferences. The rules are very strict: allowing the head of the delegation, his or her spouse, and one other person. The additional member can be of any capacity (personal, political, security, etc), but he or she has only occasional and intermittent access to the head. It is usually at the retreat where, isolated from their advisers, the heads resolve the most intransigent issues: leading to the Gleneagles Agreement in 1977, the Lusaka Declaration in 1979, the Langkawi Declaration in 1989, the Millbrook Programme in 1995, and the Aso Rock Declaration in 2003. The 'fringe' of civil society organisations, including the Commonwealth Family and local groups, adds a cultural dimension to the event, and brings the CHOGM a higher media profile and greater acceptance by the local population. First officially recognised at Limassol in 1993, these events, spanning a longer period than the meeting itself, have, to an extent, preserved the length of the CHOGM: but only in the cultural sphere. Other meetings, such as those of the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group, Commonwealth Business Council, and respective foreign ministers, have also dealt with business away from the heads of government themselves. As the scope of the CHOGM has expanded beyond the meetings of the heads of governments themselves, the CHOGMs have become progressively shorter, and their business more compacted into less time. The 1971 CHOGM lasted for nine days, and the 1977 and 1991 CHOGMs for seven days each. However, Harare's epochal CHOGM was the last to last a week; the 1993 CHOGM lasted for five days, and the contentious 1995 CHOGM for only three-and-a-half, setting a precedent that has lasted since. Agenda Under the Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, each CHOGM is responsible for renewing the remit of the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group, whose responsibility it is to uphold the Harare Declaration on the core political principles of the Commonwealth. Incidents As the convocation of heads of governments and permanent Commonwealth staff and experts, CHOGMs are the highest institution of action in the Commonwealth, and rare occasions on which Commonwealth leaders all come together. CHOGMs have been the venues of many of the Commonwealth's most dramatic events. Robert Mugabe announced Zimbabwe's immediate withdrawal from the Commonwealth at the 2003 CHOGM, and Nigeria's execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight others on the first day of the 1995 CHOGM led to that country's suspension. It has also been the trigger of a number of events that have shook participating countries domestically. The departure of Uganda's President Milton Obote to the 1971 CHOGM allowed Idi Amin to overthrow Obote's government. Similarly, President James Mancham's attendance of the 1977 CHOGM gave Prime Minister France-Albert René the opportunity to seize power in the Seychelles. List of meetings Year Date Country City Retreat Chairperson 1971 14 January – 22 January Singapore Singapore N/A Lee Kuan Yew 1973 2 August – 10 August Canada Ottawa Mont-Tremblant Pierre Trudeau 1975 29 April – 6 May Jamaica Kingston Michael Manley 1977 8 June – 15 June United Kingdom London Gleneagles James Callaghan 1979 1 August – 7 August Zambia Lusaka Kenneth Kaunda 1981 30 September – 7 October Australia Melbourne Canberra Malcolm Fraser 1983 23 November – 29 November India New Delhi Fort Aguada Indira Gandhi 1985 16 October – 22 October Bahamas Nassau Lyford Cay Lynden Pindling 1986 3 August – 5 August United Kingdom London N/A Margaret Thatcher 1987 13 October – 17 October Canada Vancouver Okanagan Brian Mulroney 1989 18 October – 24 October Malaysia Kuala Lumpur Langkawi Mahathir bin Mohamad 1991 16 October – 21 October Zimbabwe Harare Victoria Falls Robert Mugabe 1993 21 October – 25 October Cyprus Limassol George Vasiliou 1995 10 November – 13 November New Zealand Auckland Millbrook Jim Bolger 1997 24 October – 27 October United Kingdom Edinburgh St Andrews Tony Blair 1999 12 November – 14 November South Africa Durban George Thabo Mbeki 2002 2 March – 5 March Australia Coolum N/A John Howard 2003 5 December – 8 December Nigeria Abuja Aso Rock Olusegun Obasanjo 2005 25 November – 27 November Malta Valletta N/A Lawrence Gonzi 2007 23 November – 25 November Uganda Kampala Makindye Yoweri Museveni 2009 27 November – 29 November Trinidad and Tobago Port of Spain TBA Patrick Manning 2011 To Be Announced Sri Lanka Colombo TBA TBA Footnotes External links Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting page on the Commonwealth Secretariat web site Kampala' 2007, CHOGM 2007 Official page CHOGM count Down, CHOGM News CHOGM 2007, CHOGM 2007 Kampala Uganda, Updates and information CHOGM 2007 Highlights & News, CHOGM 2007 Highlights CHOGM, Australian Government | Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meeting |@lemmatized commonwealth:29 head:12 government:11 meeting:24 abbreviate:1 chogm:25 biennial:1 summit:1 nation:4 every:2 two:3 year:3 hold:11 different:1 member:5 state:2 chair:1 respective:2 prime:5 minister:6 president:3 become:3 chairperson:2 office:2 recently:2 attend:2 queen:2 elizabeth:1 ii:1 although:2 formal:2 appearance:1 begin:3 first:4 twenty:1 total:1 recent:1 uganda:4 pattern:1 twice:1 interrupt:1 around:1 rotate:2 invitation:2 amongst:1 past:1 chogms:6 attempt:1 orchestrate:1 common:2 policy:2 certain:1 contentious:2 issue:3 current:1 event:5 special:1 focus:2 affect:1 discuss:2 continuation:2 apartheid:1 rule:2 south:2 africa:2 end:1 military:1 coup:1 pakistan:1 fiji:1 allegation:1 electoral:1 fraud:1 zimbabwe:3 sometimes:1 agree:1 idea:1 solution:1 release:1 joint:1 statement:1 declare:1 opinion:1 official:2 theme:1 set:2 host:2 primary:1 discussion:1 history:1 originate:1 leader:4 self:1 govern:1 colony:2 british:2 empire:3 colonial:1 conference:6 follow:1 periodic:1 know:1 imperial:2 development:1 independence:1 dominion:3 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7,012 | Antoine_Lavoisier | {{Infobox Scientist |name = Antoine Lavoisier |image = David - Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and His Wife.jpg |caption = Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his Wife by Jacques-Louis David (ca. 1788) |birth_date = |birth_place = Paris, France |death_date = |death_place = Paris, France |occupation = Chemist |influences = Guillaume-François Rouelle |influenced = |networth = |footnotes = |influenced = |religion = Roman Catholic }} Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794; ), the father of modern chemistry, "Lavoisier, Antoine." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 July 2007. was a French noble prominent in the histories of chemistry and biology. He stated the first version of the law of conservation of mass, recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783), abolished the phlogiston theory, helped construct the metric system, wrote the first extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same. Thus, for instance, if water is heated to steam, if salt is dissolved in water or if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged. He was also an investor and administrator of the "Ferme Générale" a private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the Discount Bank (later the Banque de France); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic administrative councils. All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. At the height of the French Revolution he was accused by Marat of selling watered-down tobacco, and of other crimes, and was beheaded. Early life Antoine Lavoisier Born to a wealthy family in Paris, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier inherited a large fortune at the age of five with the passing of his mother. He attended the College Mazarin from 1754 to 1761, studying chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. His education was filled with the ideals of the French Enlightenment of the time, and he felt fascination for Maquois's dictionary. He attended lectures in the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion and passion for chemistry was largely influenced by Étienne Condillac, a prominent French scholar of the 18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. In collaboration with Jean-Étienne Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in 1767. At the age of 25, he was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences, France's most elite scientific society, for an essay on street lighting and in recognition for his earlier research. In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of France. In 1771, Lavoisier at age 28, married the 13-year-old Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the daughter of a co-owner of the Ferme. Over time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She translated documents from English for him, including Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. She created many sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She also edited and published Lavoisier’s memoirs (whether any English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry. Contributions to chemistry Research on gases, water, and combustion Antoine Lavoisier's famous phlogiston experiment. Engraving by Mme Lavoisier in the 1780s taken from Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elementary treatise on chemistry). The work of Lavoisier was translated in Japan in the 1840s, through the process of Rangaku. Page from Udagawa Yōan's 1840 Seimi Kaisō. Lavoisier also demonstrated the role of oxygen in the rusting of metal, as well as oxygen's role in animal and plant respiration. Working with Pierre-Simon Laplace, Lavoisier conducted experiments that showed that respiration was essentially a slow combustion of organic material using inhaled oxygen. Lavoisier's explanation of combustion disproved the phlogiston theory, which postulated that materials released a substance called phlogiston when they burned. Lavoisier also discovered that Henry Cavendish's "inflammable air", which Lavoisier had termed hydrogen (Greek for "water-former"), combined with oxygen to produce a dew which, as Joseph Priestley had reported, appeared to be water. Lavoisier's work was partly based on the research of Priestley. However, he tried to take credit for Priestley's discoveries. This tendency to use the results of others without acknowledgment, then draw conclusions of his own, is said to be characteristic of Lavoisier. In "Sur la combustion en général" ("On Combustion in general," 1777) and "Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids," 1778), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. In 1779, he named this part of the air "oxygen" (Greek for "becoming sharp" because he claimed that the sharp taste of acids came from oxygen), and the other "azote" (Greek for "no life"). In "Réflexions sur la Phlogistique" ("Reflections on Phlogiston," 1783), Lavoisier showed the phlogiston theory to be inconsistent. Pioneer of stoichiometry Laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier circa 1780s Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly quantitative chemical experiments. He carefully weighed the reactants and products in a chemical reaction, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. He showed that, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction, the total mass of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. These experiments supported the law of conservation of mass, which Lavoisier was the first to state, although Mikhail Lomonosov (1711-1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments. Others who anticipated the work of Lavoisier include Joseph Black (1728-1799), Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), and Jean Rey (1583-1645). Analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature Lavoisier investigated the composition of water and air, which at the time were considered elements. He determined that the components of water were oxygen and hydrogen, and that air was a mixture of gases, primarily nitrogen and oxygen. With the French chemists Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy and Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier devised a systematic chemical nomenclature. He described it in Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Chemical Nomenclature, 1787). This system facilitated communication of discoveries between chemists of different backgrounds and is still largely in use today, including names such as sulfuric acid, sulfates, and sulfites. Lavoisier's Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, 1789, translated into English by Scotsman Robert Kerr) is considered to be the first modern chemistry textbook. It presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the law of conservation of mass, and denied the existence of phlogiston. This text clarified the concept of an element as a substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis, and presented Lavoisier's theory of the formation of chemical compounds from elements. While many leading chemists of the time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, the Traité Élémentaire was sufficiently sound to convince the next generation. Combustion generated by focusing sunlight over flammable materials using lenses, an experiment conducted by Lavoisier in the 1770s Detail of picture of a combustion experiment Legacy Constant pressure calorimeter , engraving made by madame Lavoisier for thermochemistry experiments. Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of the chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous). Lavoisier also did early research in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with Laplace. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually finding the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion reaction. Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of allotropy in chemical elements when he discovered that diamond is a crystalline form of carbon. However, much to his professional detriment, Lavoisier actually discovered no new substances, devised no really novel apparatus, and worked out no improved methods of preparation. He was essentially a theorist, and his great merit lay in the capacity of taking over experimental work that others had carried out—without always, unfortunately, adequately recognizing their claims—and by a rigorous logical procedure, reinforced by his own quantitative experiments, of expounding the true explanation of the results. He completed the work of Black, Priestley and Cavendish, and gave a correct explanation of their experiments. Overall, his contributions are considered the most important in advancing chemistry to the level reached in physics and mathematics during the 18th century. Charles C. Gillespie, Foreword to Lavoisier by Jean-Pierre Poirier, University of Pennsylvania Press, English Edition, 1996. Lavoisier conducting an experiment on respiration in the 1770s. Contributions to biology Lavoisier used a calorimeter to measure heat production as a result of respiration in a guinea pig. The outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted to maintain a constant temperature of around an inner shell filled with ice. The guinea pig in the center of the chamber produced heat which melted the ice. The water that flowed out of the calorimeter was collected and weighed. Lavoisier found that of melted ice corresponded to 80 kcal of heat production by the guinea pig. Lavoisier concluded, "la respiration est donc une combustion," that is, respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, like that of a candle burning. Is a Calorie a Calorie? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 79, No. 5, 899S–906S, May 2004 Law and politics Lavoisier received a law degree and was admitted to the bar, but never practiced as a lawyer. He did become interested in French politics, and at the age of 26 he obtained a position as a tax collector in the Ferme Générale, a tax farming company, where he attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation system to help the peasants. While in government work, he helped develop the to secure uniformity of weights and measures throughout France. Final days, execution, and aftermath Statue of Lavoisier, at Hôtel de Ville, Paris. As one of twenty-eight French tax collectors and a powerful figure in the unpopular Ferme Générale, Lavoisier was branded a traitor during the Reign of Terror by French Revolutionists in 1794. Lavoisier had also intervened on behalf of a number of foreign-born scientists including mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, granting them exception to a mandate stripping all foreigners of possessions and freedom. Lavoisier was tried, convicted, and guillotined on 8 May in Paris, at the age of 50. Lavoisier was actually one of the few liberals in his position. One of his actions that may have sealed his fate was a clash a few years earlier with the young Jean-Paul Marat whom he dismissed curtly after being presented with a preposterous "scientific invention." Marat subsequently became a leading revolutionary and one of the French Revolution's more extreme "professional common men." An appeal to spare his life so that he could continue his experiments was cut short by the judge: "The Republic needs neither scientists nor chemists; the course of justice can not be delayed." Commenting on this quotation, Denis Duveen, an English expert on Lavoiser and a collector of his works, wrote that "it is pretty certain that it was never uttered." For Duveen's evidence, see the following: . Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: "Cela leur a pris seulement un instant pour lui couper la tête, mais la France pourrait ne pas en produire une autre pareille en un siècle." ("It took them only an instant to cut off his head, but France may not produce another like it in a century.") One and a half years following his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the French government. When his private belongings were delivered to his widow, a brief note was included reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted." About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was later discovered that the sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the statue, but used a spare head of the Marquis de Condorcet, the Secretary of the Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. Lack of money prevented alterations being made. The statue was melted down during the Second World War and has not since been replaced. However, one of the main "lycées" (highschools) in Paris and a street in the 8th arrondissement are named after Lavoisier, and statues of him are found on the Hôtel de Ville (photograph, right) and on the façade of the Cour Napoléon'' of the Louvre. Selected writings - Reprinted 1965, Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations - Reprint of Robert Kerr's English translation of 1790 See also Caloric theory List of independent discoveries#18th century Timeline of hydrogen technologies References Further reading Lavoisier, by Jacques-Léonard Maillet, ca 1853, among culture heroes in the Louvre's ''Cour Napoléon External links Antoine Laurent Lavoisier A virtual museum of Antoine Lavoisier Antoine Lavoisier - Chemical Achievers profile. Who was the first to classify materials as "compounds"? - Fred Senese The Complete Works of Lavoisier edited by Pietro Corsi (Oxford University) and Patrice Bret (CNRS) Radio 4 program on the discovery of oxygen by the BBC | Antoine_Lavoisier |@lemmatized infobox:1 scientist:4 name:5 antoine:10 lavoisier:61 image:1 david:2 portrait:2 monsieur:2 wife:2 jpg:1 caption:1 jacques:2 louis:3 ca:2 paris:7 france:8 occupation:1 chemist:5 influence:4 guillaume:1 françois:1 rouelle:1 networth:1 footnote:1 religion:1 roman:1 catholic:1 laurent:3 de:10 august:1 may:6 father:1 modern:2 chemistry:15 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 online:1 july:1 french:12 noble:1 prominent:2 history:1 biology:2 state:4 first:8 version:1 law:5 conservation:3 mass:6 recognize:2 oxygen:13 hydrogen:4 abolish:1 phlogiston:9 theory:9 help:4 construct:1 metric:1 system:4 write:2 extensive:1 list:2 element:5 reform:2 chemical:17 nomenclature:6 discover:5 although:3 matter:3 change:4 form:2 shape:1 always:2 remain:2 thus:1 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7,013 | Bay_of_Quinte | The Bay of Quinte (Kwin-tee) is on the northern shore of Lake Ontario. The Bay of Quinte at night, with a view of CFB Trenton Located about 200 kilometers east of Toronto and 400 west of Montreal, the Bay of Quinte is a long, thin bay in the shape of a letter "Z". The northern side of the bay is defined by the mainland, while the southern side follows the shore of the Prince Edward County headland. Beginning in the east with the outlet to Lake Ontario, the bay runs west-southwest for 25 kilometers to Picton, where it turns north-northwest for another 20 kilometers as far as Deseronto. From there it turns south-southwest again for another 40 kilometers, running past Big Island on the south and Belleville on the north. The width of the bay rarely exceeds two kilometers. The bay ends at Quinte West (formerly Trenton) and the Trent River, both also on the north side. The Murray Canal has been cut through the few miles separating the end of the bay and Lake Ontario on the west side. The Trent River is part of the Trent-Severn Waterway, a canal connecting Lake Ontario to Lake Simcoe and then Georgian Bay on Lake Huron. The Bay, as it is known locally, provides some of the best trophy Walleye angling in North America as well as most sport fish common to the great lakes. The Bay is subject to algae blooms in late summer which are a naturally occurring phenomenon and do not indicate pollution other than from agricultural runoff. Zebra mussels as well as the other invasive species found in the great lakes are present. The Quinte area played a vital role to bootleggers during Prohibition in the US, with large volumes of booze being produced in the area, and shipped via boat on the Bay, to Lake Ontario finally arriving in New York State where it was distributed. Illegal sales of liquor accounted for many fortunes in and around Belleville, Ontario. See also Lennox and Addington Historical Society | Bay_of_Quinte |@lemmatized bay:13 quinte:5 kwin:1 tee:1 northern:2 shore:2 lake:9 ontario:6 night:1 view:1 cfb:1 trenton:2 locate:1 kilometer:5 east:2 toronto:1 west:4 montreal:1 long:1 thin:1 shape:1 letter:1 z:1 side:4 define:1 mainland:1 southern:1 follow:1 prince:1 edward:1 county:1 headland:1 begin:1 outlet:1 run:2 southwest:2 picton:1 turn:2 north:4 northwest:1 another:2 far:1 deseronto:1 south:2 past:1 big:1 island:1 belleville:2 width:1 rarely:1 exceed:1 two:1 end:2 formerly:1 trent:3 river:2 also:2 murray:1 canal:2 cut:1 mile:1 separate:1 part:1 severn:1 waterway:1 connecting:1 simcoe:1 georgian:1 huron:1 know:1 locally:1 provide:1 best:1 trophy:1 walleye:1 angle:1 america:1 well:2 sport:1 fish:1 common:1 great:2 subject:1 algae:1 bloom:1 late:1 summer:1 naturally:1 occur:1 phenomenon:1 indicate:1 pollution:1 agricultural:1 runoff:1 zebra:1 mussel:1 invasive:1 specie:1 find:1 present:1 area:2 play:1 vital:1 role:1 bootlegger:1 prohibition:1 u:1 large:1 volume:1 booze:1 produce:1 ship:1 via:1 boat:1 finally:1 arrive:1 new:1 york:1 state:1 distribute:1 illegal:1 sale:1 liquor:1 account:1 many:1 fortune:1 around:1 see:1 lennox:1 addington:1 historical:1 society:1 |@bigram bay_quinte:3 lake_huron:1 algae_bloom:1 zebra_mussel:1 invasive_specie:1 |
7,014 | Navigation_research | Whereas originally the term Navigation applies to the process of directing a ship to a destination, Navigation research deals with fundamental aspects of navigation in general. It can be defined as "The process of determining and maintaining a course or trajectory to a goal location" (Franz, Mallot, 2000). It concerns basically all moving agents, biological or artificial, autonomous or remote-controlled. Franz and Mallot proposed a navigation hierarchy (Robotics and Autonomous Systems 30 (2000), 133-153): Behavioural prerequisite Navigation competence Local navigation Search Goal recognition Finding the goal without active goal orientation Direction-following Align course with local direction Finding the goal from one direction Aiming Keep goal in front Finding a salient goal from a catchment area Guidance Attain spatial relation to the surrounding objects Finding a goal defined by its relation to the surroundings Way-finding Recognition-triggered response Association sensory pattern-action Following fixed routes Topological navigation Route integration, route planning Flexible concatenation of route segments Survey navigation Embedding into a common reference frame Finding paths over novel terrain There are two basic methods for navigation: Egocentric navigation also known as Idiothetic navigation Allocentric navigation also known as Allothetic navigation Robotic navigation Outdoor robots can use GPS in a similar way to automotive navigation systems. Alternative systems can be used with floor plan instead of maps for indoor robots, combined with localization wireless hardware. See also Electric beacon Visual navigation | Navigation_research |@lemmatized whereas:1 originally:1 term:1 navigation:16 applies:1 process:2 direct:1 ship:1 destination:1 research:1 deal:1 fundamental:1 aspect:1 general:1 define:2 determine:1 maintain:1 course:2 trajectory:1 goal:8 location:1 franz:2 mallot:2 concern:1 basically:1 move:1 agent:1 biological:1 artificial:1 autonomous:2 remote:1 control:1 propose:1 hierarchy:1 robotics:1 system:3 behavioural:1 prerequisite:1 competence:1 local:2 search:1 recognition:2 find:5 without:1 active:1 orientation:1 direction:3 follow:2 align:1 one:1 aim:1 keep:1 front:1 salient:1 catchment:1 area:1 guidance:1 attain:1 spatial:1 relation:2 surround:1 object:1 surroundings:1 way:2 finding:1 trigger:1 response:1 association:1 sensory:1 pattern:1 action:1 fix:1 route:4 topological:1 integration:1 planning:1 flexible:1 concatenation:1 segment:1 survey:1 embed:1 common:1 reference:1 frame:1 path:1 novel:1 terrain:1 two:1 basic:1 method:1 egocentric:1 also:3 know:2 idiothetic:1 allocentric:1 allothetic:1 robotic:1 outdoor:1 robot:2 use:2 gps:1 similar:1 automotive:1 alternative:1 floor:1 plan:1 instead:1 map:1 indoor:1 combine:1 localization:1 wireless:1 hardware:1 see:1 electric:1 beacon:1 visual:1 |@bigram automotive_navigation:1 |
7,015 | Grateful_Dead | The Grateful Dead was an American rock band formed in 1965 in the San Francisco Bay Area. The band was known for its unique and eclectic style, which fused elements of rock, folk, bluegrass, blues, reggae, country, jazz, psychedelia, space rock "purveyors of freely improvised space music," -- Blender Magazine, May 2003 ""Dark Star," both in its title and in its structure (designed to incorporate improvisational exploration), is the perfect example of the kind of "space music" that the Dead are famous for. Oswald's titular pun "Grayfolded" adds the concept of folding to the idea of space, and rightly so when considering the way he uses sampling to fold the Dead's musical evolution in on itself." -- Islands of Order, Part 2,by Randolph Jordan, in Offscreen Journal, edited by Donato Totaro, Ph.D, film studies lecturer at Concordia University since 1990. and gospel—and for live performances of long musical improvisation. "Their music," writes Lenny Kaye, "touches on ground that most other groups don't even know exists." The fans of the Grateful Dead, some of whom followed the band from concert to concert for years, are known as "Deadheads"; they are renowned for their dedication to the band's music. Many fans referred to the band simply as "the Dead". As of 2003, the remaining band members who had been touring under the name "The Other Ones" changed their official group name to "The Dead". Deadheads continue to use that nickname to refer to all versions of the band. Selvin, Joel. "Marin Icons Now The Dead", San Francisco Chronicle, February 12, 2003 The Grateful Dead's musical influences varied widely; in concert recordings or on record albums one can hear psychedelic rock, blues, rock and roll, country-western, bluegrass, country-rock, and improvisational jazz. These various influences were distilled into a diverse and psychedelic whole that made the Grateful Dead "the pioneering Godfathers of the jam band world." Garofalo, pg. 219 They were ranked 55th in the issue "The Greatest Artists of all Time" by Rolling Stone magazine. Membership Lead guitarist Jerry Garcia was often seen both by the public and the media as the leader or primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, but was reluctant to be perceived that way, especially since he and the other group members saw themselves as equal participants and contributors to their collective musical and creative output. "The way it works is it doesn't depend on a leader, and I'm not the leader of the Grateful Dead or anything like that; there isn't any fuckin' leader." Jerry Garcia interview, Rolling Stone, 1972 "Garcia's influence on the overall chemistry of the band was surprisingly subtle, McNally tells NPR's Scott Simon. 'Jerry was not the leader, except by example... He was a charismatic figure.'"Simon, Scott. "'A Long Strange Trip': Insider McNally Writes a History of the Grateful Dead", NPR Music, January 11, 2003 Garcia, a native of San Francisco, grew up in the Excelsior District. One of his main influences was bluegrass music, and Garcia also performed—on banjo, one of his other great instrumental loves, along with the pedal steel guitar—in the bluegrass band Old and in the Way with mandolinist David Grisman. Classically trained trumpeter Phil Lesh played bass guitar. Bob Weir, the youngest original member of the group, played rhythm guitar. Ron "Pigpen" McKernan played keyboards and harmonica and was also a group vocalist until shortly before his death in 1973 at the age of 27. All of the previously mentioned Grateful Dead members shared in vocal performance of songs. Bill Kreutzmann played drums, and in September 1967 was joined by a second drummer, New York native Mickey Hart, who also played a wide variety of other percussion instruments. Hart quit the Grateful Dead in February 1971, leaving Kreutzmann once again as the sole percussionist. Mickey Hart rejoined the Grateful Dead for good in October 1974. Tom "TC" Constanten was added as a second keyboardist from 1968 to 1970, while Pigpen also played various percussion instruments and sang. After Constanten's departure, Pigpen reclaimed his position as sole organist. Less than two years later, in late 1971, Pigpen was joined by another keyboardist, Keith Godchaux, who played grand piano alongside Pigpen's Hammond B-3 organ. In early 1972, Keith's wife, Donna Jean Godchaux, joined the Dead as a backing vocalist. Following the Grateful Dead's "Europe '72" tour, Pigpen's health had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer tour with the Dead. His final concert appearance was June 17, 1972 at the Hollywood Bowl, in Los Angeles; Scott, Dolgushkin, Nixon, "Deadbase X", New Hampshire, p.23. ISBN 1-877657-21-2 he died in March, 1973. McNally, Dennis, "A Long Strange Trip", New York 2002, p.584. ISBN 0-7679-1186-5 Keith and Donna Jean left the band in 1979, and Brent Mydland joined as keyboardist and vocalist. Keith Godchaux died in a car accident in 1980. Mydland was the keyboardist for the Grateful Dead for 11 years until his death by narcotics overdose in July 1990, becoming the third Dead keyboardist to pass away. Almost immediately, Vince Welnick, former keyboardist for The Tubes, joined on keyboards and vocals. For his first eighteen months with the Grateful Dead, Welnick was usually joined by Bruce Hornsby on piano. Hornsby had earlier occasionally appeared as an sit-in player beginning in 1988 (and he continued to do so after leaving the band), and he was invited to join the Grateful Dead after Mydland's death, McNally, Dennis, "A Long Strange Trip", New York 2002, p.447. ISBN 0-7679-1186-5 but with an already-flourishing career outside of the Dead, he could not commit to a permanent membership; eventually, these outside commitments led to his quitting the band after the March, 1992 tour. Scott, Dolgushkin, Nixon, "Deadbase X", New Hampshire, p.79. ISBN 1-877657-21-2 Welnick died on June 2, 2006, reportedly a suicide. Robert Hunter and John Perry Barlow were the band's primary lyricists. Owsley "Bear" Stanley was the Grateful Dead's soundman for many years; he was also one of the largest suppliers of LSD. McNally, Dennis, "A Long Strange Trip", New York 2002, pp.118-19. ISBN 0-7679-1185-7 and Brightman, Carol, "Sweet Chaos", New York 1998, p. 100-104. ISBN 0-671-01117-0 Eleven members of The Grateful Dead were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994, and Bruce Hornsby was their presenter. History Formation The Grateful Dead began their career in Menlo Park, California, playing live shows at Kepler's Books. They began as The Warlocks, a group formed in early 1964 from the remnants of a Palo Alto jug band called Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions. The Music Box, May 1999. But as another band was already recording under the "Warlocks" name, the band had to change its name. The Warlocks were originally managed by Hank Harrison, but Harrison went back to graduate school. After meeting their new manager Rock Scully, they moved to the Haight-Ashbury section of San Francisco. Bands from this area became known for the San Francisco Sound; groups such as Jefferson Airplane, Quicksilver Messenger Service, Big Brother & the Holding Company, and Santana went on to national fame, giving San Francisco an image as a center for the hippie counterculture of the era. The founding members of the Grateful Dead were: banjo and guitar player Jerry Garcia, guitarist Bob Weir, bluesman organist Ron "Pigpen" McKernan, the classically trained Phil Lesh and jazzist drummer Bill Kreutzmann. Rolling Stone, pg. 332 Lesh was the last member to join the Warlocks before they became the Grateful Dead, he replaced Dana Morgan Jr. who had played bass for a few gigs. The Grateful Dead most embodied "all the elements of the San Francisco scene and came, therefore, to represent the counterculture to the rest of the country". Garofalo, pg. 218 Choosing a name The name Grateful Dead was chosen from a dictionary. According to Phil Lesh, in his biography (pp. 62), "...Jer[ry Garcia] picked up an old Britannica World Language Dictionary...[and]...In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'" The definition there was "the soul of a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial." According to Alan Trist, director of the Grateful Dead's music publisher company Ice Nine, Garcia found the name in the Funk & Wagnalls Folklore Dictionary, when his finger landed on that phrase while playing a game of "dictionary". In the Garcia biography, Captain Trips, author Sandy Troy states that the band was smoking the psychedelic DMT at the time. The term "Grateful Dead" appears in folktales of a variety of cultures. In the summer of '69, Phil Lesh told another version of the story to Carol Maw, a young Texan visiting with the band in Marin County who also ended up going on the road with them to the Fillmore East and Woodstock. In this version, Phil said, "Jerry found the name spontaneously when he picked up a dictionary and the pages fell open. The words 'grateful' and 'dead' appeared straight opposite each other across the crack between the pages in unrelated text." [grateful | dead] A new type of sound The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands like The Beatles and The Rolling Stones were dominating the airwaves. "The Beatles were why we turned from a jug band into a rock 'n' roll band," said Bob Weir. "What we saw them doing was impossibly attractive. I couldn't think of anything else more worth doing" Jackson, Blair (1999). Garcia: An American Life. Penguin Books. p. 67. ISBN 0140291997. Former folk-scene star Bob Dylan had recently put out a couple of records featuring electric instrumentation. Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring New York City "folk rock" band The Lovin' Spoonful that they decided to "go electric" and look for a dirtier sound. Gradually, many of the East-Coast American folk musicians, formerly luminaries of the coffee-house scene, were moving in the electric direction. It was natural for Jerry Garcia and Bob Weir, each of whom had been immersed in the American folk music revival of the late 1950s and early '60s, to be open-minded toward electric guitars. But the new Dead music was also naturally different from bands like Dylan's or the Spoonful, partly because their fellow musician Phil Lesh came out of a schooled classical and electronic music background, while Pigpen was a no-nonsense deep blues lover and drummer Bill Kreutzmann had a jazz and R&B background. For comparison purposes, their first LP (The Grateful Dead, Warner Brothers, 1967), was released in the same year that Pink Floyd released The Piper at the Gates of Dawn and the Beatles released Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The cover of the album American Beauty (1970), which is considered to be the Grateful Dead's studio masterpiece. In 2003, the album was ranked number 258 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. The Grateful Dead's early music (in the mid 1960s) was part of the process of establishing what "psychedelic music" was, but theirs was essentially a "street party" form of it. They developed their "psychedelic" playing out of meeting Ken Kesey in Palo Alto, CA and subsequently becoming the house band to the Acid Tests he staged. Wolfe, Tom (1968). The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, Farrar Straus & Giroux After relocating to the Haight-Ashbury section of San Francisco, their "street party" form developed out of the many psychedelic dances, open-air park events, and closed-street Haight-Ashbury block parties at which they played. The Dead were not inclined to fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country/western. Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and more, frequently melding several of them. It was doubtless with this in mind that Bill Graham said of the Grateful Dead, "They're not the best at what they do, they're the only ones that do what they do." Bjerklie, Steve. "What are They Worth?", MetroActive Often (both in performance and on recording) the Dead left room for exploratory, spacey soundscapes. Their live shows, fed by their improvisational approach to music, made the Grateful Dead different from most other touring bands. While most rock and roll bands rehearse a standard show for their tours that gets played night after night, city after city, the Grateful Dead never did. As Garcia stated in an 1966 interview, "We don't make up our sets beforehand. We'd rather work off the tops of our heads than off a piece of paper." The Grateful Dead: Playing in the Band, David Gans and Peter Simon, St Martin Press, 1985 p. 17 They would maintain this operating ethic throughout their existence. For a given night's show, the band drew their material from an active list of a hundred or so songs. The band's varied song selection, combined with the improvisational nature of their playing, meant that no two Grateful Dead concerts were exactly the same. The early records reflected the Dead's live repertoire—lengthy instrumental jams with group improvisation, best exemplified by "Dark Star"—but, lacking the energy of the shows, did not sell well. The 1969 live album Live/Dead did capture more of their essence, but commercial success did not come until Workingman's Dead and American Beauty, both released in 1970. These records largely featured the band's laid-back acoustic musicianship and more traditional song structures. The year 1970 included tour dates in New Orleans, Louisiana, where the band performed at The Warehouse for two nights. On January 31, 1970, the local police raided their hotel on Bourbon Street in the French Quarter, and arrested and charged a total of 19 people with possession of various drugs. "Drug Raid Nets 19 in French Quarter", The Times-Picayune, February 1, 1970 The second night's concert was performed as scheduled after bail was posted. Eventually the charges were dismissed, with the exception of those against sound engineer Owsley Stanley, who was already facing charges in California for manufacturing LSD. This event was later memorialized in the lyrics of the song "Truckin'", a single from American Beauty which reached number 64 on the charts. As the band, and its sound, matured over thirty years of touring, playing, and recording, each member's stylistic contribution became more defined, consistent, and identifiable. Lesh, who was originally a classically-trained trumpet player with an extensive background in music theory, did not tend to play traditional blues-based bass forms, but opted for more melodic, symphonic and complex lines, often sounding like a second lead guitar. Weir, too, was not a traditional rhythm guitarist, but tended to play jazz-influenced, unique inversions at the upper end of the Dead's sound. The two drummers, Mickey Hart and Kreutzmann, developed a unique, complex interplay, balancing Kreutzmann's steady beat with Hart's interest in percussion styles outside the rock tradition. Hart incorporated an 11-count measure to his drumming, bringing a new dimension to the band's sound that became an important part of its emerging style. Cavallo, Dominick. A Fiction of the Past: The Sixties in American History. St. Martin's Press (1999), p. 160. ISBN 0-312-21930-X. Garcia's lead lines were fluid, supple and spare, owing a great deal of their character to his training in fingerpicking and banjo. The band's primary lyricists, Robert Hunter and John Perry Barlow, commonly used themes involving love and loss, life and death, gambling and murder, beauty and horror, chaos and order, God and other religious themes, travelling and touring, etc. Less frequent ideas include the environment and issues from the world of politics. Although he intensely disliked the appellation, Jerry Garcia was the band's de facto musical leader and the source of its identity. Garcia was a charismatic, complex figure, simultaneously writing and playing music of enormous emotional resonance and insight while leading a personal life that often consisted of various forms of self-destructive excess, including well-known drug addictions and obesity. Garcia also suffered for most of his life from a condition called sleep apnea. His sleep apnea was apparently diagnosed before he died, but it is unlikely that he ever took any steps to treat it. That his case might have been relatively severe may be surmised by the comments of his bandmate, Phil Lesh. In Lesh's book, Searching for the Sound, My Life with the Grateful Dead, Lesh relates how he and others were impressed with Garcia's loud and widely fluctuating snoring. Garcia's early life was profoundly affected by a series of tragedies. As a small boy, at the age of five, he witnessed his father's death by drowning in a freak accident while fishing in the Russian River. Earlier, at the age of four, the middle finger of his right hand was accidentally amputated by his brother while the two boys were splitting kindling. Finally, as a young man, he was involved in a horrendous car accident which resulted in the death of a close friend. After the Grateful Dead Following Garcia's death in August 1995, the remaining members formally decided to disband. Since that time however there have been a number of reunions of the Grateful Dead involving various combinations of musicians. In 1998, Bob Weir, Phil Lesh, and Mickey Hart, along with several other musicians, formed a band called the Other Ones. The Other Ones performed a number of concerts that year, and released a live album, The Strange Remain, the following year. In 2000, the Other Ones toured again, this time with Bill Kreutzmann but without Lesh. After taking another year off, the band was active again in 2002. With Lesh's return for this go-round, the Other Ones then included all four former Grateful Dead members who had been in the band for most or all of its history. In 2003, the Other Ones changed their name to the Dead. After tours in 2003 and 2004, the Dead went on hiatus. In 2008, members of the Dead played two concerts, called "Deadheads for Obama" and "Change Rocks". In 2009, the Dead started touring again. Since 1995, the former members of the Grateful Dead have also pursued solo musical careers. Bob Weir's band RatDog has performed many concerts and released several albums, as has Phil Lesh and Friends. Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann have each led several different bands and have also released some albums. Donna Godchaux has returned to the music scene, with the Donna Jean Godchaux Band, and Tom Constanten also continues to write and perform music. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the Grateful Dead #55 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. On February 10, 2007, the Grateful Dead received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. The award was accepted on behalf of the band by Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann. Reuters article by Sue Zeidler, February 11, 2007 Donation of archives to UCSC On April 24, 2008, members Bob Weir and Mickey Hart, along with Nion McEvoy, CEO of Chronicle Books, University of Californa, Santa Cruz chancellor George Blumenthal, and UCSC librarian Virginia Steel, held a press conference announcing that UCSC's McHenry Library would be the permanent home of the Grateful Dead's complete archival history from 1965 up to the present. The archive includes correspondence, photographs, flyers, posters, and several other forms of memorabilia and records of the band. Also included are unreleased videos of interviews and TV appearances that will be installed for visitors to view, as well as stage backdrops and other props from the band's concerts. Chancellor Blumenthal stated at the event, "The Grateful Dead Archive http://library.ucsc.edu/speccoll/GD_archive.html represents one of the most significant popular cultural collections of the 20th century; UC Santa Cruz is honored to receive this invaluable gift. The Grateful Dead and UC Santa Cruz are both highly innovative institutions—born the same year—that continue to make a major, positive impact on the world." Guitarist Bob Weir stated, "We looked around, and UC Santa Cruz seems the best possible home. If you ever wrote the Grateful Dead a letter, you'll probably find it there!" Professor of music Fred Lieberman was the key contact between the band and the university, who let the university know about the search for a home for the archive, and who collaborated with Mickey Hart on two books in the past, Planet Drum and Drumming at the Edge of Magic. Merchandising and representation Hal Kant was an entertainment industry attorney who specialized in representing musical groups. He spent 35 years as principal lawyer and general counsel for the Grateful Dead, a position in the group that was so strong that his business cards with the band identified his role as "Czar". Barnes, Mike. "Grateful Dead lawyer Hal Kant dies", The Hollywood Reporter, October 22, 2008. Accessed October 24, 2008. Kant brought the band millions of dollars in revenue through his management of the band's intellectual property and merchandising rights. At Kant's recommendation, the group was one of the few rock 'n roll pioneers to retain ownership of their music masters and publishing rights. After Jerry Garcia's death in 1995, the band still earned millions from the sale of live recordings and merchandise, including a royalty received by Garcia's estate from every pint of Ben & Jerry's "Cherry Garcia" ice cream. In 2006, the Grateful Dead signed a ten year licensing agreement with Rhino Entertainment. Rhino is managing the Dead's business interests, including the release of musical recordings, merchandising, and marketing. The band retains creative control and keeps ownership of the music catalog. Light, Alan (10 July 2006). "A Resurrection, of Sorts, for the Grateful Dead", New York Times. Retrieved on 12 December 2008 Liberatore, Paul (4 August 2006). "Only the Memories Remain: Grateful Dead's Recordings Moved", Marin Independent Journal. Retrieved on 12 December 2008 Touring The Grateful Dead are well-known for constantly touring throughout their long career, playing more than 2300 live concerts. Deadbase Online Search, ver 1.10 They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as Deadheads, many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end. In their early career, the band also dedicated their time and talents to their community, the Haight-Ashbury area of San Francisco, making available free food, lodging, music and health care to all comers; they were the "first among equals in giving unselfishly of themselves to hippie culture, performing 'more free concerts than any band in the history of music'. Garofalo, pg. 219, quote in Garofalo, cited to Roxon, Lillian Roxon's Rock Encyclopedia, 210 With the exception of 1975, when the band was on hiatus and played only four concerts together, the Grateful Dead performed many concerts every year, from their formation in April, 1965, until July 9, 1995. Scott, Dolgushkin, Nixon, Deadbase X, ISBN 1-877657-21-2 Initially all their shows were in California, principally in the San Francisco Bay Area and in or near Los Angeles. They also performed, in 1965 and 1966, with Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, as the house band for the Acid Tests. They toured nationally starting in June 1967 (their first foray to New York), with a few detours to Canada, Europe and three nights at the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt in 1978. They appeared at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967, and at the Woodstock Festival in 1969. Their first UK performance was at the Hollywood Music Festival in 1970. Their largest concert audience came in 1973 when they played, along with The Allman Brothers Band and The Band, before an estimated 600,000 people at the Summer Jam at Watkins Glen. McNally, Dennis, "A Long Strange Trip", New York 2002, p.455-58. ISBN 0-7679-1185-7 Many of these concerts were preserved in the band's tape vault, and several dozen have since been released on CD and as downloads. Their numerous studio albums were generally collections of new songs that they had first played in concert. The band was also famous for its extended jams, which featured both individual improvisation as well as distinctive "group-mind" improvisations during which each of the band members improvised individually, while still blending together as a musical unit. Musically this may be illustrated in that not only did the band improvise within the form of a song, but also improvised with the form. The cohesive listening abilities of each band member made for a very elevated level of what might be called "free form". Their concert sets often blended songs, one into the next (a segue). Wall of Sound The Wall of Sound was an enormous sound system designed specifically for the Grateful Dead. Pechner Productions- powered by SmugMug Alembic History - Long Version The band was never satisfied with the house system anywhere they played, so in their early days, soundman Owsley "Bear" Stanley designed a public address (PA) and monitor system for them. Stanley's sound systems were delicate and finicky, and frequently brought shows to a halt with technical breakdowns. After Stanley went to jail for manufacturing LSD in 1970, the group briefly used house PAs, but found them to be even less reliable than those built by their former soundman. In 1971, the band purchased their first solid-state sound system from Alembic Inc Studios. Because of this, Alembic would play an integral role in the research, development, and production of the Wall of Sound. The band also welcomed Dan Healy into the fold on a permanent basis that year. Healy, considered to be a superior engineer to Stanley, would mix the Grateful Dead's live sound until 1993. The Wall of Sound fulfilled the band's desire for a distortion-free sound system that could also serve as its own monitoring system. After Stanley got out of prison in late 1972, he, Dan Healy and Mark Raizene of the Grateful Dead's sound crew, in collaboration with Ron Wickersham, Rick Turner, and John Curl of Alembic combined eleven separate sound systems in an effort to deliver high-quality sound to audiences. Vocals, lead guitar, rhythm guitar, and piano each had their own channel and set of speakers. Phil Lesh's bass was piped through a quadraphonic encoder that sent signals from each of the four strings to its own channel and set of speakers. Another channel amplified the bass drum, and two more channels carried the snares, tom-toms, and cymbals. Because each speaker carried just one instrument or vocalist, the sound was exceptionally clear and free of intermodulation distortion. Moreover, the Dead's Wall of Sound acted as its own monitor system, and it was therefore assembled behind the band so the members could hear exactly what their audience was hearing. Because of this, Stanley and Alembic designed a special microphone system to prevent feedback. This placed matched pairs of condenser microphones spaced 60 mm apart and run out-of-phase. The vocalist sang into the top microphone, and the lower microphone picked up whatever other sound was present in the stage environment. The signals were added together, the sound that was common to both microphones (the sound from the Wall) was cancelled, and only the vocals were amplified. The Wall of Sound consisted of 89 300-watt solid-state and three 350-watt vacuum tube amplifiers generating a total of 26,400 watts RMS of audio power. This system projected high quality playback at six hundred feet with an acceptable sound projected for a quarter mile, at which point wind interference degraded it. The Wall of Sound was the largest portable sound system ever built (although "portable" is a relative term). The Wall of Sound comprised two stages. One would go ahead to the next city to begin setup as soon as possible while the other was being used; the other would then "leapfrog" to the next show. Four semi-trailers and 21 crew members were required to haul and set up the 75-ton Wall. Though the initial framework and a rudimentary form of the system was unveiled in February 1973 (ominously, every speaker tweeter blew as the band began their first number), the Grateful Dead did not begin to tour with the full system until a year later in 1974. The Wall of Sound was very efficient for its day, but it suffered from other drawbacks besides its sheer size. Synthesist Ned Lagin, who toured with the group throughout much of 1974, never received his own dedicated input into the system, and was forced to use the vocal subsystem. Because this was often switched to the vocal microphones, many of Lagin's parts were lost in the mix. The Wall's quadraphonic format never translated well to soundboard tapes made during the period, as the sound was compressed into an unnatural stereo format and suffers from a pronounced tinniness. The rising cost of fuel and personnel, as well as friction among many of the newer crew members (and associated hangers-on), contributed to the band's 1974 "retirement." The Wall of Sound was disassembled, and when the Dead began touring again in 1976, it was with a more logistically practical sound system. Deadheads Fans and enthusiasts of the band are commonly referred to as Dead Heads. While the origin of the term may be shrouded in haze, Dead Heads were made canon by the legendary notice placed inside the Skull and Roses album by manager Jon McIntire: "DEAD FREAKS UNITE Who are you? Where are you? How are you? send us your name and address and we'll keep you informed Dead Heads PO Box..." Many of the Dead Heads would go on tour with the band. As a group, the Dead Heads were considered very mellow. "I'd rather work nine Grateful Dead concerts than one Oregon football game," Police Det. Rick Raynor said. "They don't get belligerent like they do at the games". Tapers Like several other bands during this time, the Grateful Dead allowed their fans to record their shows. For many years the tapers set up their microphones wherever they could. The eventual forest of microphones became a problem for the official sound crew. Eventually this was solved by having a dedicated taping section located behind the soundboard, which required a special "tapers" ticket. The band allowed sharing of tapes of their shows, as long as no profits were made on the sale of their show tapes. Internet Archive: Grateful Dead Sometimes the sound crew would allow the tapers to connect directly to the soundboard, which created exceptional concert recordings. Recently, there have been some disputes over which recordings archive.org could host on their site. Currently, all recordings are hosted, though soundboard recordings are not available for download, but rather in a streaming format. http://www.archive.org/iathreads/post-view.php?id=47634> Of the approximately 2,350 shows the Grateful Dead played, almost 2,200 were taped, and most of these are available online. Artwork Dancing bears Over the years, a number of iconic images have come to be associated with the Grateful Dead. Many of these images originated as artwork for concert posters or album covers. Lightning bolt skull: Perhaps the best known Grateful Dead art icon is a red, white, and blue skull with a lightning bolt through it. The lightning bolt skull can be found on the cover of the album Steal Your Face, and the image is sometimes known by that name. It was designed by Owsley Stanley and artist Bob Thomas, and was originally used as a logo to mark the band's equipment. Creation of the lightning bolt skull, as told by Owsley "Bear" Stanley Dancing bears: A series of stylized dancing bears was drawn by Bob Thomas as part of the back cover for the album History of the Grateful Dead, Volume One (Bear's Choice). Back cover of History of the Gateful Dead Vol. 1 (Bear's Choice) on Dead.net The bear is a reference to Owsley "Bear" Stanley, who recorded and produced the album. Bear himself wrote, "... the bears on the album cover are not really 'dancing'. I don't know why people think they are, their positions are quite obviously those of a high-stepping march." Creation of the dancing bear, as told by Owsley "Bear" Stanley Skull and roses: The skull and roses design was composed by Alton Kelley and Stanley Mouse, who added lettering and color, respectively, to a black and white drawing by Edmund Joseph Sullivan. Sullivan's drawing was an illustration for a 1913 edition of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Kelley and Mouse's design originally appeared on a poster for the September 16 and 17, 1966 Dead shows at the Avalon Ballroom. du Lac, J. Freedom, "The Dead's Look Is Born", Washington Post, April 12, 2009, page E-8. Later it was used as the cover for the album Grateful Dead. The album is sometimes referred to as Skull and Roses. Grateful Dead (Skull and Roses) on DeadDisc.com Dancing Terrapins: The two dancing terrapins first appeared on the cover of the 1977 album Terrapin Station, which was drawn by Kelley and Mouse. Since then these turtles have become one of the Grateful Dead's most recognizable logos. Uncle Sam skeleton: The Uncle Sam skeleton was devised by Gary Gutierrez as part of the animation for The Grateful Dead Movie. McNally, p. 499 The image combines the Grateful Dead skeleton motif with the character of Uncle Sam, a reference to the then-recently written song "U.S. Blues", which the Dead are seen performing near the beginning of the film. Jester: Another icon of the Dead is a skeleton dressed as a jester and holding a lute. This image was an airbrush painting done by Stanley Mouse in 1972. It was originally used for the cover of The Grateful Dead Songbook. "Grateful Dead Songbook (Front)" on dead.net "Mouse Grateful Dead Songbook Jester" on rockpopgallery.com Band members + Grateful Dead lineups (1965–1967)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Ron "Pigpen" McKernan – keyboards, harmonica, percussion, vocals Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion (1967–1968)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Ron "Pigpen" McKernan – keyboards, harmonica, percussion, vocals Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion Mickey Hart – drums, percussion (1968–1970)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Ron "Pigpen" McKernan – keyboards, harmonica, percussion, vocals Tom Constanten – keyboards Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion Mickey Hart – drums, percussion (1970–1971)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Ron "Pigpen" McKernan – keyboards, harmonica, percussion, vocals Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion Mickey Hart – drums, percussion (1971)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Ron "Pigpen" McKernan – keyboards, harmonica, percussion, vocals Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion (1971–1972)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Ron "Pigpen" McKernan – keyboards, harmonica, percussion, vocals Keith Godchaux – keyboards Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion (1972)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Ron "Pigpen" McKernan – keyboards, harmonica, percussion, vocals Keith Godchaux – keyboards Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion Donna Godchaux – vocals (1972–1974)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Keith Godchaux – keyboards Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion Donna Godchaux – vocals (1974–1979)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Keith Godchaux – keyboards Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion Mickey Hart – drums, percussion Donna Godchaux – vocals (1979–1990)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Brent Mydland – keyboards, vocals Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion Mickey Hart – drums, percussion (1990–1992)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Vince Welnick – keyboards, vocals Bruce Hornsby – keyboards, vocals Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion Mickey Hart – drums, percussion (1992–1995)Jerry Garcia – lead guitar, vocals Bob Weir – rhythm guitar, vocals Vince Welnick – keyboards, vocals Phil Lesh – bass, vocals Bill Kreutzmann – drums, percussion Mickey Hart – drums, percussion Discography Notes References Silver, Murray, 2005. "When Elvis Meets the Dalai Lama," (Bonaventure Books, Savannah), in which the author recounts promoting the Dead's first appearance in Atlanta in 1970, and the band's attempts to dump LSD in the city's water supply. 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7,016 | Alemanni | Area settled by the Alamanni, and sites of Roman-Alamannic battles, 3rd to 6th century Alemannic belt mountings, from a 7th century grave in the grave field at Weingarten. The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river (Germany). One of the earliest references to them is the cognomen Alamannicus assumed by Caracalla, who ruled the Roman Empire from 211–17 and claimed thereby to be their defeater. Johann Jacob Hofmann, Lexicon Universale, Leiden 1698, "Alamannicus". The nature of this alliance and their previous tribal affiliations remain uncertain. The alliance was aggressive in nature, attacking the Roman province of Germania Superior whenever it could. Generally it broadly followed the example of the Franks, the first Germanic tribal alliance, which had stopped the Romans from penetrating north of the lower Rhine and subsequently invaded the Roman province of Germania Inferior. From the first century, the Rhine had become the border between Roman Gaul and tribal Germania. Germanic peoples, Celts, and tribes of mixed Celto-Germanic ethnicity were settled in the lands along both banks. The Romans divided these territories into two districts, Germania Inferior and Germania Superior situated along the lower and upper Rhine respectively. Upper Germania included the region between the upper Rhine and the upper Danube, (the Black Forest region that was larger than today: see Hercynian Forest). The Romans called this the Agri Decumates, (i.e. "Decumates territories"), a name of unknown origin. Some scholars have translated the expression as "the ten cantons" Roman decem, "ten". , but whose cantons of what entity is not known. The exterior Roman fortified border around the area of Germania Superior was called the Limes Germanicus. The assembled warbands of the Alamanni frequently crossed the limes, attacking Germania Superior and moving into the Agri Decumates. As a confederation, from the fifth century, they settled the Alsace and expanded into the Swiss Plateau, as well as parts of what are now Bavaria and Austria, reaching the valleys of the Alps by the eighth century. According to Historia Augusta the confederates in the third century were still simply called Germani. Proculus, an imperial usurper in 280, derived some of his popularity in Gaul by his guerrilla successes against the Alamanni. "He was, nevertheless, of some benefit to the Gauls, for he crushed the Alamanni — who then were still called Germans — and not without illustrious glory, though he never fought save in brigand-fashion". . The Alamanni, thereafter became the nation of Alamannia, that was sometimes independent, but more often was ruled by the Franks. The name of Germany and the German language, in French, Allemagne, allemand, in Portuguese Alemanha, alemão, and in Spanish Alemania, alemán, are derived from the name of this early Germanic nation. Persian and Arabic also designate Germans Almaani, and Germany as Almaania. In Turkish, German is 'Alman' and Germany is 'Almanya'. The region of the Alamanni was always somewhat sprawling and comprised a number of different districts, reflecting its mixed origins. In the Early Middle Ages its territories were divided between the Diocese of Strassburg, which dates from about 614, the territory of Augsburg from 736, the Mainz archdiocese from 745, and of Basel, from 805. Its distinctive laws were codified under Charlemagne as the Duchy of Alamannia in Swabia. Today the descendants of the Alamanni are divided between parts of four nations: France (Alsace), Germany (Swabia and parts of Bavaria), Switzerland and Austria, and the German spoken in those regions has distinctive regional dialects. Language The German spoken today over the range of the former Alemanni is termed Alemannic German, and is recognised among the subgroups of the High German languages. Alemannic runic inscriptions such as those on the Pforzen buckle are among the earliest testimonies of Old High German. The High German consonant shift is thought to have originated around the fifth century either in Alemannia or among the Langobards; before that the dialect spoken by Alemannic tribes was little different from that of other West Germanic peoples. contemporary distribution of Alemannic dialects. Alemannia lost its distinct jurisdictional identity when Charles Martel absorbed it into the Frankish empire, early in the 8th century. Today, Alemannic is a linguistic term, referring to Alemannic German, encompassing the dialects of the southern two thirds of Baden-Württemberg (German State), in western Bavaria (German State), in Vorarlberg (Austrian State), Swiss German in Switzerland and the Alsatian language of the Alsace (France). Origin Name According to Asinius Quadratus (quoted in the mid-sixth century by Byzantine historian Agathias) their name means "all men". It indicates that they were a conglomeration drawn from various tribes. This was the derivation of Alamanni used by Edward Gibbon, in his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Chapter 10 and by the anonymous contributor of notes assembled from the papers of Nicolas Fréret, published in 1753, who noted that it was the name used by outsiders for those who called themselves Suevi. Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, avec les Mémoires de Littérature tirés des Registres de cette Académie, depuis l'année MDCCXLIV jusques et compris l'année MDCCXLVI, vol. XVIII, (Paris 1753) pp.49-71. Excerpts are on-line at ELIOHS. This etymology has remained the standard derivation It is cited in most etymological dictionaries, such as the American Heritage Dictionary (large edition) under the root, *man-. Another source derives the Ala- from *al-, "beyond", often in the sense of "other", from which are also derived Greek allos "other, alien" and Old High German Elisâzzo " (Elsaz or Alsace): "the land on the other side of the Rhine". The least likely derivation of the Alamanni is Alan-Manni, the reason being that Alamanni, as far as can be determined from initial contacts, was not a self-imposed name. The Alans, moreover, were never in the region, did not originally speak Germanic and had no influence over any Germanic folk west of the Vistula, nor did they acquire any influence under Attila, who bypassed the region, nor from the Ostrogoths of Pannonia after Attila. Walafrid Strabo, a monk of Abbey of St. Gall writing in the ninth century remarked, in discussing the people of Switzerland and surrounding regions that only foreigners called them Alamanni, but that they gave themselves the name of Suevi. If true of the ninth century, this observation may not necessarily equally apply to the fourth. In short we do not know who applied the name and exactly when. It was, however, well established among a variety of historians and geographers. First explicit mention The Alamanni were first mentioned by Cassius Dio describing the campaign of Caracalla in 213. At that time they apparently dwelt in the basin of the Main, to the south of the Chatti. Cassius Dio (78.13.4) portrays the Alamanni as victims of this treacherous emperor. They had asked for his help, says Dio, but instead he colonized their country, changed their place names and executed their warriors under a pretext of coming to their aid. When he became ill, the Alamanni claimed to have put a hex on him (78.15.2). Caracalla, it was claimed, tried to counter this influence by invoking his ancestral spirits. In retribution Caracalla then led the Legio II Traiana Fortis against the Alamanni, who lost and were pacified for a time. The legion was as a result honored with the name Germanica. The Historia Augusta, Life of Antoninus Caracalla, relates (10.5) that Caracalla then assumed the name Alamannicus, at which Helvius Pertinax jested that he should really be called Geticus Maximus, because in the year before he had murdered his stepbrother, Geta. Not on good terms with Caracalla, Geta had been invited to a family reconciliation, at which time he was ambushed by centurions in Caracalla's army and slain in his mother Julia's arms. True or not, Caracalla, pursued by devils of his own, left Rome never to return. Caracalla left for the frontier, where for the rest of his short reign he was known for his unpredictable and arbitrary operations launched by surprise after a pretext of peace negotiations. If he had any reasons of state for such actions they remained unknown to his contemporaries. Whether or not the Alamanni had been previously neutral, they were certainly further influenced by Caracalla to become thereafter notoriously implacable enemies of Rome. This mutually antagonistic relationship is perhaps the reason why the Roman writers persisted in calling the Alamanni barbari, "savages". The archaeology, however, shows that they were largely Romanized, lived in Roman-style houses and used Roman artifacts, the Alemannic women having adopted the Roman fashion of the tunic even earlier than the men. Most of them probably were in fact resident in or close to the borders of Germania Superior. Although Dio is the earliest writer to mention them, Ammianus Marcellinus used the name to refer to Germans on the Limes Germanicus in the time of Trajan's governorship of the province shortly after it was formed, circa 98/99. At that time the entire frontier was being fortified for the first time. Trees from the earliest fortifications found in Germania Inferior are dated by dendrochronology to 99/100. Shortly afterwards Trajan was chosen by Nerva to be his successor, adopted with public fanfare in absentia by the old man shortly before his death. By 100 Trajan was back in Rome as Emperor instead of merely being a Consul. Ammianus relates (xvii.1.11) that much later the Emperor Julian undertook a punitive expedition against the Alamanni, who by then were in Alsace, and crossed the Main (Latin Menus), entering the forest, where the trails were blocked by felled trees. As winter was upon them, they reoccupied a "munimentum quod in Alamannorum solo conditum Traianus suo nomine voluit appellari" "A fortification which was founded on the soil of the Alamanni that Trajan wished to be called with his own name" In this context the use of Alamanni is possibly an anachronism but it reveals that Ammianus believed they were the same people, which is consistent with the location of the Alamanni of Caracalla's campaigns. Alemanni and Hermunduri The early detailed source, the Germania of Tacitus, has sometimes been interpreted in such a way as to provide yet other historical problems. In Chapter 42 we read of the Hermunduri, a tribe certainly located in the region that later became Thuringia. Tacitus stated that they traded with Rhaetia, which in Ptolemy is located across the Danube from Germania Superior. A logical conclusion to draw is that the Hermunduri extended over later Swabia and therefore the Alamanni originally derived from the Hermunduri. However, no Hermunduri appear in Ptolemy, though after the time of Ptolemy the Hermunduri joined with the Marcomanni in the wars of 166-180 against the empire. A careful reading of Tacitus provides one solution. He says that the source of the Elbe is among the Hermunduri, somewhat to the east of the upper Main. He places them also between the Naristi (Varisti), whose location at the very edge of the ancient Black Forest is well known, and the Marcomanni and Quadi. Moreover, the Hermunduri were broken in the Marcomannic Wars and made a separate peace with Rome. The Alamanni thus were probably not primarily the Hermunduri, although some elements of them may have been present in the mix of peoples at that time that became Alamannian. Ptolemy's Geography Before the mention of Alamanni in the time of Caracalla, one would search in vain for Alamanni in the moderately detailed geography of southern Germany in Claudius Ptolemy, written in Greek in the mid-second century; it is likely that at that time, the people who later used that name were known by other designations. Ptolemy's description has some limitations. Upper Germany and Lower Germany are mentioned by name, but only as specific districts of Gallia Belgica (2.8), the border between them was an unidentified river, the Obruncus. The region is repeated again under Germany, but this time he does not list Roman boundaries. Germania Superior, the Agri Decumates and the limes are not to be found there, even though they certainly existed at the time. "Germania Magna" is found within the Rhine, Danube, Vistula and shores of the "Oceanus Germanicus". Most of the tribes are missing or listed without name. The Main is not there, nor Lake Constance. The Danube runs from the Alps. The Rhine does not bend to the south next to Swabia. Ptolemy's Germania is like a surreal image of itself, accurate only if you follow certain known lines, but the overall shape is greatly distorted. Nevertheless some conclusions can be drawn from Ptolemy. Germania Superior is easily identified. Following up the Rhine one comes to a town, Mattiacum, which must be at the border of the Roman Germany (vicinity of Wiesbaden). Upstream from it and between the Rhine and Abnoba (in the Black Forest) are the Ingriones, Intuergi, Vangiones, Caritni and Vispi, some of whom were there since the days of the early empire or before. On the other side of the northern Black Forest were the Chatti about where Hesse is today, on the lower Main. Historic Swabia was eventually replaced by today's Baden-Württemberg, but it had been the most significant territory of mediaeval Alamannia, comprising all Germania Superior and territory east to Bavaria. It did not include the upper Main, but that is where Caracalla campaigned. Moreover, the territory of Germania Superior was not originally included among the Alemanni's possessions. However, if we look for the peoples in the region from the upper Main in the north, south to the Danube and east to the Czech Republic where the Quadi and Marcomanni were located, Ptolemy does not give any tribes. There are the Tubanti just south of the Chatti and at the other end of what was then the Black Forest, the Varisti, whose location is known. One possible reason for this distribution is that the population preferred not to live in the forest except in troubled times. The region between the forest and the Danube on the other hand included about a dozen settlements, or "cantons". Ptolemy's view of Germans in the region indicates that the tribal structure had lost its grip in the Black Forest region and was replaced by a canton structure. The tribes stayed in the Roman province, perhaps because the Romans offered stability. Also, Caracalla perhaps felt more comfortable about campaigning in the upper Main because he was not declaring war on any specific historic tribe, such as the Chatti or Cherusci, against whom Rome had suffered grievous losses. By Caracalla's time the name Alamanni was being used by cantons themselves banding together for purposes of supporting a citizen army (the "war bands"). Concentration of Germanic peoples under Ariovistus The term Suebi has a double meaning in the sources. On the one hand Tacitus' Germania tells us (Chapters 38, 39) that they occupy more than half of Germany, use a distinctive hair style, and are spiritually centered on the Semnones. On the other hand the Suebi of the upper Danube are described as though they were a tribe. The solution to the puzzle as well as explaining the historical circumstances leading to the choice of the Agri Decumates as a defensive point and the concentration of Germans there are probably to be found in the German attack on the Gallic fortified town of Vesontio in 58 BC. The upper Rhine and Danube appear to form a funnel pointing straight at Vesontio. Julius Caesar in Gallic Wars tells us (1.51) that Ariovistus had gathered an army from a wide region of Germany, but especially the Harudes, Marcomanni, Triboci, Vangiones, Nemetes and Sedusii. The Suebi were being invited to join. They lived in 100 cantons (4.1) from which 1000 young men per year were chosen for military service, a citizen-army by our standards and by comparison with the Roman professional army. Ariovistus had become involved in an invasion of Gaul, which the German wished to settle. Intending to take the strategic town of Vesontio, he concentrated his forces on the Rhine near Lake Constance, and when the Suebi arrived, he crossed. The Gauls had called to Rome for military aid. Caesar occupied the town first and defeated the Germans before its walls, slaughtering most of the German army as it tried to flee across the river (1.36ff). He did not pursue the retreating remnants, leaving what was left of the German army and their dependents intact on the other side of the Rhine. The Gauls were ambivalent in their policies toward the Romans. In 53 BC the Treveri broke their alliance and attempted to break free of Rome. Caesar foresaw that they would now attempt to ally themselves with the Germans. He crossed the Rhine to forestall that event, a successful strategy. Remembering their expensive defeat at the Battle of Vesontio, the Germans withdrew to the Black Forest, concentrating there a mixed population dominated by Suebi. As they had left their tribal homes behind, they probably took over all the former Celtic cantons along the Danube. Conflicts with the Roman Empire The Limes Germanicus AD 83 to 260. The Alamanni were continually engaged in conflicts with the Roman Empire. They launched a major invasion of Gaul and northern Italy in 268, when the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion of the Goths from the east. Their raids throughout the three parts of Gaul were traumatic: Gregory of Tours (died ca 594) mentions their destructive force at the time of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260), when the Alemanni assembled under their "king", whom he calls Chrocus, who "by the advice, it is said, of his wicked mother, and overran the whole of the Gauls, and destroyed from their foundations all the temples which had been built in ancient times. And coming to Clermont he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue," martyring many Christians (Historia Francorum Book I.32–34). Thus 6th century Gallo-Romans of Gregory's class, surrounded by the ruins of Roman temples and public buildings, attributed the destruction they saw to the plundering raids of the Alemanni. In the early summer of 268, the Emperor Gallienus halted their advance into Italy, but then had to deal with the Goths. When the Gothic campaign ended in Roman victory at the Battle of Naissus in September, Gallienus' successor Claudius II Gothicus turned north to deal with the Alamanni, who were swarming over all Italy north of the Po River. After efforts to secure a peaceful withdrawal failed, Claudius forced the Alamanni to battle at the Battle of Lake Benacus in November. The Alamanni were routed, forced back into Germany, and did not threaten Roman territory for many years afterwards. Their most famous battle against Rome took place in Argentoratum (Strasbourg), in 357, where they were defeated by Julian, later Emperor of Rome, and their king Chondomar ("Chonodomarius") was taken prisoner to Rome. On January 2 366 the Alamanni yet again crossed the frozen Rhine in large numbers, to invade the Gallic provinces, this time being defeated by Valentinian (see Battle of Solicinium). In the great mixed invasion of 406, the Alamanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace and a large part of the Swiss Plateau. Fredegar's Chronicle gives the account. At Alba Augusta (Alba-la-Romaine) the devastation was so complete, that the Christian bishop retired to Viviers, but in Gregory's account at Mende in Lozère, also deep in the heart of Gaul, bishop Privatus was forced to sacrifice to idols in the very cave where he was later venerated. It is thought this detail may be a generic literary ploy to epitomize the horrors of barbarian violence. List of battles between Romans and Alamanni 259, Battle of Mediolanum, — Emperor Gallienus defeats the Alamanni to rescue Rome 268, Battle of Lake Benacus — Romans under Emperor Claudius II defeat the Alamanni. 271 Battle of Placentia — Emperor Aurelian is defeated by the Alamanni forces invading Italy Battle of Fano — Aurelian defeats the Alamanni, who begin to retreat from Italy Battle of Pavia — Aurelian destroys the retreating Alamanni army. 298 Battle of Lingones — Caesar Constantius Chlorus defeats the Alamanni Battle of Vindonissa — Constantius again defeats the Alamanni 356, Battle of Reims — Caesar Julian is defeated by the Alamanni 357, Battle of Strasbourg — Julian expels the Alamanni from the Rhineland 367, Battle of Solicinium — Romans under Emperor Valentinian I defeat yet another Alamanni incursion. 378, Battle of Argentovaria — Western Emperor Gratianus is victorious over the Alamanni, yet again. Alamanni and Franks Alemannia (yellow) and Upper Burgundy (green) around 1000. The kingdom (or duchy) of Alamannia between Strasbourg and Augsburg lasted until 496, when the Alamanni were conquered by Clovis I at the Battle of Tolbiac. The war of Clovis with the Alamanni forms the setting for the conversion of Clovis, briefly treated by Gregory of Tours (Book II.31) Subsequently the Alamanni formed part of the Frankish dominions and were governed by a Frankish duke. In 746, Carloman ended an uprising by summarily executing all Alemannic nobility at the blood court at Cannstatt, and for the following century, Alamannia was ruled by Frankish dukes. Following the treaty of Verdun of 843, Alamannia became a province of the eastern kingdom of Louis the German, the precursor of the Holy Roman Empire. The duchy persisted until 1268. Christianization The Christianization of the Alamanni took place during Merovingian times (6th to 8th centuries). Sources are sparse, but in the mid-6th century, the Byzantine historian Agathias of Myrina records, in the context of the wars of the Goths and Franks against Byzantium, that the Alamanni fighting among the troops of Frankish king Theudebald were like the Franks in all respects except religion, since they "they worship certain trees, the waters of rivers, hills and mountain valleys, in whose honour they sacrifice horses, cattle and countless other animals by beheading them, and imagine that they are performing an act of piety thereby." trans. Joseph D. Frendo (1975) He also spoke of the particular ruthlessness of the Alamani in destroying Christian sanctuaries and plundering churches while the genuine Franks were respectful towards those sanctuaries. Agathias expresses his hope that the Alamanni would assume better manners through prolongued contact with the Franks, which is by all appearances what eventually happened. R. Keydell, Agathiae Myrinaei historiarum libri quinque Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae. Series Berolinensis 2. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1967, p. 18f. Apostles of the Alamanni were Saint Columbanus and his disciple Saint Gall. Jonas of Bobbio records that Columbanus was active in Bregenz, where he disrupted a beer sacrifice to Wodan. Despite these activities, for some time, the Alamanni seem to have continued their pagan cult activities, with only superficial or syncretistic Christian elements. In particular, there is no change in burial practice, and tumulus warrior graves continued to be erected throughout Merovingian times. Syncretism of traditional Germanic animal-style with Christian symbolism is also present in artwork, but Christian symbolism becomes more and more prevalent during the 7th century. Unlike the later Christianization of the Saxon and of the Slavs, the Alamanni seem to have adopted Christianity gradually, and voluntarily, spread in emulation of the Merovingian elite. From ca. the 520s to the 620s, there was a surge of Alamannic Elder Futhark inscriptions. About 80 specimens have survived, roughly half of them on fibulae, others on belt buckles (see Pforzen buckle, Bülach fibula) and other jewelry and weapon parts. Use of runes subsides with the advance of Christianity. The establishment of the bishopric of Konstanz cannot be dated exactly and was possibly undertaken by Columbanus himself (before 612). In any case, it existed by 635, when Gunzo appointed John of Grab bishop. Constance was a missionary bishopric in newly converted lands, and did not look back on late Roman church history (unlike the Raetian bishopric of Chur, established 451) and Basel, which was an episcopal seat from 740, and which continued the line of Bishops of Augusta Raurica, see Bishop of Basel. The establishment of the church as an institution recognized by worldly rulers is also visible in legal history. In the early 7th century Pactus Alamannorum hardly ever mentions the special privileges of the church, while Lantfrid's Lex Alamannorum of 720 has an entire chapter reserved for ecclesial matters alone. List of Alamannic rulers Independent kings Chrocus 306 Mederich (father of Agenarich, brother to Chnodomar) Chnodomar 350, 357 Vestralp 357, 359 Ur 357, 359 Agenarich (Serapio) 357 Suomar 357, 358 Hortar 357, 359 Gundomad 354 (co-regent of Vadomar) Ursicin 357, 359 Makrian 368–371 Rando 368 Hariobaud 4th c. Vadomar vor 354–360 Vithicab 360–368 Priarius ?–378 Gibuld (Gebavult) c. 470 Dukes under Frankish suzerainty Butilin 539–554 Leuthari I before 552–554 Haming 539–554 Lantachar until 548 (Avenches diocese) Magnachar 565 (Avenches diocese) Vaefar 573 (Avenches diocese) Theodefrid Leutfred 570–587 Uncilin 587–607 Gunzo 613 Chrodobert 630 Leuthari II 642 Gotfrid until 709 Willehari 709–712 (in Ortenau) Lantfrid 709–730 Theudebald 709–744 Notes References Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective (Studies in Historical Archaeoethnology); Ian Wood (Foreword) ISBN 1-84383-035-3 Hofmann, Johann Jacob Hofmann, Lexicon Universale, Leiden 1698, "Alamannicus" Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911: "Alamanni" See also Annales Alamannici Lex Alamannorum List of confederations of Germanic tribes External links The Agri Decumates The Alemanni The Alamanni, WHKMLA The Military Orientation of the Roman Emperors Septimius Severus to Gallienus(146-268 C.E.) | Alemanni |@lemmatized 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7,017 | Des_Moines,_Iowa | Des Moines () is the capital and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Iowa. It is also the county seat of Polk County. A small portion of the city extends into Warren County. It was incorporated on September 22, 1851, as Fort Des Moines which was shortened to "Des Moines" in 1857. It is named after the Des Moines River, which may have been adapted from the French Rivière Des Moines, literally meaning "River of the Monks." The five-county metropolitan area is ranked 91st in terms of population in the United States according to 2007 estimates with 546,599 residents according to United States Census Bureau. The city proper population was 198,682 at the 2000 census. Des Moines is a major center for the insurance industry and also has a sizable financial services and publishing business base. In fact, Des Moines was credited with the "number one spot for U.S. insurance companies" in a Business Wire article. The city is the headquarters for the Principal Financial Group, the Meredith Corporation, Ruan Transportation, EMC Insurance Companies, and Wellmark Blue Cross Blue Shield. Other major corporations such as Wells Fargo, ING Group, Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, Marsh, and Pioneer Hi-Bred have large operations in or near the metro area. Forbes Magazine ranked Des Moines as the fourth "Best Place for Business" in 2007. Kiplinger's Personal Finance 2008 Best Cities List featured Des Moines as #9. Des Moines is an important city in United States presidential politics as the capital of Iowa, which is home to the Iowa caucuses. The Iowa caucuses have been the first major electoral event in nominating the President of the United States since 1972. Hence, many presidential candidates set up campaign headquarters in Des Moines. A 2007 article in The New York Times stated "if you have any desire to witness presidential candidates in the most close-up and intimate of settings, there is arguably no better place to go than Des Moines." History Prehistoric inhabitants of early Des Moines Map of prehistoric and historic American Indian sites in Downtown Des Moines. Modified from Newsletter of the Iowa Archeological Society 58(1):8 The juncture of the Des Moines and Raccoon rivers has attracted humans for at least 3,000 years. Several prehistoric occupation areas have been identified in downtown Des Moines by archaeologists. At least three Late Prehistoric villages stood in Des Moines, dating from about A.D. 1300 to 1700. In addition, 15 to 18 prehistoric American Indian mounds were observed in downtown Des Moines by early settlers. All have been destroyed. Schoen, Christopher M. (2005) A Point of Land and Prehistoric Peoples. Iowa Heritage Illustrated 86(1): 8–9. Whittaker (2008) Prehistoric and Historic Indians in Downtown Des Moines. Newsletter of the Iowa Archeological Society 58(1):8–10. Origin of Fort Des Moines The City of Des Moines traces its origins to May 1843, when Captain James Allen supervised the construction of a fort on the site where the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers merge. Allen wanted to use the name Fort Raccoon; however, the U.S. War Department told him to name it Fort Des Moines. The fort was built to control the Sauk and Meskwaki Indians, who had been transplanted to the area from their traditional lands in eastern Iowa. The fort was abandoned in 1846 after the Sauk and Meskwaki were removed from the state. Even after official removal, the Meskwaki continued to return to Des Moines until ca. 1857. Whittaker (2008) Archaeological excavations have demonstrated that many fort-related features survived under what is now Martin Luther King, Jr. Parkway and First Street. Mather, David and Ginalie Swaim (2005)The Heart of the Best Part: Fort Des Moines No. 2 and the Archaeology of a City. Iowa Heritage Illustrated 86(1):12–21. Early settlement Excavation of the prehistoric component of the Bird's Run Site in Des Moines. Settlers occupied the abandoned fort and nearby areas. On May 25, 1846, Fort Des Moines became the seat of Polk County. Arozina Perkins, a school teacher who spent the winter of 1850-1851 in the town of Fort Des Moines, was not favorably impressed. “This is one of the strangest looking cities I ever saw... This town is at the juncture of the Des Moines and Raccoon rivers. It is mostly a level prairie with a few swells or hills around it. We have a court house of brick, and one church, a plain, framed building belonging to the Methodists. There are two taverns here, one of which has a most important little bell that rings together some fifty borders. I cannot tell you how many dwellings there are, for I have not counted them; some are of logs, some of brick, some framed, and some are the remains of the old dragoon houses...The people support two papers and there are several dry goods shops. I have been into but four of them... Society is as varied as the buildings are. There are people from nearly every state, and Dutch, Swedes, &c.” Perkins, Arozina, 1851 letter in: (1984) Teaching in Fort Des Moines, Iowa: November 13, 1850 to March 21, 1851. In Women Teachers on the Frontier, edited by P. W. Kaufman, pp. 126–143. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. In May 1851 much of the town was flooded. "The Des Moines and Raccoon rivers rose to an unprecedented height, inundating the entire country east of the Des Moines river. Crops were utterly destroyed, houses and fences swept away."<ref>Mills and Company (1866) 'Des Moines City Directory and Business Guide. Mills and Company, Des Moines Iowa, p. 6. Microfilm, State Historical Society Library, Iowa City.</ref> This flood provided a clean slate for the city to grow on. Era of growth On September 22, 1851, it was incorporated as a city with its own charter and was later approved in a vote on October 18. In 1857, the name Fort Des Moines was shortened to Des Moines alone and the state capital was moved from Iowa City. Growth was slow during the Civil War period, but the city exploded in size and importance after a railroad link was completed in 1866. Brigham, Johnson (1911)Des Moines: The Pioneer of Municipal Progress and Reform of the Middle West. Volume 1. S. J. Clarke, Chicago. By 1900, Des Moines was Iowa's largest city with a population of 62,139. Des Moines has a population of 209,124 in the estimate of 2009. "City Beautiful", industrial decline, and rebirth Fort Des Moines memorial, the birthplace of Des Moines, is north of Principal Park. West bank of Des Moines River as it flows through downtown showing the crumbling Beaux Arts balustrade above. At the turn of the 20th century, Des Moines undertook a "City Beautiful" project in which large Beaux Arts public buildings and fountains were constructed along the Des Moines River, this effort continued through the 1930s. The old Des Moines Public Library building (now the home of the World Food Prize) and the City Hall are surviving examples, as is the ornate balustrade that still lines the river. The ornamental fountains that once stood along the riverbank were buried in the 1950s, when the city began a post-industrial decline which lasted until the late 1980s. Dahl, Orin L. (1978) Des Moines: Capital City: A Pictorial and Entertaining Commentary on the Growth and Development of Des Moines, Iowa. Continental Heritage, Tulsa. Gardiner, Allen (2004) Des Moines: A History in Pictures. Heritage Media, San Marcos, California. The city has since rebounded, transforming from a blue-collar industrial city to a white-collar professional city. In 1907, the city adopted a city commission government known as the Des Moines Plan, comprising an elected mayor and four commissioners who were responsible for public works, public property, public safety, and finance. This form of government was scrapped in 1950 in favor of a council-manager government, and further changed in 1967 so that four of the six city council members were elected by ward rather than at-large. As with many major urban areas, the city core began losing population to the suburbs in the 1960s (the peak population of 208,982 was recorded in 1960).The population was 198,682 in 2000 but dropped to 196,998 in 2007. However, the growth of the outlying suburbs has been a constant and the overall metro area population is over 534,230 today. During the Great Flood of 1993, heavy rains throughout June and early July caused the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers to rise above flood stage levels. The Des Moines Water Works was submerged by flood waters during the early morning hours of July 11, 1993, leaving an estimated 250,000 people without running water for 12 days and without drinking water for 20 days. Des Moines suffered major flooding again in June 2008 when they had a major levee breach. WHO TV - Des Moines: Home - News, Weather, Sports and Election coverage for Central Iowa, Des Moines, West Des Moines, Ames, Ankeny, Clive, Indianola, Marshalltown, Norwalk, U... Name The origin of the name Des Moines is uncertain. The French "Des Moines" (pronounced ) translates literally to "of the monks." "Rivière Des Moines" translates to "river of the monks," known today under the anglicized name of Des Moines River. However, the term could have referred to the river of the Moingonas, named after an American Indian tribe that resided in the area and built burial mounds. A hypothesis says that the name, if it is from the French language, refers to French Trappist monks, some of whom lived in huts at the mouth of the river. Des Moines Register, Defining 'Des Moines' (September 14, 2003) A more recent hypothesis uses a study of Miami-Illinois tribal names to say the word Moingona, one of the names given to the region, comes from word mooyiinkweena, a derogatory name which translates roughly to "the excrement-faces." The name was seemingly given to Marquette and Joliet by a tribal leader in order to dissuade them from doing business with a neighboring tribe. Des Moines Register,"Is `Des Moines' just some dirty joke?" (September 14, 2003) Cityscape 801 Grand towers over other downtown skyscrapers The skyline of Des Moines changed during the 1970s and 1980s as several new skyscrapers were built. Before then, the 19-story Equitable Building, from 1924, was the tallest building in the city and the tallest building in Iowa. At the time it was completed the Equitable Building was also the tallest building west of the Mississippi River. The 25-story Financial Center was completed in 1973 and the 36-story Ruan Center was completed in 1974. They were later joined by the 33-story Marriott Hotel (1981), the 25-story Hub Tower and 25-story Plaza Building (1985), Iowa's tallest building, Principal Financial Group's 45-story tower at 801 Grand (1991), and the 19-story EMC Insurance Building (1997). This time period also saw the opening of the Civic Center of Greater Des Moines (1979) which hosts Broadway shows and special events, the Des Moines Botanical Center (1979) which is a large city botanical garden/greenhouse on the east side of the river, the Polk County Convention Complex (1985), and the State of Iowa Historical Museum (1987). The Des Moines skywalk system also began to take shape during the 1980s. By the beginning of 2006, the skywalk system was more than three miles (5 km) long and connected most main downtown buildings. (n.d.) Yahoo.com The city is in the midst of major construction in the downtown area. The new Science Center of Iowa and Blank IMAX Dome Theater and the Iowa Events Center opened in 2005, while the new central branch of the Des Moines Public Library, designed by renowned architect David Chipperfield of London, opened on April 8, 2006. The World Food Prize Foundation, which is based in Des Moines, announced in 2001 that it will restore the former Des Moines Public Library building as the Dr. Norman Borlaug/World Food Prize Hall of Laureates. In 2002 the Principal Financial Group and the city announced plans for the Principal Riverwalk, which will feature trails, pedestrian bridges across the river, a fountain and skating plaza, and a "civic garden" in front of the City Hall. Multiple existing downtown buildings are being converted to loft apartments and condominiums. This trend is highlighted by the success of the East Village district of shops, studios, and housing between the Capitol district and the Des Moines River. Geography The Iowa State Capitol, featuring its golden dome. Des Moines is located at (41.590939, -93.620866). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 77.2 square miles (200.1 km²), of which, 75.8 square miles (196.3 km²) of it is land and 1.5 square miles (3.8 km²) of it (1.88%) is water. In November 2005, Des Moines voters approved a measure that allowed the city to annex certain parcels of land in the northeast, southeast, and southern corners of Des Moines, particularly areas bordering the Iowa Highway 5/U.S. 65 bypass. Metropolitan area The Des Moines-West Des Moines Metropolitan Statistical Area consists of five central Iowa counties: Polk, Dallas, Warren, Madison, and Guthrie. The area had a 2000 census population of 481,394 and an estimated 2007 population of 546,599. The Des Moines-Newton-Pella Combined Statistical Area consists of those five counties plus Jasper and Marion counties; the 2000 census population of this area was 550,659, and the estimated 2007 population was 616,122. Des Moines' suburban communities include Altoona, Ankeny, Bondurant, Carlisle, Clive, Grimes, Johnston, Norwalk, Pleasant Hill, Urbandale, Waukee, West Des Moines, and Windsor Heights. Climate Being located near the center of North America, far removed from a large body of water, the Des Moines area has a warm summer type Humid continental climate, with hot, humid summers and cold, snowy winters. Summer temperatures can often climb into the 90°F range, occasionally reaching into the triple digits. Humidity can be high in spring and summer, with frequent afternoon thunderstorms. Fall brings pleasant temperatures and colorful fall foliage. Winters vary from moderately cold to bitterly cold, with low temperatures venturing below zero F quite often. Annual snowfall averages 36.4 inches, and annual rainfall averages 34.72 inches. Monthly Normal and Record High and Low Temperatures Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Rec High °F (°C) 67 (19.4) 73 (22.7) 91 (32.7) 93 (33.8) 98 (36.6) 103 (39.4) 105 (40.5) 108 (42.2) 101 (38.3) 95 (35) 81 (27.2) 69 (20.5) Norm High °F (°C) 29.1 (-1.6) 35.4 (1.8) 48.2 (9) 61.3 (16.2) 72.3 (22.4) 81.8 (27.6) 86.1 (30) 83.9 (28.8) 75.9 (24.4) 63.5 (17.5) 46.7 (8.2) 33.1 (0.6) Norm Low °F (°C) 11.7 (-11.3) 17.8 (-7.8) 28.7 (-1.8) 39.9 (4.4) 51.4 (10.7) 61 (16.1) 66.1 (18.9) 63.9 (17.7) 54.3 (12.4) 42.2 (5.6) 29 (-1.6) 16.7 (-8.5) Rec Low °F (°C) -24 (-31.1) -26 (-32.2) -22 (-30) 9 (-12.7) 30 (-1.1) 38 (3.3) 47 (8.3) 40 (4.4) 26 (-3.3) 14 (-10) -4 (-20) -22 (-30) Precip in (mm) 1.03 (26.162) 1.19 (30.226) 2.21 (56.134) 3.58 (90.932) 4.25 (107.95) 4.57 (116.078) 4.18 (106.172) 4.51 (114.554) 3.15 (80.01) 2.62 (66.548) 2.1 (53.34) 1.33 (33.782)Source: USTravelWeather.com http://www.ustravelweather.com/weather-iowa/des-moines-weather.asp Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 198,682 people, 80,504 households, and 48,704 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,621.3 people per square mile (1,012.0/km²). There were 85,067 housing units at an average density of 1,122.3/sq mi (433.3/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 82.3% White, 8.07% Black or African American, 0.35% American Indian, 3.50% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 3.52% from other races, and 2.23% from two or more races. 6.61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 20.9% were of German, 10.3% Irish, 9.1% American and 8.0% English ancestry, according to Census 2000. There were 80,504 households out of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% were married couples living together, 12.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% were non-families. 31.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.04. In the city the population was spread out with 24.8% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $38,408, and the median income for a family was $46,590. Males had a median income of $31,712 versus $25,832 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,467. About 7.9% of families and 11.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.9% of those under age 18 and 7.6% of those ages 65 or over. Economy Many insurance companies are headquartered in Des Moines, including the Principal Financial Group, Marsh (formerly KVI), EMC Insurance Group, Allied Insurance (now part of Nationwide), AmerUs Group (now part of Aviva), Holmes Murphy, and American Republic Insurance Company. Des Moines has been referred to as the "Hartford of the West" because of this. Neal R. Peirce (1973), The Great Plains States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Nine Great Plains States, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0393053490, page 106 Principal is the only Fortune 500 company to have its headquarters in Iowa, ranking 261st on the magazine's list in 2006. As a center of financial and insurance services, other major corporations headquartered outside of Iowa have established a presence in the Des Moines Metro area, including Wells Fargo, ING Group, and Electronic Data Systems. The Meredith Corporation, a leading publishing and marketing company, is also based in Des Moines. Meredith publishes Better Homes and Gardens, one of the most widely circulated publications in the United States. Other major employers in the area (with more than 1,000 local employees) include Mercy Medical Center, Iowa Health System, MidAmerican Energy Company, Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Firestone Agricultural Tire Company, UPS, FBL Financial Group, Citigroup's Citi Cards division, Qwest, Wellmark Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Iowa, Hy-Vee supermarkets, John Deere Des Moines Works, John Deere Credit, and CDS Global. In 2007, Forbes magazine ranked the Des Moines metropolitan area 4th on its list of "Best Places For Business And Careers," based on factors such as the cost of doing business, cost of living, educational attainment, and crime rate. Culture Arts and theatre The City of Des Moines is a cultural center for Iowa and home to several art and history museums and performing arts groups. The Civic Center of Greater Des Moines routinely hosts the best Broadway shows and other live professional theater. Its president and CEO, Jeff Chelsvig, is a member of the League of American Theatres and Producers, Inc. The Temple for Performing Arts and Des Moines Playhouse are other venues for live theatre, comedy, and performance arts. The Des Moines Metro Opera has been a respected cultural resource in Des Moines since 1973. The Opera offers award-winning educational and outreach programs and is one of the largest performing arts organizations in the state. Ballet Des Moines was established in 2002. Currently performing two productions each year, the Ballet also provides opportunities for education and outreach. The Des Moines Symphony performs frequently at different venues. In addition to performing six pairs of classical concerts each season, the Symphony also entertains with its Opening Night Gala, New Year's Eve Pops, and its annual Yankee Doodle Pops concerts. Jazz in July offers free jazz shows daily at various venues throughout the city during the entire month of July. Wells Fargo Arena holds 16,980 and books large, national touring acts for arena concert performances, while smaller venues such as the Vaudeville Mews, People's, and the House of Bricks book local, regional, and national bands. The Simon Estes Riverfront Amphitheater is an outdoor concert venue located on the east bank of the Des Moines River which hosts music events such as the Alive Concert Series. Blues on Grand is a venue for live blues music and was awarded with Blues Club of the Year from the Blues Foundation in 2002. The Funny Bone Comedy Club brings in stand-up comedians from across the nation. The Des Moines Art Center, with a wing designed by architect I.M. Pei, presents art exhibitions and educational programs as well as hands-on studio art classes. The Center houses an internationally renowned collection of artwork from the nineteenth century to the present. An extension of the world-renowned art center is located downtown in an energetic urban museum space, featuring three or four exciting and fresh exhibitions each year. A Museum shop offers unique gifts, jewelry, cards, and books. Other notable art galleries include Salisbury House and Gardens and Hoyt Sherman Place. Salisbury House and Gardens is a 42-room mansion on 10 acres of woodlands named after the King's House in Salisbury, England. Built in the 1920s by the Weeks family, the home contains authentic 16th century English oak and rafters dating to Shakespeare's days and a world-class collection of original art, tapestries, and rare books. Special events include Shakespeare on the Lawn, Salisbury Auto Classic, and the Holly and Ivy Tour. Built in 1877 by prominent pioneer businessman Hoyt Sherman, Hoyt Sherman Place mansion was Des Moines' first public art gallery and houses a distinctive collection of nineteenth and twentieth century artwork. Its restored 1,250-seat theater features an intricate rococo plaster ceiling and excellent acoustics and is used for a variety of cultural performances and entertainment. Coming to Des Moines in 2009 is the expected completion of the Pappajohn Sculpture Park located in Western Gateway Park from 10th to 15th Streets and between Grand Avenue and Locust Street. The garden will showcase a collection of world class sculptures donated by Des Moines philanthropists John and Mary Pappajohn. Nearby is the beautifully restored and historic Temple for Performing Arts, reborn as a cultural center for the city. Next to the Temple is the 117,000-square-foot Central Library, with its ultramodern, freeform architecture and "organic" roof. Attractions The Iowa State Capitol is among the most beautiful state capitols in the country. Arising in the east and facing westward toward downtown, the capitol building with its 275-foot, 23-karat gold leafed dome towering above the city is a favorite of sightseers. Four smaller domes flank the main dome. The Capitol houses the governor's offices, legislature, and the old Supreme Court Chambers. The ornate interior also features a grand staircase, mural "Westward", five-story law library, scale model of the USS Iowa, and collection of first lady dolls. Guided tours are available. The Capitol grounds include a World War II memorial with sculpture and Wall of Memories. Other monuments include the 1894 Soldiers and Sailors Monument of the Civil War and memorials honoring those who served in the Spanish-American, Korean, and Vietnam Wars. The West Capitol Terrace provides a stunning entrance from the west to the state's grandest building, the State Capitol Building. With its picturesque views, the lush, 10-acre "people's park" at the foot of the Capitol complex includes a promenade and landscaped gardens, in addition to providing public space for rallies and special events. A granite map of Iowa depicting all 99 counties rests at the base of the terrace which has become a popular attraction for in-state visitors, many of whom can be seen walking over the map to find their home county. Iowa's history lives on in the State of Iowa Historical Museum. This modern granite and glass structure at the foot of the State Capitol Building houses permanent and temporary exhibits exploring the people, places, events, and issues of Iowa's past. The showcase includes native wildlife, American Indian and pioneer artifacts, and political and military items. The Museum features a genealogy and Iowa history library, museum gift shop, and cafe. Terrace Hill, a National Historic Landmark and Iowa Governor's Residence, is among the best examples of American Victorian Second Empire architecture. This opulent 1869 home was built by Iowa's first millionaire, Benjamin F. Allen, and restored to the late 1800s period. It overlooks downtown Des Moines and is situated on eight acres with a re-created Victorian formal garden. Tours are conducted Tuesdays through Saturdays from March through December. The 110,000 square foot Science Center of Iowa and Blank IMAX Dome Theater offers seven interactive learning areas, live programs, and hands-on activities encouraging learning and fun for all ages. Among its three theaters include the 216-seat Blank IMAX Dome Theater, 175-seat John Deere Adventure Theater featuring live performances, and a 50-foot domed Star Theater. The Des Moines Botanical Center is an indoor conservatory of over 15,000 exotic plants, one of the largest collections of tropical, subtropical, and desert-growing plants in the Midwest. The Center blooms with thousands of flowers year-round. Beautiful and extensive exterior gardens are also located here. Blank Park Zoo is a beautifully landscaped 22-acre zoological park located on the south side. Among the exhibits include a tropical rain forest, Australian Outback, and Africa. The Zoo offers education classes, tours, and rental facilities. The Great Ape Trust of Iowa was established as a scientific research facility with a 230-acre campus housing bonobos and orangutans for the noninvasive interdisciplinary study of their cognitive and communicative capabilities. The Trust offers small public tours on a seasonal basis and only by reservation. The East Village, located on the east side of the Des Moines River, begins at the river and extends about five blocks east to the State Capitol Building, offering an eclectic blend of historic buildings, hip eateries, boutiques, art galleries, and a wide variety of other retail establishments mixed with residences. Adventureland Park is an amusement park in neighboring Altoona, just northeast of Des Moines. The park boasts more than 100 rides, shows, and attractions, including three great roller coasters. A hotel and campground is located just outside the park. Also in Altoona is Prairie Meadows Racetrack and Casino, a popular entertainment venue for gambling and horse racing enthusiasts. Open 24 hours a day, year-round, the racetrack and casino features live racing, plus over 1,750 slot machines, table games, and concert and show entertainment. Living History Farms in suburban Urbandale tells the story of Midwestern agriculture and rural life in a 500-acre open-air museum with interpreters dressed in period costume who recreate the daily routines of early Iowans. Open daily from May through October, the Living History Farms include a 1700 Ioway Indian village, 1850 pioneer farm, 1875 frontier town, 1900 horse-powered farm, and a modern crop center. Wallace House was the home of the first Henry Wallace, a national leader in agriculture and conservation and the first editor of Wallaces' Farmer farm journal. This restored 1883 Italianate Victorian houses exhibits, artifacts, and information covering four generations of Henry Wallaces and other family members. Historic Jordan House in West Des Moines is a stately Victorian home built in 1850 and added to in 1870 by the first white settler in West Des Moines, James C. Jordan. Completely refurbished, this mansion was once part of the Underground Railroad and today houses 16 period rooms, a railroad museum, West Des Moines community history, and a museum dedicated to the Underground Railroad in Iowa.The Chicago Tribune wrote that Iowa's capital city has "walker-friendly downtown streets and enough outdoor sculpture, sleek buildings, storefronts and cafes to delight the most jaded stroller." Festivals and events Des Moines plays host to a growing number of nationally-acclaimed cultural events, including the annual Des Moines Arts Festival in June, Iowa State Fair in August, and the World Food Festival in October. On Saturdays from May through October, the popular Downtown Farmers' Market draws visitors from across the state. The Court Avenue Entertainment District is the city's preeminent downtown restaurant and nightclub destination. Among other annual cultural festivals include: ArtFest Midwest, Celebrasian Heritage Festival, Des Moines Pride Festival, Des Moines Renaissance Faire, Festa Italiana, Festival of Trees and Lights, Interrobang Film Festival, Latino Heritage Festival, Rib America Festival, Winefest, Wild Rose Film Festival, and the 80/35 Music Festival. Making its debut in 2008, 80/35 celebrates music, artists, and fans with such acts as The Flaming Lips. Museums Des Moines Art Center Fort Des Moines Museum and Education Center Jordan House Museum Salisbury House Science Center of Iowa State Historical Society of Iowa Terrace Hill - Official residence of the Governor of Iowa Wallace House Museum Government Des Moines Municipal Building Des Moines currently operates under a council-manager form of government. The council consists of a mayor (who, as of 2009, is Frank Cownie), two at-large members, and four members representing each of the city's four wards. A plan to merge the governments of Des Moines and Polk County was rejected by voters during the November 2, 2004, election. The consolidated city-county government would have had a full-time mayor and a 15-member council that would have been divided among the city and its suburbs. Each suburb would have still retained its individual government but had the option to join the consolidated government at any time. Although a full merger was soundly rejected, many city and county departments and programs have been consolidated. Transportation Kruidenier Trail bridge across Gray's Lake Most residents of Des Moines get around the region by car. Interstate 235 cuts through the city, and Interstate 35 and Interstate 80 both pass through intersecting the Des Moines metropolitan area. North of the Des Moines metropolitan area, Interstates 35 and 80 converge into a long concurrency. This stretch of freeway is only six lanes wide but carries thousands of cars each day and has interchanges where the Interstates separate and converge on one another, in particularly the West Mixmaster. The Iowa DOT has completed the Interstate 235 expansion project. The freeway is six lanes throughout the entire length and expands to eight and ten lanes near the downtown area. Interstate 35/80 has congestion during rush hour, especially towards the end of the west Mixmaster where Interstate 35, heading south, separates from Interstate 80, heading west. The northeast Mixmaster has also undergone a redesign with wider lanes and redesign of bridges allowing maximum traffic flow in all directions along Interstates 35, 80, and 235. U.S. Highway 65 and Iowa Highway 5 form a freeway loop to the east and south of the city, providing an alternative route around the metropolitan area. U.S. Highways 6 and 69 and Iowa Highways 28, 141, 163, and 415 are also important routes to and within the city. The Edna M. Griffin Memorial Pedestrian Bridge over Interstate 235. Des Moines's public transit system, operated by DART (Des Moines Area Regional Transit), which was the Des Moines Metropolitan Transit Authority until October 2006, consists entirely of buses, including regular in-city routes and express and commuter buses to outlying suburban areas. Downtown Des Moines also features a 3.5 mile-long (5.6 km) skywalk system, allowing people to move between buildings without going outdoors. As of 2008 a light rail tram system has been proposed. Greyhound Bus Lines and Jefferson Lines run long-distance, inter-city bus routes to Des Moines. The nearest Amtrak train station is in Osceola, about 40 miles (64 km) south of Des Moines. Trains on the route that passes through Osceola, the California Zephyr, go east to Chicago, Illinois, and as far west as Oakland, California. The Des Moines International Airport (DSM), located in the southern part of Des Moines, on Fleur Drive, offers non-stop service to destinations within the United States. Education Old Main, on the campus of Drake University The Des Moines Public Schools district is the largest community school district in Iowa with 30,683 enrolled students as of the 2007-2008 school year. The district consists of 63 schools: 38 elementary schools, ten middle schools, five high schools (East, Hoover, Lincoln, North, and Roosevelt), and ten special schools and programs. Small parts of the city are also served by Southeast Polk and Saydel. Private schools in the city include Grand View Park Baptist and the Des Moines Christian School. Des Moines is also home to the main campuses of two four-year private colleges: Drake University and Grand View University. Simpson College, Upper Iowa University, and William Penn University also have classroom facilities in the area. For-profit colleges with classrooms in the area include the University of Phoenix. Des Moines Area Community College is the area's community college with campuses in Ankeny, downtown Des Moines, and West Des Moines. Other institutions of higher learning in Des Moines include the AIB College of Business and Des Moines University, an osteopathic medical school. Media The Des Moines market, which consists of Polk, Dallas, Story, and Warren counties , was ranked 91st by Arbitron as of the fall of 2007 with a population of 512,000 aged 12 and older. Radio Most of Des Moines' commercial radio stations are owned by one of three companies. Clear Channel Communications owns five radio stations in the area, including WHO 1040 AM, a 50,000-watt AM news/talk station that has the highest ratings in the area and once employed future President Ronald Reagan as a sportscaster. In addition to WHO, Clear Channel owns KDRB 100.3 FM (adult hits), KKDM 107.5 FM (contemporary hits), KPTL 106.3 FM (adult album alternative), and KXNO 1460 AM (sports radio). (They also own news/talk station KASI 1430 AM and modern rock station KCCQ 105.1 FM, both of which broadcast from Ames.) Citadel Broadcasting owns five stations that broadcast from facilities in Urbandale: KBGG 1700 AM ([sports), KGGO 94.9 FM (classic rock), KHKI 97.3 FM (country music), KJJY 92.5 FM (country music), and KWQW 98.3 FM (talk radio). Saga Communications owns six stations in the area: KAZR 103.3 FM (active rock), KIOA 93.3 FM (oldies), KLTI 104.1 FM (soft adult contemporary), KPSZ 940 AM (contemporary Christian music), KRNT 1350 AM (adult standards), and KSTZ 102.5 FM (adult contemporary hits). Other stations in the Des Moines area include religious stations KNWI 107.1 FM, KWKY 1150 AM, and KPUL 99.5 FM. Non-commercial stations Non-commercial radio stations in the Des Moines area include KDPS 88.1 FM, a station operated by the Des Moines Public Schools; KWDM 88.7 FM, a station operated by Valley High School; KJMC 89.3 FM, an urban contemporary station; and KDFR 91.3 FM, operated by Family Radio. WOI 640 AM and WOI-FM 90.1 are both based out of Iowa State University in Ames and serve as the area's National Public Radio outlets. Low-power FM stations include Drake University's KDRA-LP and Grand View University's KGVC-LP, which share the 94.1 frequency, and KFMG-LP 99.1, a community radio station broadcasting from the Hotel Fort Des Moines. Television The Des Moines-Ames media market consists of 35 central Iowa counties: Adair, Adams, Appanoose, Audubon, Boone, Calhoun, Carroll, Clarke, Dallas, Decatur, Franklin, Greene, Guthrie, Hamilton, Hardin, Humboldt, Jasper, Kossuth, Lucas, Madison, Mahaska, Marion, Marshall, Monroe, Pocahontas, Polk, Poweshiek, Ringgold, Story, Taylor, Union, Warren, Wayne, Webster, and Wright. It is ranked 71st by Nielsen Media Research for the 2008-2009 television season with 432,410 television households. Commercial television stations serving Des Moines include KCCI channel 8, a CBS affiliate; WHO-TV channel 13, an NBC affiliate; KDSM-TV channel 17, a Fox affiliate; and KDMI channel 56, a MyNetworkTV affiliate that only has a digital signal. ABC affiliate WOI-TV channel 5 is licensed to Ames and was owned by Iowa State University until 1994. It currently broadcasts from studios in West Des Moines. KCWI-TV channel 23, the local CW affiliate, is also licensed to Ames but broadcasts from studios in Ankeny. KFPX channel 39, the local ION affiliate, is licensed to Newton. KDIN channel 11 is the local PBS member station and flagship of the Iowa Public Television network. Mediacom is the Des Moines area's cable television provider. PrintThe Des Moines Register is the city's primary daily newspaper. As of March 31, 2007, the Register ranked 71st in circulation among daily newspapers in the United States according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations with 146,050 daily and 233,229 Sunday subscribers. Weekly newspapers include Juice, a publication aimed at the 25-34 demographic published by the Register on Wednesdays; Cityview, an alternative weekly published on Thursdays; and the Des Moines Business Record, a business journal published on Sundays, along with he West Des Moines Register, the Johnston Register, and the Waukee Register on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, or Thursdays depending on the address of the subscriber. Web Des Moines has a large presence on the internet, which is highlighted by their community page on MySpace, forum posts on AbsoluteDSM.com and blog posts on LivingDowntownDesMoines.com. Sports and recreation Sports Des Moines is home to the Iowa Cubs baseball team of the Pacific Coast League. The I-Cubs, which are the Class AAA team of the major league Chicago Cubs, play their home games at Principal Park near the confluence of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers. Principal Park is also home to the Iowa High School Athletic Association's state baseball tournaments every summer. The Wells Fargo Arena of the Iowa Events Center has been home to the Iowa Chops (formerly the Iowa Stars) of the American Hockey League since 2005 and the Iowa Energy of the NBA Development League since 2007. In 2008, the Iowa Barnstormers of the arenafootball2 league resumed play at Wells Fargo Arena. The Barnstormers previously played at Veterans Memorial Auditorium as members of the Arena Football League from 1995 to 2000. While the original franchise became the New York Dragons after the 2000 season, the Barnstormers nickname, colors, and uniforms were used for an af2 franchise that folded after one season in 2001. Veterans Memorial Auditorium was also home to the Des Moines Dragons of the International Basketball Association from 1997-2001, and was also home to the state high school wrestling and basketball tournaments before they moved to the new Wells Fargo Arena in 2006. Two other sports teams play in the Des Moines area: the Des Moines Buccaneers of the United States Hockey League play at Buccaneer Arena in Urbandale, while the Des Moines Menace soccer team plays at Valley Stadium in West Des Moines. Des Moines is also home to the famed Drake Relays, which are held at Drake University each April. In addition to the Drake Relays, Drake Stadium hosted the 2008 NCAA Track & Field Championships and will host the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships in 2010. The Hy-Vee Triathlon, which debuted in 2007, is held every June and served as a qualifier to the Olympic Games in 2008. The IMT Des Moines Marathon is held throughout the city each October. Club League Venue Established Championships Iowa Cubs PCL, Baseball Principal Park 1969 1 Iowa Chops AHL, Ice hockey Wells Fargo Arena 2008 0 Iowa Barnstormers af2, Arena football Wells Fargo Arena 1995(re-established 2008) 0 Iowa Energy D-League, Basketball Wells Fargo Arena 2007 0 Des Moines Menace PDL, Soccer Valley Stadium 1994 1 Des Moines Buccaneers USHL, Hockey Buccaneer Arena 1981 4 Recreation Des Moines' 53 city parks offer a variety of recreation facilities including hiking, biking, picnicking, swimming, and tennis. The city boasts three golf courses, three family aquatic centers, five community centers, three swimming pools, and 28 miles of trail for walking, running, or biking. The Principal Riverwalk is a riverwalk park district currently being constructed along the banks of the Des Moines River in the downtown. Spearheaded by the Principal Financial Group, the Riverwalk is a multi-year, jointly funded project between the City of Des Moines, State of Iowa, and The Principal. Upon completion, it will feature a 1.2 mile recreational trail connecting the east and west sides of downtown via two pedestrian bridges. A landscaped promenade along the street level is planned. The Riverwalk includes the Brenton Skating Plaza. From November through March, the outdoor skating rink is open as a skating mecca for central Iowans. Located downtown along the east bank of the Des Moines River, the plaza is available for parties, social events, movies, concerts, and summer sand volleyball during the warmer months of the year. Gray's Lake, as part of popular Gray's Lake Park, features a boat rental facility, fishing pier, floating boardwalks, and a park resource center. Located just south of the downtown, the centerpiece of the park is a lighted trail encircling the entire park. Jester Park, another locals' favorite, offers diverse recreational experiences for visitors on 1,834 acres of land along the western shore of Saylorville Lake. Camping, fishing, golfing, horseback riding, hiking, hunting, and picnicking are among the myriad of activities offered. The park also includes an accessible playground and is the home of the Jester Park Lodge. The Great Western Trail is an 18-mile journey from Des Moines to Martensdale and full of adventure for the nature enthusiast, the history buff, and for those who want to put on their hiking boots or hop on a bicycle. Sister cities The Greater Des Moines Sister City Commission, with members from the City of Des Moines and the suburbs of West Des Moines, Windsor Heights, Johnston, and Ankeny, maintains sister city relationships with six world communities: Greater Des Moines Sister City Commission, accessed December 29, 2008 Kofu, Japan Naucalpan, Mexico Saint-Étienne, France Shijiazhuang, the People's Republic of China Stavropol, Russia Province of Catanzaro, Italy See also List of people from Des Moines, Iowa References City of Des Moines Action Center Historical Guide Henning, Barbara Beving Long, and Patrice K. Beam, Des Moines and Polk County: Flag on the Prairie'' (ISBN 1-892724-34-0). Sun Valley, California: American Historical Press, 2003. External links Official City Website Greater Des Moines Convention & Visitors Bureau The Des Moines Register Des Moines weather | Des_Moines,_Iowa |@lemmatized de:145 moines:174 capital:5 populous:1 city:69 u:7 state:36 iowa:69 also:25 county:17 seat:5 polk:9 small:5 portion:1 extend:2 warren:4 incorporate:2 september:4 fort:17 shorten:2 name:14 river:25 may:7 adapt:1 french:4 rivière:2 literally:2 mean:1 monk:4 five:9 metropolitan:8 area:39 rank:7 term:2 population:17 united:9 accord:5 estimate:3 resident:2 census:7 bureau:4 proper:1 major:10 center:28 insurance:10 industry:1 sizable:1 financial:9 service:3 publish:4 business:10 base:6 fact:1 credit:2 number:2 one:11 spot:1 company:13 wire:1 article:2 headquarters:3 principal:13 group:11 meredith:3 corporation:4 ruan:2 transportation:2 emc:3 wellmark:2 blue:9 cross:2 shield:2 well:11 fargo:9 ing:2 nationwide:2 mutual:1 marsh:2 pioneer:6 hi:2 breed:2 large:12 operation:1 near:5 metro:4 forbes:2 magazine:3 des:29 fourth:1 best:6 place:6 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7,018 | Catalan_language | Catalan (català or ) is a Romance language, the national and official language of Andorra, and a co-official language in the Spanish autonomous communities of the Balearic Islands, Catalonia and Valencian Community, where it is known as Valencià (Valencian) and in the city of Alghero in the Italian island of Sardinia. It is also spoken, although with no official recognition, in the autonomous communities of Aragon (in La Franja) and Murcia (in Carche) in Spain, and, officially recognised to some extent, in the historic Roussillon region of southern France, roughly equivalent to the current département of the Pyrénées-Orientales (Northern Catalonia). Though Catalan bears many similarities to Spanish (as well as to other Romance languages), the two are not mutually intelligible. Spanish Word Histories and Mysteries, p. 26, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2007 History The Catalan language developed from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the eastern part of the Pyrenees mountains (counties of Rosselló, Empúries, Besalú, Cerdanya, Urgell, Pallars and Ribagorça). It shares features with Gallo-Romance, Ibero-Romance, and the Gallo-Italian speech types of Northern Italy. Though some hypothesize a historical split from languages of Occitan typology, the entire area running from Liguria on the present Italian coast to at least Alicante in Spain is more scientifically viewed as a classic dialect continuum, with some eventual perturbation as a result of political divisions and overlay of standard national languages. As a consequence of the Aragonese and Catalan conquests from Al-Andalus to the south and to the west, it spread to all present-day Catalonia, Balearic Islands and most of Valencian Community. During the 15th century, during the Valencian Golden Age, the Catalan language reached its highest cultural splendor, which was not matched again until La Renaixença, 4 centuries later. See also History of Catalonia After the Treaty of the Pyrenees, a royal decree by Louis XIV of France on 2 April 1700 prohibited the use of Catalan language in present-day Northern Catalonia in all official documents under the threat of being invalidated. L'interdiction de la langue catalane en Roussillon par Louis XIV; taken from the website "CRDP de l'académie de Montpellier" Since then, the Catalan language has lacked official status in the Catalan-speaking region in France. On 10 December 2007, the General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales officially recognized the Catalan language as one of the languages of the department in the ARTICLE 1 (a) of its Charte en faveur du Catalan Charte en faveur du Catalan (b), and seek to further promote it in public life and education. (a) <<ARTICLE 1 : The General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales officially recognizes, beside the French language, the Catalan as language of the department. (')>> (b) Carta a favor del Català Carta a favor de la llengua i la cultura catalanes See also Language policy in France After the Nueva Planta Decrees, administrative use and education in Catalan was also banned in the territories of the Spanish Kingdom. It was not until the Renaixença that use of the Catalan language started to recover. In Francoist Spain (1939–1975), the use of Spanish over Catalan was promoted, and public use of Catalan was discouraged by official propaganda campaigns. The use of Catalan in government-run institutions and in public events was banned. During later stages of the Francoist regime, certain folkloric or religious celebrations in Catalan were resumed and tolerated. Use of Catalan in the mass media was forbidden, but was permitted from the early 1950s Marc Howard Ross, "Cultural Contestation in Ethnic Conflict", page 139. Cambridge University Press, 2007. in the theatre. Publishing in Catalan continued throughout the dictatorship. The Resurgence of Catalan Earl W. Thomas Hispania, Vol. 45, No. 1 (Mar., 1962), pp. 43–48 doi:10.2307/337523 There was no official prohibition of speaking Catalan in public or in commerce, but all advertising and signage had to be in Spanish alone, as did all written communication in business. Orden del Excmo. Sr. Gobernador Civil de Barcelona. EL USO DEL IDIOMA NACIONAL EN TODOS LOS SERVICIOS PÚBLICOS. 1940. See also Language politics in Spain under Franco Following the death of Franco in 1975 and the restoration of democracy, the use of Catalan increased partly because of new affirmative action and subsidy policies and the Catalan language is now used in politics, education and the Catalan media, including the newspapers Avui ("Today"), El Punt ("The Point") and El Periódico de Catalunya (sharing content with its Spanish release and with El Periòdic d'Andorra, printed in Andorra); and the television channels of Televisió de Catalunya (TVC): TV3, the main channel, and Canal 33/K3 (culture and cartoons channel) as well as a 24-hour news channel 3/24 and the TV series channel 300; in València canal 9 and Punt 2; in the Balearic islands IB3; there are also many local channels available in region in Catalan, such as BTV and Td8 (in the metropolitan area of Barcelona), Canal L'Hospitalet (L'Hospitalet de Llobregat), Canal Terrassa (Terrassa), Televisió de Sant Cugat TDSC (Sant Cugat del Vallès), Televisió de Mataró TVM (Mataró). Classification The ascription of Catalan to the Occitano-Romance branch of Gallo-Romance languages is not shared by all linguists. According to the Ethnologue, its specific classification is as follows: Ethnologue Report Indo-European languages Italic languages Romance languages Italo-Western languages Western Italo-Western languages Gallo-Iberian languages Ibero-Romance languages East Iberian languages Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to languages subsumed under the cover term Occitan. (See also Occitan language: Differences between Occitan and Catalan and Gallo-Romance languages.) As would be expected of closely cognate languages, Catalan also shares numerous features with other Romance languages, with similarities generally decreasing with physical distance. Geographic distribution Catalan is spoken in: Catalonia (Catalunya), in Spain. Most of the Valencian Community (Comunitat Valenciana), in Spain, where it is called Valencian. An adjacent strip (Franja de Ponent) of Aragon, Spain, in particular the comarques of Ribagorça, Llitera, Baix Cinca, and Matarranya. Balearic Islands (Illes Balears i Pitiüses), in Spain. Andorra (Principat d'Andorra). Northern Catalonia (Catalunya Nord : name used officially for the first time on 10 December 2007 by the General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales), in France. The city of Alghero (l'Alguer) on Sardinia, Italy. A small region in Murcia, Spain, known as Carche (El Carxe in Catalan). All these areas are referred to by some as Catalan Countries (Catalan: Països Catalans), a denomination based on cultural affinity and common heritage, that has also had a subsequent political interpretation but no official status. Number of Catalan speakers Territories where Catalan is official (or co-official) RegionUnderstandsCan speakCatalonia (Spain)6,949,1956,043,088Balearic Islands (Spain) 931,989 746,792 Valencian Community (as Valencian) (Spain) 3,648,443 2,547,661Andorra75,40761,975Northern Catalonia (France)203,121125,622TOTAL11,808,1559,525,138 Figures relate to all self-declared speakers, not just native speakers. Other territories RegionUnderstandsCan speakAlguer (Sardinia, Italy)20,00017,625Franja de Ponent47,25045,000El Carxe (Murcia)No dataNo dataRest of WorldNo data350,000TOTAL67,250412,625 Figures relate to all self-declared speakers, not just native speakers. World RegionUnderstandsCan speakCatalan-speaking territories (Europe)11,875,4059,587,763Rest of World362,000350,000TOTAL12,237,4059,937,763 Notes: The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it. Sources: Catalonia: Statistic data of 2001 census, from Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya, Generalitat de Catalunya . Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from Institut Valencià d'Estadística, Generalitat Valenciana . Balearic Islands: Statistical data from 2001 census, from Institut Balear d'Estadística, Govern de les Illes Balears . Northern Catalonia: Media Pluriel Survey commissioned by Prefecture of Languedoc-Roussillon Region done in October 1997 and published in January 1998 . Andorra: Sociolinguistic data from Andorran Government, 1999. Aragon: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic . Alguer: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic . Rest of World: Estimate for 1999 by the Federació d'Entitats Catalanes outside the Catalan Countries. Dialects Dialectal Map of Catalan Language Eastern dialects: █ Northern Catalan █ Central Catalan █ Balearic and Alguerese Western dialects: █ North-Western Catalan █ Ebrenc Catalan █ ValencianIn 1861, Manuel Milà i Fontanals proposed a division of Catalan into two major dialect blocks: Eastern Catalan and Western Catalan. Each dialect also encompasses several regional varieties. There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically separated dialects (except for dialects specific to an island). The main difference between the two blocks is their treatment of unstressed vowels, in addition to a few other features: Western Catalan (Bloc o Branca del Català Occidental): Unstressed vowels: . Distinctions between e and a and o and u. Initial or post-consonantal x is an affricate (there are exceptions in Xàtiva, xarxa, Xavier, xenofòbia... these are pronounced with). Between vowels or when final and preceded by i, it is . 1st person present indicative is -e or -o. Latin long and short have become . Inchoative in -ix, -ixen, -isca Maintenance of medieval nasal plural in proparoxytone words: hòmens, jóvens Specific vocabulary: espill, xiquet, granera, melic... Eastern Catalan (Bloc o Branca del Català Oriental): The vowels , and become /ə/ when unstressed and , and become . Initial or post-consonantal x is the fricative . Between vowels or when final and preceded by i it is also . 1st person present indicative is -o, -i or there is no marker. Latin long and short have become (In most of Balearic Catalan they are pronounced and in Alguerese ). Inchoative in -eix, -eixen, -eixi. The -n- of medieval nasal plural is dropped in proparoxytone words: homes, joves. Specific Vocabulary: mirall, noi, escombra, llombrígol... In addition, neither dialect is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several sub-dialects. Catalan can be subdivided into two major dialect blocks and those blocks into individual dialects: Western Catalan North-Western Catalan Ribagorçà (from Ribagorça, a region of Catalonia) Pallarès (from Pallars) Lleidatà (from Lleida province) Andorrà (from Andorra) Transitional Valencian or Ebrenc Ampostí (from Amposta) Tortosí (from Tortosa) Catalan from Matarranya Vinarossenc (from Vinaròs) Valencian from Maestrat (a region of Valencia) Valencian Castellonenc (from region of Plana) Apitxat, or Central Valencian Southern Valencian Alacantí (from the Alicante's metropolitan area and most of Vinalopó valley) Majorcan from Tàrbena and la Vall de Gallinera Valencian municipalitiesEastern Catalan Northern Catalan, or rossellonès (from Roussillon) Central Catalan Salat (from the Costa Brava) Barceloní (from Barcelona) Tarragoní (from Tarragona) Xipella Balearic Mallorquí (from Majorca, Mallorca in Catalan) Menorquí (from Minorca, Menorca in Catalan) Eivissenc (from Ibiza, Eivissa in Catalan) Alguerese (from the Italian city of Alghero) Standards of Catalan language There are two main standards for Catalan language, one regulated by Institut d'Estudis Catalans, general standard, with Pompeu Fabra's orthography as axis, keeping features from Central Catalan, and the other regulated by Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, restricted scale standard, focused on Valencian standardization on the basis of Normes de Castelló, that is, Pompeu Fabra's orthography but more adapted to Western Catalan pronunciation and features of Valencian dialects. IEC's Standard, apart from the basis of Central Catalan features, takes also other dialects features considering as standard. Despite this, the most notable difference between both standards is some tonic "e" accentuation, for instance: francès, anglès (IEC) - francés, anglés (AVL) (French, English), cafè (IEC) - café (AVL) (coffee), conèixer (IEC) - conéixer (to know), comprèn (IEC) - comprén (AVL) (he understands). This is because of the different pronunciation of some tonic "e", especially tonic Ē (long "e") and Ǐ (breves "i") from Latin, in both Catalan blocks ( in Eastern Catalan and [e] in Western Catalan). Despite this, AVL's standard keeps grave accent "è", without pronouncing this "e" , in some words like: què (what), València, èter (ether), sèsam (sesame), sèrie (series) and època (age). There are also some other divergences like the tl use by AVL in some words instead of tll like in ametla/ametlla (almond), espatla/espatlla (back) or butla/butlla (bull), the use of elided demonstratives (este this, eixe that (near)) in the same level as reinforced ones (aquest, aqueix) or the use of many verbal forms common in Valencian, and some of these common in the rest of Western Catalan too, like subjunctive mood or inchoative conjugation in -ix- at the same level as -eix- or the priority use of -e morpheme in 1st person singular in present indicative (-ar verbs): "jo compre" (I buy) instead of "jo compro". In Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted into Balearic dialect by University of the Balearic Islands's philological section, Govern de les Illes Balears's consultative organ. In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writing "cantam" as much as "cantem" (we sing) and University says that priority form in Balearic Islands must be "cantam" in all fields. Another feature of Balearic standard is the non-ending in 1st person singular in present indicative: "jo cant" (I sing), "jo tem" (I fear), jo "dorm" (I sleep). In Alghero, IEC has adapted his standard into Alguerese dialect. In this standard one can find, among other features: the lo article instead of el, special possessive pronouns and determinants la mia (my), lo sou/la sua (his/her), lo tou/la tua (your), and so on, the use of -v- in the imperfect tense in all conjugations: cantava, creixiva, llegiva; the use of many archaic words, usual words in Alguerese: manco instead of menys (less), calqui u instead of algú (someone), qual/quala instead of quin/quina (which), and so on; and the adaptation of weak pronouns. The status of Valencian The official language academy of the Valencian Community (the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua) considers Catalan and Valencian simply to be two names for the same language. Dictamen de l'Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià - Report from Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua about denomination and identity of Valencian. All universities teaching Romance languages, and virtually all linguists, consider these two to be linguistic variants of the same language (similar to Canadian French versus Metropolitan French, as well as Romanian versus Moldovan). There is a roughly continuous set of dialects covering the various regional forms of Catalan/Valencian, with no break at the border between Catalonia and the Valencian Community, and the various forms of Catalan and Valencian are mutually intelligible even between the most eastern and western varieties. This is not to say that there are no differences between the two and the speech of Valencians is recognizable both in pronunciation as well as in morphological and lexical peculiarities. However, these differences are not any wider than among North-Western Catalan and Eastern Catalan. In fact, Northern Valencian (spoken in the Castelló province and Matarranya valley, a strip of Aragon) is more similar to the Catalan of the lower Ebro basin (spoken in southern half of Tarragona province and another strip of Aragon) than to apitxat Valencian (spoken in the area of L'Horta, in the province of Valencia). What gets called a language (as opposed to a dialect) is defined partly by mutual comprehensibility as well as political and cultural factors. In this case, the perceived status of Valencian as a dialect of Catalan has historically had important political implications including Catalan nationalism and the idea of the Països Catalans or Catalan countries. Arguing that Valencian is a separate language may sometimes be part of an effort by Valencians to resist a perceived Catalan nationalist agenda aimed at incorporating Valencians into what they feel is a "constructed" nationality centered around Barcelona. As such, the issue of whether Catalan and Valencian constitute different languages or merely dialects has been the subject of political agitation several times since the end of the Franco era. The latest political controversy regarding Valencian occurred on the occasion of the drafting of the European Constitution in 2004. The Spanish government supplied the EU with translations of the text into Basque, Galician, Catalan, and Valencian, but the Catalan and Valencian versions were identical Isabel I Vilar, Ferran. “Traducció única de la Constitució europea.” I-Zefir. 30 Oct. 2004. 29 Apr. 2009 <http://www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html>. . While professing the unity of the Catalan language, the Spanish government claimed to be constitutionally bound to produce distinct Catalan and Valencian versions because the Statute of Autonomy of the Valencian Community refers to the language as Valencian. In practice, the Catalan, Valencian, and Balearic versions of the EU constitution are identical: the government of Catalonia accepted the Valencian translation without any changes under the premise that the Valencian standard is accepted by the norms set forth by the IEC. Catalan may be seen instead as a multi-centric language (much like English); there exist two standards, one for Oriental Catalan, regulated by the IEC, which is centered around Central Catalan (with slight variations to include Balearic verb inflection) and one for Occidental, regulated by the AVL, centered around Valencian. The AVL accepts the conventions set forth in the Normes de Castelló as the normative spelling, shared with the IEC that allows for the diverse idiosyncrasies of the different language dialects and varieties. As the normative spelling, these conventions are used in education, and most contemporary Valencian writers make use of them. Nonetheless, a small minority mainly of those who advocate for the recognition of Valencian as a separate language, use in a non-normative manner an alternative spelling convention known as the Normes del Puig. Sounds and writing system Grammar The first descriptive and normative grammar book of modern Catalan was written by Pompeu Fabra in 1918. In 1995 a new grammar by Antoni M. Badía i Margarit was published, which also documents the Valencian and Balearic varieties. The grammar of Catalan mostly follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages. Substantives and adjectives are not declined by case, as in Classical Latin. There are two grammatical genders—masculine and feminine. Grammatical articles originally developed from Latin demonstratives. The actual form of the article depends on the gender and the number and the first sounds of the word and can be combined with prepositions that precede them. A unique feature of Catalan is a definite article that may precede personal names in certain contexts. Its basic form is en and it can change according to its environment (the word "en" has also other lexical meanings). One of the common usages of this article is in the word can, a combination of "casa" shortened to ca (house) and en, which means "The house of." For example "Can Sergi" means "Sergi's house". Verbs are conjugated according to tense and mood similarly to other Western Romance languages—present and simple preterite are based on Classical Latin, future is formed from infinitive followed by the present form of the auxiliary verb haver (written together and not considered periphrastic), and periphrastic tenses are formed from the conjugated auxiliary verbs haver and ésser followed by the past participle. A unique tense in Catalan is the periphrastic simple preterite, which is formed from the conjugated present form of the verb anar (to go) which is followed by the infinitive of the verb. Thus, "Jo vaig parlar" (or more simply "Vaig parlar") means "I spoke." Nominative pronouns are often omitted, as the person can be usually derived from the conjugated verb. The Catalan rules for combination of the object pronoun clitics with verbs, articles and other pronouns are significantly more complex than in most other Romance languages; see Weak pronouns in Catalan. Catalan names Catalan naming customs are similar to those of Spain; a person receives two last names—his father's and his mother's. The two last names are usually separated by the particle "i", meaning "and". (In Spanish the equivalent particle is written y, but often omitted altogether.) For example, the full name of the architect Antoni Gaudí is Antoni Gaudí i Cornet after his parents: Francesc Gaudí i Serra and Antònia Cornet i Bertran. Examples Some common Catalan phrases from Catalonia (pronounced as in the Central dialect -Barcelona and outskirts-): Catalan: Català Hello: hola Good-bye: adéu ; adéu siau Please: si us plau Thank you: gràcies ; mercès Sorry: perdó , em sap greu This one: aquest (masc.); aquesta (fem.) How much?: quant val? ; quant és? Yes: sí No: no I don't understand: no ho entenc where's the bathroom?: on és el bany? ; on és el lavabo? Generic toast: salut! ; Do you speak Catalan?: Parles català? Some useful Valencian phrases (pronounced as in the standard Valencian): Valencian: valencià Hello: hola Good-bye: adéu Please: per favor Thank you: gràcies Sorry: perdó ; ; ho sent or ho lamente How much?: quant val? ; quant és? Yes: sí No: no I don't understand: no ho entenc Where's the bathroom?: on és el bany? Generic toast: Jesús ; salut Do you speak Valencian?: parles valencià? Learning Catalan Digui, digui... Curs de català per a estrangers. A Catalan Handbook. — Alan Yates and Toni Ibarz. — Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Cultura, 1993. -- ISBN 84-393-2579-7. Teach Yourself Catalan. — Alan Yates. — McGraw-Hill, 1993. — ISBN 0-8442-3755-8. Colloquial Catalan. — Toni Ibarz and Alexander Ibarz. — Routledge, 2005. — ISBN 0-415-23412-3. speakcat On-line basic course http://intercat.cesca.es/speakcat/ Parla.Cat The Official free on-line complete course http://www.parla.cat Catalan courses are offered at a number of universities in Europe and North America. Voluntaris per la Llengua is a Catalan language learning programme. English words of Catalan origin Aioli, from all i oli, a typical sauce made by mixing olive oil and garlic with a mortar and pestle. Aubergine, from Catalan albergínia Barracks, from old Catalan barraca (hut) through French baraque. Another term Barracoon, from Catalan barraca (hut) through Spanish barracón. Surge, from Catalan surgir, via Middle French Paella, Valencian Catalan, via Old French paele, ultimately from Latin patella (small dish) See also Catalan orthography Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Catalan Studies Institute) Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (Valencian Academy of the Language) Pompeu Fabra Catalan literature Languages of France Languages of Italy Languages of Spain Catalan names .cat - The first top-level domain based on language and culture Alguerese Balearic Valencian Spanish (Spain) keyboard layout, used to type Catalan Òmnium Cultural References External links Sociolinguistic situation in Catalan-speaking areas. Tables. Official data about sociolinguistic situation in Catalan-speaking areas: Catalonia (2003), Andorra (2004), the Balearic Islands (2004), Aragonese Border (2004), Northern Catalonia (2004), Alghero (2004) and Valencia (2004). Institutions Institut d'Estudis Catalans Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua Secretaria de Política Lingüística de la Generalitat de Catalunya About the Catalan language Ethnologue report for Catalan GRAMÀTICA CATALANA A Catalan grammar Monolingual dictionaries Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana from the Institut d'Estudis Catalans Gran Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana from Enciclopèdia Catalana Diccionari Català-Valencià-Balear d'Alcover i Moll Diccionari valencià online Diccionari Invers de la Llengua Catalana Dictionary of Catalan words spelled backwards Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana Multilingüe from Enciclopèdia Catalana (Catalan < > Spanish, English, French and German) DACCO. Open source, collaborative dictionary (Catalan < > English) Dictionary from Webster's Online Dictionary - the Rosetta Edition (Catalan < > English) Catalan-English-Catalan dictionary Automated translation systems Traductor Automated, on-line translations of text and web pages (Catalan < > English, French and Spanish) SisHiTra Automated, on-line translations of text and web pages (Catalan < > Spanish) Phrasebooks Catalan phrasebook on Wikitravel Learning resources Learn Catalan Online with Volunteers Interc@t. Set of electronic resources for learning the Catalan language and culture. Learn Catalan!. An introduction for the Catalonia-bound traveler. 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7,019 | Geography_of_Nicaragua | +Geography of NicaraguaMap of NicaraguaAreaTotal129,494 km²Land120,254 km²Water9,240 km²Latitude13 00' NLongitude85 00'WBordersHonduras922 kmCosta Rica309 kmCoastlines910 kmMaritime claimsContiguous zone24 nautical miles (44 km)Territorial sea12 nautical miles (22 km) Shaded relief map of Nicaragua Political map of Nicaragua Satellite image of Nicaragua in March 2003 Economic activity map of Nicaragua, 1979 Land use map of Nicaragua, 1979 Topography of Nicaragua Nicaragua is a country in Central America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Costa Rica and Honduras. Approximately the size of New York state, it is the largest country in Central America. The country covers a total area of 129,494 square kilometers (120,254 square kilometers of which are land area) and contains a diversity of climates and terrains. The country's physical geography divides it into three major zones: Pacific lowlands, the wetter, cooler central highlands, and the Caribbean lowlands. Geographic coordinates: Natural regions Pacific lowlands The Pacific lowlands extend about 75 kilometers inland from the Pacific coast. Most of the area is flat, except for a line of young volcanoes, many of which are still active, running between the Golfo de Fonseca and Lago de Nicaragua. These peaks lie just west of a large crustal fracture or structural rift that forms a long, narrow depression passing southeast across the isthmus from the Golfo de Fonseca to the Río San Juan. The rift is occupied in part by the largest freshwater lakes in Central America: Lago de Managua (56 kilometers long and 24 kilometers wide) and Lago de Nicaragua (about 160 kilometers long and 75 kilometers wide). These two lakes are joined by the Río Tipitapa, which flows south into Lago de Nicaragua. Lago de Nicaragua in turn drains into the Río San Juan (the boundary between Nicaragua and Costa Rica), which flows through the southern part of the rift lowlands to the Caribbean Sea. The valley of the Río San Juan forms a natural passageway close to sea level across the Nicaraguan isthmus from the Caribbean Sea to Lago de Nicaragua and the rift. From the southwest edge of Lago de Nicaragua, it is only nineteen kilometers to the Pacific Ocean. This route was considered as a possible alternative to the Panama Canal at various times in the past. Surrounding the lakes and extending northwest of them along the rift valley to the Golfo de Fonseca are fertile lowland plains highly enriched with volcanic ash from nearby volcanoes. These lowlands are densely populated and well cultivated. More directly west of the lake region is a narrow line of ash-covered hills and volcanoes that separate the lakes from the Pacific Ocean. This line is highest in the central portion near León and Managua. Because Western Nicaragua is located where two major tectonic plates collide, it is subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Although periodic volcanic eruptions have caused agricultural damage from fumes and ash, earthquakes have been by far more destructive to life and property. Hundreds of shocks occur each year, some of which cause severe damage. The capital city of Managua was virtually destroyed in 1931 and again in 1972. Central highlands The triangular area known as the central highlands lies northeast and east of the Pacific lowlands. This rugged mountain terrain is composed of ridges 900 to 1,800 meters high and a mixed forest of oak and pine alternating with deep valleys that drain primarily toward the Caribbean. Very few significant streams flow west to the Pacific Ocean; those that do are steep, short, and flow only intermittently. The relatively dry western slopes of the central highlands, protected by the ridges of the highlands from the moist winds of the Caribbean, have drawn farmers from the Pacific region since colonial times and are now well settled. The eastern slopes of the highlands are covered with rain forests and are lightly populated with pioneer agriculturalists and small communities of indigenous people. Caribbean lowland The eastern Caribbean lowlands of Nicaragua form the extensive (occupying more than 50 percent of national territory) and still sparsely settled lowland area known as the Costa de Mosquitos (Miskito Coast). The Caribbean lowlands are sometimes considered synonymous with the former department of Zelaya, which is now divided into the North Atlantic Autonomous Region (Región Autonomista Atlántico Norte, RAAN) and the South Atlantic Autonomous Region (Región Autonomista Atlántico Sur, RAAS) and constitutes about 45 percent of Nicaragua's territory. These lowlands are a hot, humid area that includes coastal plains, the eastern spurs of the central highlands, and the lower portion of the Río San Juan basin. The soil is generally leached and infertile. Pine and palm savannas predominate as far south as the Laguna de Perlas. Tropical rain forests are characteristic from the Laguna de Perlas to the Río San Juan, in the interior west of the savannas, and along rivers through the savannas. Fertile soils are found only along the natural levees and narrow floodplains of the numerous rivers, including the Escondido, the Río Grande de Matagalpa, the Prinzapolka, and the Coco, and along the many lesser streams that rise in the central highlands and cross the region en route to the complex of shallow bays, lagoons, and salt marshes of the Caribbean coast. Climates Temperature varies little with the seasons in Nicaragua and is largely a function of elevation.The"hot land," is characteristic of the foothills and lowlands from sea level to about 750 meters of elevation.And night temperatures drop to 21°C to 24°C most of the year. The tierra templada, or the "temperate land," is characteristic of most of the central highlands, where elevations range between 750 and 1,600 meters.The "cold land," at elevations above 1,600 meters, is found only on and near the highest peaks of the central highlands. Daytime averages in this region are 22°C to 24°C, with nighttime lows below 15°C. Rainfall varies greatly in Nicaragua. The Caribbean lowlands are the wettest section of Central America, receiving between 2,500 and 6,500 millimeters of rain annually. The western slopes of the central highlands and the Pacific lowlands receive considerably less annual rainfall, being protected from moistureladen Caribbean trade winds by the peaks of the central highlands. Mean annual precipitation for the rift valley and western slopes of the highlands ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 millimeters. Rainfall is seasonal--May through October is the rainy season, and December through April is the driest period. During the rainy season, Eastern Nicaragua is subject to heavy flooding along the upper and middle reaches of all major rivers. Near the coast, where river courses widen and river banks and natural levees are low, floodwaters spill over onto the floodplains until large sections of the lowlands become continuous sheets of water. River bank agricultural plots are often heavily damaged, and considerable numbers of savanna animals die during these floods. The coast is also subject to destructive tropical storms and hurricanes, particularly from July through October. The high winds and floods accompanying these storms often cause considerable destruction of property. In addition, heavy rains (called papagayo storms) accompanying the passage of a cold front or a low-pressure area may sweep from the north through both eastern and western Nicaragua (particularly the rift valley) from November through March. Hurricanes or heavy rains in the central highlands, where agriculture has destroyed much of the natural vegetation, also cause considerable crop damage and soil erosion. In 1988 Hurricane Joan forced hundreds of thousands of Nicaraguans to flee their homes and caused more than US$1 billion in damage, most of it along the Caribbean katie. Other facts Area: total: 129,494 km² land: 120,254 km² water: 9,240 km² Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the state of New York Climate: tropical in lowlands, cooler in highlands Terrain: extensive Atlantic coastal plains rising to central interior mountains; narrow Pacific coastal plain interrupted by volcanoes; Lake Nicaragua (or Lake Cocibolca) is the second largest lake in Latin America after Lake Titicaca. (unless Lake Maracaibo is considered a lake and not a bay). Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Mogoton 2,438 m Natural resources: gold, silver, copper, tungsten, lead, zinc, timber, fish Land use: arable land: 9% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 46% forests and woodland: 27% other: 17% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 880 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, and occasionally severe hurricanes Environment - current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; Hurricane Mitch damage Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea References External links Photos and information about the volcanoes in Nicaragua | Geography_of_Nicaragua |@lemmatized geography:2 nicaraguamap:1 kmcosta:1 kmmaritime:1 claimscontiguous:1 nautical:2 mile:2 km:2 territorial:1 shade:1 relief:1 map:4 nicaragua:23 political:1 satellite:1 image:1 march:2 economic:1 activity:1 land:9 use:2 topography:1 country:4 central:17 america:5 border:1 caribbean:13 sea:6 north:3 pacific:13 ocean:5 costa:3 rica:2 honduras:1 approximately:1 size:1 new:2 york:2 state:2 large:5 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geographic_coordinate:1 golfo_de:3 río_san:5 san_juan:5 freshwater_lake:1 panama_canal:1 rift_valley:3 volcanic_ash:1 densely_populated:1 tectonic_plate:1 volcanic_eruption:2 rain_forest:2 lightly_populate:1 hot_humid:1 coastal_plain:3 fertile_soil:1 en_route:1 tierra_templada:1 elevation_meter:1 varies_greatly:1 millimeter_rain:1 annual_rainfall:1 annual_precipitation:1 millimeter_rainfall:1 rainy_season:2 tropical_storm:1 soil_erosion:2 hundred_thousand:1 lake_titicaca:1 gold_silver:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 destructive_earthquake:1 deforestation_soil:1 hurricane_mitch:1 biodiversity_climate:1 kyoto_protocol:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 protection_wetland:1 external_link:1 |
7,020 | Freescale_DragonBall | Motorola DragonBall EZ Microprocessor Motorola/Freescale Semiconductor's DragonBall, or MC68328, is a microcontroller design based on the famous 68000 core, but implemented as an all-in-one low-power solution for handheld computer use. It was designed by Motorola in Hong Kong. The DragonBall's major design win was in earlier versions of the Palm Computing platform; however, from Palm OS 5 onwards it has been superseded by ARM-based processors from Texas Instruments and Intel. The processor is also used in some of the AlphaSmart line of portable word processors. Examples include the Dana and Dana Wireless.FreeScale DragonBall MX-1 Microprocessor (BGA Package) The processor is capable of speeds of up to 16.58 MHz and can run up to 2.7 MIPS (million instructions per second), for the base 68328 and DragonBall EZ (MC68EZ328) model. It was extended to 33 MHz, 5.4 MIPS for the DragonBall VZ (MC68VZ328) model, and 66 MHz, 10.8 MIPS for the DragonBall Super VZ (MC68SZ328). It is a 32-bit processor with 32-bit internal and external address bus (24-bit external address bus for EZ and VZ variants). It has many built-in functions, like a color and grayscale display controller, PC speaker sound, serial port with UART and IRDA support, UART bootstrap, real time clock, is able to directly access DRAM, Flash ROM, and mask ROM, and has built-in support for touch screens. It is an all-in-one computer on a chip; before the DragonBall EZ, Palm handhelds had twice as many ICs. The more recent DragonBall MX series microcontrollers, later renamed the Freescale i.MX (MC9328MX/MCIMX) series, are intended for similar application to the earlier DragonBall devices but are based around an ARM9 or ARM11 processor core instead of a 68000 core. External links History of Motorola DragonBall | Freescale_DragonBall |@lemmatized motorola:4 dragonball:11 ez:4 microprocessor:2 freescale:3 semiconductor:1 microcontroller:1 design:3 base:4 famous:1 core:3 implement:1 one:2 low:1 power:1 solution:1 handheld:1 computer:2 use:2 hong:1 kong:1 major:1 win:1 early:2 version:1 palm:3 compute:1 platform:1 however:1 onwards:1 supersede:1 arm:1 processor:6 texas:1 instrument:1 intel:1 also:1 alphasmart:1 line:1 portable:1 word:1 example:1 include:1 dana:2 wireless:1 mx:3 bga:1 package:1 capable:1 speed:1 mhz:3 run:1 mips:3 million:1 instruction:1 per:1 second:1 model:2 extend:1 vz:3 super:1 bit:3 internal:1 external:3 address:2 bus:2 variant:1 many:2 build:2 function:1 like:1 color:1 grayscale:1 display:1 controller:1 pc:1 speaker:1 sound:1 serial:1 port:1 uart:2 irda:1 support:2 bootstrap:1 real:1 time:1 clock:1 able:1 directly:1 access:1 dram:1 flash:1 rom:2 mask:1 touch:1 screen:1 chip:1 handhelds:1 twice:1 ic:1 recent:1 series:2 microcontrollers:1 later:1 rename:1 mcimx:1 intend:1 similar:1 application:1 device:1 around:1 instead:1 link:1 history:1 |@bigram microprocessor_motorola:1 freescale_semiconductor:1 hong_kong:1 dana_dana:1 external_link:1 |
7,021 | Afro_Celt_Sound_System | The Afro Celt Sound System is a musical group which fuses modern dance rhythms (trip-hop, techno, etc.) with traditional Irish (Celtic) and West African music. It was formed by Grammy-nominated producer-guitarist Simon Emmerson, and is considered to be somewhat of a world music supergroup, often having a wide range of guest artists on their albums. Their albums have been released through Peter Gabriel's Real World Records, and they are also reportedly the best-selling band on the label, only exceeded in sales by Gabriel himself, and their striking live performances have often become the highlights of the WOMAD concert festivals. They signed a contract with Real World obliged to release five albums, of which the 2005 release Anatomic is the last; at this writing it is unclear what path the band will take in the future. Formation The inspiration behind the Afro Celts dates back to 1991, when Simon Emmerson, a Grammy-nominated British producer who would become the group's guitarist, collaborated with Afro-pop star Baaba Maal. While making an album with Maal in Senegal, Emmerson was struck by the similarity between one African melody and a traditional Irish air. Back in London, Irish musician Davy Spillane told Emmerson about a belief that nomadic Celts lived in Africa or India before they migrated to Western Europe. Whether or not the theory was true, Emmerson was intrigued by the two countries' musical affinities. In an experiment that would prove successful, Emmerson brought members of Baaba Maal's band together with traditional Irish musicians to see what kind of music the two groups would create. Adding a dash of modern sound, Emmerson also brought in English dance mixers for an electronic beat. "People thought I was mad when I touted the idea," Emmerson told Jim Carroll of the Irish Times. "At the time, I was out of favour with the London club scene. I was broke and on income support…. [But] the success was extraordinary." Jamming in the studios at Real World, musician Peter Gabriel's recording facilities in Wiltshire, England, the diverse group of musicians cut an album in one week. This album, Volume 1: Sound Magic, was released by Real World Records in 1996, and marked the debut of the Afro Celt Sound System, an energetic global fusion the likes of which the music world had not yet seen. "Prior to that first album being made, none of us knew if it would work," musician James McNally told Larry Katz of the Boston Herald. "We were strangers who didn't even speak the same language. But we were bowled over by this communication that took place beyond language." McNally, who grew up second-generation Irish in London, played keyboards, piano, bodhran, and bamboo flute. Despite the group's modest expectations for its first album, Sound Magic sold a respectable 250,000 copies. Performing at festivals, raves, and dance clubs, the band met with enthusiastic audiences. Encouraged by the response, the Afro Celt Sound System prepared for a sophomore album. The band had grown to include two more African musicians, Moussa Sissokho on talking drums and N'Faly Kouyate on vocals, kora, and balafon. Just as the second album was getting off the ground, one of the group's core musicians, 27-year-old keyboardist Jo Bruce (son of Cream bass player Jack Bruce), died suddenly of an asthma attack. The band was devastated, and the album was put on hold. Then Irish pop star Sinead O'Connor came to the rescue, collaborating with the band and helping them cope with their loss. "[O'Connor] blew into the studio on a windy November night and blew away again leaving us something incredibly emotional and powerful," McNally told Katz. "We had this track we didn't know what to do with. Sinead scribbled a few lyrics and bang! She left us completely choked up." So taken was the band with O'Connor's song, "Release," that they used the name for the title of their album. Volume 2: Release hit the music stores in 1999, and by the spring of 2000 it had sold more than half a million copies worldwide. By then the Afro Celt Sound System was in demand as a live band that not only made people dance but also connected with audiences around the world. In 2000 the group was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best World Music category. The band, composed at the time of eight members from six countries (England, Senegal, Guinea, Ireland, France, and Kenya), took pride in its ability to bring people together through music. "We can communicate anywhere at any corner of the planet and feel that we're at home," McNally told Patrick MacDonald of the Seattle Times. "We're breaking down categories of world music and rock music and black music. We leave a door open to communicate with each other's traditions. And it's changed our lives." In 2001 the group released Volume 3: Further in Time, which climbed to number one on Billboard's Top World Music Albums chart. Featuring guest spots by Peter Gabriel and Robert Plant, the album also incorporated a heightened African sound. "On the first two records, the pendulum swung more toward the Celtic, London club side of the equation," Emmerson told the Irish Times's Carroll. "For this one, I wanted to have more African vocals and input … than we'd done before." Again the Afro Celt Sound System met with success. Chuck Taylor of Billboard magazine praised the album as "a cultural phenomenon that bursts past the traditional boundaries of contemporary music." The single "When You're Falling," with lyrics by Gabriel, became a radio hit in the United States. In 2003 they changed their name to the simpler Afrocelts; however, two of their latest albums, Pod, a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums, and their fifth studio album Anatomic uses the long and familiar form. This decision is apparently affected by the fact that they seem much more well-known as Afro Celt Sound System around the world. Band members When Afro Celts began their musical journey in the mid-1990s during the Real World Recording Week the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually non-existent, though as time has passed a following combination of people is most often associated with the name Afro Celt Sound System: (Please note that the new release Anatomic only lists Simon, James, Iarla and Martin as regulars) Simon Emmerson (guitar, production) N'Faly Kouyate (kora, balaphon, ngoma drums, vocals) Moussa Sissokho (djembe, talking drum) James McNally (Bodhrán, accordion, whistle) Johnny Kalsi (Dhol Foundation bandleader; Dhol) Iarla Ó Lionáird (vocals) Emer Mayock (tin whistle, flute, uillean pipes) Martin Russell (keyboards, producing, engineering, programming) Others Who Have Performed with Afro Celt Sound System: Peter Gabriel, Robert Plant, Pete Lockett, Sinéad O'Connor, Pina Kollar, Dorothee Munyaneza, Sevara Nazarkhan, Simon Massey, Jesse Cook, Martin Hayes, Eileen Ivers, Mundy, Demba Barry, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Ciarán Tourish of Altan, Ronan Browne, Michael McGoldrick, Myrdhin, Shooglenifty, Mairead Nesbitt, Davy Spillane, Jonas Bruce, Heather Nova, Julie Murphy and Ayub Ogada. Discography Volume 1: Sound Magic (1996) Volume 2: Release (1999) Volume 3: Further in Time (2001) Seed (2003) Pod (2004) Volume 5: Anatomic (2005) They also made the soundtrack for the PC game Magic & Mayhem released in 1998. External links Afro Celts on Real World Records An Afro Celts Fan Website Afro Celts' MySpace Afro Celts on Discogs Afro Celt Sound System on Global Village Idiot | Afro_Celt_Sound_System |@lemmatized afro:16 celt:16 sound:14 system:9 musical:3 group:8 fuse:1 modern:2 dance:4 rhythm:1 trip:1 hop:1 techno:1 etc:1 traditional:4 irish:8 celtic:2 west:1 african:5 music:12 form:2 grammy:3 nominated:2 producer:2 guitarist:2 simon:5 emmerson:10 consider:1 somewhat:1 world:13 supergroup:1 often:3 wide:1 range:1 guest:3 artist:2 album:18 release:10 peter:4 gabriel:6 real:6 record:6 also:5 reportedly:1 best:2 sell:3 band:12 label:1 exceed:1 sale:1 striking:1 live:3 performance:1 become:3 highlight:1 womad:1 concert:1 festival:2 sign:1 contract:1 oblige:1 five:1 anatomic:4 last:1 write:1 unclear:1 path:1 take:4 future:1 formation:1 inspiration:1 behind:1 date:1 back:2 british:1 would:4 collaborate:2 pop:2 star:2 baaba:2 maal:3 make:4 senegal:2 strike:1 similarity:1 one:5 melody:1 air:1 london:4 musician:7 davy:2 spillane:2 tell:6 belief:1 nomadic:1 africa:1 india:1 migrate:1 western:1 europe:1 whether:1 theory:1 true:1 intrigue:1 two:5 country:2 affinity:1 experiment:1 prove:1 successful:1 bring:3 member:4 together:2 see:2 kind:1 create:1 add:1 dash:1 english:1 mixer:1 electronic:1 beat:1 people:4 think:1 mad:1 tout:1 idea:1 jim:1 carroll:2 time:8 favour:1 club:3 scene:1 broke:1 income:1 support:1 mldr:2 success:2 extraordinary:1 jamming:1 studio:3 facility:1 wiltshire:1 england:2 diverse:1 cut:1 week:2 volume:7 magic:4 mark:1 debut:1 energetic:1 global:2 fusion:1 like:1 yet:1 prior:1 first:4 none:1 u:3 know:3 work:1 james:2 mcnally:5 larry:1 katz:2 boston:1 herald:1 stranger:1 even:1 speak:1 language:2 bowl:1 communication:1 place:1 beyond:1 grow:2 second:2 generation:1 play:1 keyboard:2 piano:1 bodhran:1 bamboo:1 flute:2 despite:1 modest:1 expectation:1 respectable:1 copy:2 perform:2 raf:1 meet:2 enthusiastic:1 audience:2 encourage:1 response:1 prepare:1 sophomore:1 include:1 moussa:2 sissokho:2 talk:2 drum:3 n:2 faly:2 kouyate:2 vocal:4 kora:2 balafon:1 get:1 ground:1 core:1 year:1 old:1 keyboardist:1 jo:1 bruce:3 son:1 cream:1 bass:1 player:1 jack:1 die:1 suddenly:1 asthma:1 attack:1 devastate:1 put:1 hold:1 sinead:2 connor:4 come:1 rescue:1 help:1 cope:1 loss:1 blow:2 windy:1 november:1 night:1 away:1 leave:3 something:1 incredibly:1 emotional:1 powerful:1 track:1 scribble:1 lyric:2 bang:1 completely:1 choke:1 song:2 use:2 name:3 title:1 hit:2 store:1 spring:1 half:1 million:1 worldwide:1 demand:1 connect:1 around:2 nominate:1 award:1 category:2 compose:1 eight:1 six:1 guinea:1 ireland:1 france:1 kenya:1 pride:1 ability:1 communicate:2 anywhere:1 corner:1 planet:1 feel:1 home:1 patrick:1 macdonald:1 seattle:1 break:1 rock:1 black:1 door:1 open:1 tradition:1 change:2 life:1 far:2 climb:1 number:1 billboard:2 top:1 chart:1 feature:1 spot:1 robert:2 plant:2 incorporate:1 heightened:1 pendulum:1 swing:1 toward:1 side:1 equation:1 want:1 input:1 chuck:1 taylor:1 magazine:1 praise:1 cultural:1 phenomenon:1 burst:1 past:1 boundary:1 contemporary:1 single:1 fall:1 radio:1 united:1 state:1 simpler:1 afrocelts:1 however:1 late:1 pod:2 compilation:1 new:2 mix:1 four:1 fifth:1 long:1 familiar:1 decision:1 apparently:1 affect:1 fact:1 seem:1 much:1 well:1 begin:1 journey:1 mid:1 difference:1 virtually:1 non:1 existent:1 though:1 pass:1 following:1 combination:1 associate:1 please:1 note:1 list:1 iarla:2 martin:3 regular:1 guitar:1 production:1 balaphon:1 ngoma:1 djembe:1 jam:1 bodhrán:1 accordion:1 whistle:2 johnny:1 kalsi:1 dhol:2 foundation:1 bandleader:1 ó:1 lionáird:1 emer:1 mayock:1 tin:1 uillean:1 pipe:1 russell:1 produce:1 engineering:1 program:1 others:1 pete:1 lockett:1 sinéad:1 pina:1 kollar:1 dorothee:1 munyaneza:1 sevara:1 nazarkhan:1 massey:1 jesse:1 cook:1 hayes:1 eileen:1 ivers:1 mundy:1 demba:1 barry:1 mairéad:1 ní:1 mhaonaigh:1 ciarán:1 tourish:1 altan:1 ronan:1 browne:1 michael:1 mcgoldrick:1 myrdhin:1 shooglenifty:1 mairead:1 nesbitt:1 jonas:1 heather:1 nova:1 julie:1 murphy:1 ayub:1 ogada:1 discography:1 seed:1 soundtrack:1 pc:1 game:1 mayhem:1 external:1 link:1 fan:1 website:1 myspace:1 discogs:1 village:1 idiot:1 |@bigram afro_celt:15 sophomore_album:1 nominate_grammy:1 grammy_award:1 pendulum_swing:1 non_existent:1 sinéad_connor:1 seed_pod:1 external_link:1 |
7,022 | List_of_French_people | French people of note include: Actors/actresses A Isabelle Adjani Renée Adorée Anouk Aimée Arletty Antonin Artaud Fanny Ardant Jeanne Aubert Jean-Louis Aubert Jean-Pierre Aumont Claude Autant-Lara Daniel Auteuil Charles Aznavour B-C Brigitte Bardot Emmanuelle Béart Jean-Paul Belmondo François Berléand Charles Berling Suzanne Bianchetti Juliette Binoche Bernard Blier Sandrine Bonnaire Élodie Bouchez Bourvil Dany Boon Charles Boyer Guillaume Canet Capucine Martine Carol Leslie Caron Isabelle Carré Vincent Cassel Jean-Pierre Cassel Laetitia Casta Marion Cotillard Clotilde Courau D-L Béatrice Dalle Lili Damita Danielle Darrieux Alain Delon Danièle Delorme Julie Delpy Catherine Deneuve Gérard Depardieu Patrick Dewaere Arielle Dombasle Michel Drucker Morgane Dubled Anny Dupérey Romain Duris Nicolas Duvauchelle Fernandel Brigitte Fossey Louis de Funès Félicité du Jeu Jean Gabin Annie Girardot Judith Godrèche Eva Green Sacha Guitry Isabelle Huppert Irène Jacob Claude Jade Marlène Jobert Joe Kim Valérie Kaprisky Anna Karina Jean-Pierre Léaud Virginie Ledoyen Pascal Légitimus Noemie Lenoir Max Linder Sheryfa Luna M-W Marcel Marceau Sophie Marceau Jean Marais Olivier Martinez Jean-Baptiste Maunier Miou-Miou Mistinguett Yves Montand Jeanne Moreau Michèle Morgan Musidora Gérard Philipe Michel Piccoli Clémence Poésy Alexia Portal Yvonne Printemps Pérette Pradier Rachel (actress) pseudonym for Elisa-Rachel Félix Gabrielle Réjane Jean Reno Pierre Richard Jean Rochefort Béatrice Romand Philippine de Rothschild Nathalie Roussel Michel Roux Emmanuelle Seigner Delphine Seyrig Clément Sibony Simone Signoret Audrey Tautou Jean-Louis Trintignant Marie Trintignant Gaspard Ulliel Michael Vartan Hervé Villechaize Architects Jacques-François Blondel Germain Boffrand Étienne-Louis Boullée Salomon de Brosse Libéral Bruant Androuet du Cerceau family Pierre Charreau Le Corbusier pseudonym for Charles Edouard Jeanneret (Swiss-born) Philibert Delorme Pierre Francois Leonard Fontaine Ange-Jacques Gabriel Charles Garnier Tony Garnier Hector Guimard Villard de Honnecourt Pierre Jeanneret (Swiss-born) Frantz Jourdain Henri Labrouste Claude Nicolas Ledoux Pierre Lescot André Lurçat Robert Mallet-Stevens Francois Mansart Jules Hardouin Mansart Louis Métezeau Pierre de Montrevil Jean Nouvel Charles Percier Claude Perrault Dominique Perrault Auguste Perret Christian de Portzamparc Jean Prouvé Alain Provost Henri Sauvage Jacques Germain Soufflot Louis Le Vau Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc Authors See also: French language authors, French language poets, French novelists A Marcel Achard Alain-Fournier Jean Anouilh -- 20th century dramatist Guillaume Apollinaire Louis Aragon Antonin Artaud Marcel Aymé B Honoré de Balzac -- realist author Henri Barbusse Charles Baudelaire, 19th century poet Pierre Beaumarchais, comedy playwright Simone de Beauvoir -- 20th century author Cyrano de Bergerac Georges Bernanos Tristan Bernard Maurice Blanchot Antoine Blondin Nicolas Boileau Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet Pierre Boulle Fernand Braudel André Breton Restif de la Bretonne Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin Michel Butor C-E Albert Camus -- existentialist author Louis-Ferdinand Céline -- 20th century author Blaise Cendrars Aimé Césaire-- 20th century author Nicolas Chamfort René Char, 20th century poet François-René de Chateaubriand Pierre Choderlos de Laclos Emil Cioran Paul Claudel Jean Cocteau -- 20th century poet and playwright Colette-- 20th century author Benjamin Constant Tristan Corbière Pierre Corneille -- classicist playwright Darry Cowl Marquis de Custine -- travel writer Robert Desnos -- 20th century poet Denis Diderot Alexandre Dumas, père, Author Alexandre Dumas, fils -- Playwright/author Marguerite Duras - 20th century novelist Vanessa Duriès Paul Éluard F-J René Fallet -- 20th century author Frantz Fanon -- 20th century author, psychiatrist Léon-Paul Fargue Georges Feydeau Marc Ferro Amanda Filipacchi -- novelist (French and U.S. citizenship, writes in English) Alain Finkielkraut - essayist Gustave Flaubert -- realist author Anatole France Marie de France -- poet Romain Gary Jean Genet André Gide, Nobel Prize Winner Jean Giono Jean Giraudoux Françoise Giroud Julien Gracq Julien Green Pierre Guyotat Jean-Edern Hallier Auguste Himly, historian Victor Hugo -- novelist, poet, and playwright Joris-Karl Huysmans Eugène Ionesco Jules-Gabriel Janin -- author and theatre critic Alain Jouffroy -- poet, art critic, plastician L Jean de La Bruyère Jean de La Fontaine Pierre Choderlos de Laclos Comte de Lautréamont (Isidore Ducasse) Leconte de Lisle -- parnassian poet Alphonse de Lamartine Jacques Lacan - psychoanalyst Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie - historian Paul Lafargue Jules Laforgue Valéry Larbaud Maurice Leblanc, created Arsène Lupin Gaston Leroux- journalist and author, credited with creating the locked room puzzle mystery novel Le Mystère de la chambre jaune (The Mystery of the Yellow Room) and author of Le Fantôme de l'Opéra (The Phantom of the Opera)M-O Stéphane Mallarmé -- poet Hector Malot -- 19th century author André Malraux Matthieu Marais — 18th century lawyer and writer Marcel Marceau — 20th century mime (and member of the French Resistance in World War II) Pierre de Marivaux - playwright Clément Marot -- poet Guy de Maupassant novelist François Mauriac - Roman Catholic writer Prosper Mérimée - 19th century novelist Catherine Millet - art expert, editor and erotic memoirist Patrick Modiano Jean Baptiste Poquelin dit Molière -- 17th century comedic playwright and actor Alfred de Musset -- 19th century poet Gérard de Nerval Anaïs Nin Michel Ohl-- 20th century poet and novelist P-R Marcel Pagnol Charles Péguy -- 20th century poet Charles Perrault -- Mother Goose TalesGeorges Perec Saint-John Perse Roger Peyrefitte Jean Piaget - psychologist Christine de Pizan, historian, poet, philosopher Jacques Prévert -- 20th century poet Abbé Prévost Marcel Prevost Marcel Proust -- novelist Raymond Queneau François Rabelais -- Renaissance writer Raymond Radiguet Jean Racine -- classicist playwright Pauline Réage, novelist Arthur Rimbaud -- symbolist poet Alain Robbe-Grillet Pierre de Ronsard Edmond Rostand -- neo-romantic playwright Raymond Roussel Maximilien Rubel S-Z Marquis de Sade -- erotic and philosophic author Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve George Sand -- feminist author Jean Paul Sartre -- 20th century existentialist philosopher Nathalie Sarraute Pierre Seel, homosexual survivor of the concentration camps, activist, author Victor Segalen Madame de Sévigné Madame de Staël Antoine de Saint-Exupery, author and aviator. Claude Simon Stendhal -- novelist (born Henry Beyle) François Truffaut -- 20th century filmmaker Paul Valéry -- 20th century poet Vercors Paul Verlaine -- symbolist poet Jules Verne -- novelist Boris Vian -- 20th century author Alfred de Vigny -- 19th century poet Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam François Villon Voltaire Marguerite Yourcenar Émile Zola -- naturalist author Aviators Clément Ader Jacqueline Auriol Louis Blériot Henry Farman René Fonck Georges Guynemer Raymonde de Laroche Joseph Le Brix Marie Marvingt Jean Mermoz Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, author and aviator. Roland Garros, First to cross the Mediterranean. French Open is named after him. Business Bernard Arnault (born 1949), entrepreneur Liliane Bettencourt, cosmetics, one of the richest persons in Europe Marcel Bich, (1914–1994), Bic pens Vincent Bolloré (born 1952), transportation and engineering Marcel Boussac, textiles, fashion, newspapers, race horse breeding Ettore Bugatti (1881–1947), automobile manufacturer André Citroën (1878–1935), automobile manufacturer Marcel Dassault (1892–1986), aviation Alexandre Darracq (1855–1931), automotive pioneer Louis Delâge (1874–1947) automotive pioneer Emile Delahaye (1843–1905), automotive pioneer Philippe Camus Former EADS co-CEO Gerard Louis-Dreyfus (born 1932), agricultural commodities Eleuthère Irénée du Pont de Nemours (1771–1834), founder of DuPont Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours (1739–1817), entrepreneur Jacques Foccart (19..-1997), import-export Léon Gaumont, pioneer film inventor Paul-Louis Halley (1934–2004), supermarket tycoon Max Hymans (1900–1961), aviation Jean-Marie Messier (born 1957), former Vivendi CEO Gérard Mestrallet (born 1949), Chairman and CEO of Suez Gérard Mulliez, entrepreneur (Auchan, Decathlon, Flunch...), whose family is considered as one of the richest in Europe Charles Pathé, pioneer of film industry Armand Peugeot, (1849–1915) automobile manufacturer François Pinault (born 1936), entrepreneur Jacques-Donatien Le Ray (1726–1803), shipping magnate and a "Father of the American Revolution" Marcel Renault (1872–1903), automobile manufacturer James Mayer Rothschild (1792–1868), banker Philippe de Rothschild (1902–1988), wine maker Eugene Schueller (1881–1954), founder of L'Oréal Bernard Tapie (born 1943), entrepreneur Chefs Raymond Blanc Paul Bocuse Daniel Boulud Michel Bras Marie-Antoine Carême Chiboust Alain Ducasse Adolphe Dugléré Urbain Dubois Auguste Escoffier Pierre Gagnaire Michel Guérard Victor Hirtzler Laguipière Jacques Lameloise Philippe Legendre Jacques Pepin Georges Perrier Jean-Francois Piège Fernand Point Charles Ranhofer Eric Rippert Joël Robuchon Albert Roux Michel Roux Guy Savoy Alain Solivérès François Vatel Marc Veyrat Jean-Georges Vongerichten Colonial administrators Félix Éboué - Governor general of French Equatorial Africa Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza - French Congo Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac - Louisiana Samuel de Champlain - New France François Caron - First Governor of French territories of India François Martin - Governor for French territories in India Pierre Christoph Le Noir - Governor for French territories in India Pierre Benoît Dumas - Famous Governor for French territories in India Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais - French naval officer and administrator, in the service of the French East India Company. Joseph François Dupleix - Famous Governor for French territories in India Lally-Tollendal - Governor for French territories in India Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau - Governor for French territories in India Louis Faidherbe - Senegal Joseph Gallieni - Madagascar Francis Garnier - French Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) Émile Gentil - French Congo Louis Hubert Gonzalve Lyautey - Algeria Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville - Louisiana Jean Talon - Canada Composers Georges Auric Hector Berlioz Georges Bizet -- composer of CarmenNicolas-Charles Bochsa Pierre Boulez -- avant-garde composer Marc Antoine Charpentier François Couperin Michel Richard Delalande Georges Delerue Claude Debussy -- Impressionist composer Paul Dukas -- composer of The Sorcerer's ApprenticeHenri Duparc Gabriel Fauré César Franck -- also considered Belgian Gérard Grisey -- avant-garde composer Reynaldo Hahn Pierre Henry -- writer of musique concrète and electronic music Jean Michel Jarre Maurice Jarre -- film music composer Louis-Antoine Jullien Michel Legrand Jean François Lesueur Fabien Lévy -- avant-garde composer Jean Baptiste Lully, court composer to Louis XIV Olivier Messiaen Darius Milhaud Tristan Murail -- avant-garde composer Jacques Offenbach -- noted for his operettas Gérard Pesson -- avant-garde composer Gabriel Pierné Francis Poulenc Jean Philippe Rameau Maurice Ravel Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle -- composer of "La Marseillaise", French National Anthem Edmond Roussel Camille Saint-Saëns Erik Satie composer of Musiques d'ameublementPierre Schaeffer -- inventor of musique concrète Florent Schmitt Les Six -- group of composers Germaine Tailleferre Charles-Marie Widor Criminals For collaboration with Nazi Germany see also the politicians section. Jacques de Bernonville (1897–1972), war criminal sentenced to death Jules Bonnot Émile Louis Henri Désiré Landru -- serial killer Jacques Mesrine Zacarias Moussaoui Maurice Papon -- politician and war criminal Marcel Petiot -- serial killer Gilles de Rais -- prolific serial killer Jean-Claude Romand -- murderer Albert Spaggiari Charles Sobhraj -- killer Paul Touvier -- One of only two Frenchmen to be convicted of crimes against humanity Dancers Jane Avril La Goulue Sylvie Guillem Marcelle Lender Cléo de Mérode Hellé Nice François Perron Marie-Claude Pietragalla Roland Petit See also Moulin Rouge and Folies Bergeres Economists Marie-Esprit-Leon Walras - Equilibrium Theory (Walrasian Markets) Antoine Augustin Cournot Maurice Allais, Nobel Prize Raymond Barre — Economist and Politician Frederic Bastiat Marcel Boiteux Fernand Braudel Jules Dupuit Gerard Debreu — Nobel memorial prize 1983 Dominique Guellec Jean-Jacques Laffont Alain Lipietz — green economist François Quesnay Pascal Salin Jean-Baptiste Say Turgot Fashion Liliane Bettencourt, majority owner of L'Oréal, one of the wealthiest people in Europe Pierre Cardin -- Fashion Designer Laetitia Casta -- model Coco Chanel -- fashion designer Hubert de Givenchy Christian Dior -- fashion designer Morgane Dubled -- model Julien Fournié Jean-Paul Gaultier Madame Grey Daniel Hechter -- inventor of ready-to-wear Noemie Lenoir -- model Jennifer Messelier -- model Paul Poiret Yves Saint-Laurent -- fashion designer Louis Vuitton -- fashion designer Fictional characters Astérix, Obelix and Dogmatix (French: Idéfix) (René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo) -- Gaul warriors Athos, Porthos, Aramis and D'Artagnan (Alexandre Dumas, père) -- Musketeers of the King of France Cyrano de Bergerac (Edmond Rostand -- not fictional but there's no better category) Lestat de Lioncourt -- infamous vampire creation of Anne Rice Louis de Pointe du Lac -- French-born vampire companion of Lestat de Lioncourt Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) -- Captain of three Federation starships within one television series and four motion pictures Le Petit Prince (Antoine de Saint Exupéry) -- A famous "little prince". Erik, The Phantom of the Opera (Gaston Leroux) -- The "Opera Ghost" who haunted the Palais Garnier. Vicomte Raoul de Chagny (Gaston Leroux) -- Childhood friend of Christine Daae and brother of Comte Phillipe. Competed for the affections of Christine Daae with Erik. Rastignac (Honoré de Balzac) -- fictional character from La Comédie humaine series of novels by Honoré de Balzac The Man in the Iron Mask -- prisoner who was held in a number of jails, including the Bastille and the Fortress of Pinerolo, during the reign of Louis XIV of France Cpl. Louis LeBeau -- POW, Stalag 13 Inspector Jacques Clouseau -- The bumbling French detective, and star of the Pink Panther movies. Inspector Tarconi -- A bumbling French detective, and star of The Transporter movies. Jean Valjean -- Protagonist of Victor Hugo's Les Misérables. Le Peregrine - Alain Racine - Superhero in the Marvel Universe Tanguy et Laverdure -- A duet of pilots known as Les Chevaliers du ciel Filmmakers Olivier Assayas Jacques Becker Jean-Jacques Beineix Luc Besson Alice Guy-Blaché Bertrand Blier Catherine Breillat Robert Bresson André Cayatte René Clair René Clément Henri-Georges Clouzot Jean Cocteau Fabien Cousteau Jacques-Yves Cousteau Jacques Demy Henri Diamant-Berger Abel Gance Jean-Luc Godard Michel Gondry Jean-Pierre Jeunet Mathieu Kassovitz Jan Kounen Patrice Leconte Claude Lelouch Louis Malle André Malraux Georges Méliès Maurice Pialat Jean Renoir Alain Resnais Yves Robert Jean Rollin Alain Sarde Claude Sautet Jacques Tati Jacques Tourneur Maurice Tourneur François Truffaut Roger Vadim Agnès Varda Jean Vigo Humorists Jean-Marie Bigard Francis Blanche Alain Chabat Coluche Pierre Dac humorist and Resistance worker Jamel Debbouze Pierre Desproges Franck Dubosc Eric et Ramzy Dominique Le Fort aka "Catman" Thierry Le Luron Dieudonné M'bala M'bala Elie Semoun Monarchs and Royals See also French monarchs, members of the French Royal Families Philip IV the Fair King François I King Henri IV Louis XIV, the Sun King, reigned 1643–1715. Henriette Marie, Queen of England, wife of Charles I of England and mother to Charles II and James II. Philip V of Spain, grandson of Louis XIV through male line, born and bred in France, became King of Spain aged 17. King Louis XV, reigned 1715–1774. King Louis XVI, reigned 1774–1792, executed in 1793 in Revolution Emperor Napoleon I, first to be styled 'Emperor of the French', reigned 1799–1814 and again in 1815. Joséphine de Beauharnais, first wife of above. King Louis Philippe, only monarch styled King of the French. Reigned 1830–1848. Napoleon III, grandson of Joesphine by her first marriage, nephew of Napoleon I, President (1848–1852) and Emperor (1852–1871). Last French monarch. Charles-Marie David de Mayréna I -- King of the Kingdom of Sedang Musicians, singers Dominique A Air (band) Alizée Antoine Charles Aznavour Josephine Baker, American born entertainer Jane Bathori, opera singer Barbara Guy Béart Bénabar Michel Berger Les Béruriers Noirs Pierre Bouvier Lucienne Boyer Georges Brassens Aristide Bruant Manu Chao Daft Punk Dalida Damia Natalie Dessay, opera singer Sacha Distel, heartthrob covered "Raindrops keep falling on my head" Marie Dubas Jacques Dutronc Mylène Farmer Jean Ferrat Léo Ferré Nino Ferrer Thomas Fersen Claude François -- popular singer 1960s-1970s Fréhel David Desrosiers Sebastien Lefebvre Chuck Comeau France Gall Charlotte Gainsbourg Serge Gainsbourg Gipsy Kings Georgius Jean-Jacques Goldman Stéphane Grappelli -- jazz musician Juliette Gréco Gribouille (Marie-France Gaîté) Yvette Guilbert Arthur H David Hallyday Johnny Hallyday - born in Belgium, served in the French army Françoise Hardy Jacques Higelin Sébastien Izambard, member of the quartet Il Divo IAM Joëlle Justice (French band) Patricia Kaas Kassav' Kiki -- "Queen of Montparnasse" Jossé Lajoie La Goulue Boby Lapointe Bernard Lavilliers Maxime Le Forestier Gérard Lenormand Claudine Longet Sheryfa Luna -M- Christophe Maé La Mano Negra Mireille Mathieu Luis Mariano Alain Marion Anna Marly Didier Marouani — musician and composer Félix Mayol Mireille Mistinguett Ginette Neveu Yannick Noah Claude Nougaro NTM Noir Désir Vanessa Paradis Pierre Perret Pierpoljak Michel Petrucciani Édith Piaf Michel Polnaref Lily Pons — opera singer (naturalized as a United States citizen in 1940) Tino Rossi Les Têtes Raides TTC (band) Rene Rancourt Jean Sablon Renaud Bob Sinclar Alain Souchon Mano Solo Miossec Jeff Stinco Charles Trenet Christian Vander Sylvie Vartan Boris Vian Pauline Viardot — opera singer and composer Benjamin Warren Zazie Painters Jean René Bazaine Maurice Boitel François Boucher Pierre Brissaud Bernard Buffet Gustave Caillebotte Paul Cézanne Pierre Puvis de Chavannes Jules Chéret Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot Gustave Courbet Thomas Couture Jacques Louis David Edgar Degas Georges de la Tour Eugène Delacroix Robert Delaunay André Derain Marcel Duchamp Suzanne Duchamp Henri Fantin-Latour Jean-Honoré Fragonard Antonio de La Gandara Pierre Gandon Paul Gauguin Jean-Baptiste Gros Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres Charles de La Tour Georges Lacombe Pierre Laffillé Fernand Léger Édouard Manet Henri Matisse Claude Monet Gustave Moreau Berthe Morisot Gen Paul Francis Picabia Camille Pissarro Nicolas Poussin Pierre-Auguste Renoir Georges Seurat Nicolas de Staël Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Maurice Utrillo Suzanne Valadon Horace Vernet Jacques Villon Antoine Watteau Félix Ziem Philosophers Pierre Abélard Louis Althusser Raymond Aron — sociologist & philosopher Jean le Rond d'Alembert Gaston Bachelard Georges Bataille Roland Barthes Jean Baudrillard -- philosopher and sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, sociologist Julien Benda Henri Bergson Emile Boutroux Michel de Certeau André Comte-Sponville Jean de Crèvecoeur Guy Debord Gilles Deleuze Jacques Derrida René Descartes -- scientist and philosopher Denis Diderot -- Enlightenment author and atheist philosopher Michel Foucault Félix Guattari Vladimir Jankelevitch Étienne de La Boétie -- philosopher and politician Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe Henri Lefèbvre Marcel Légaut - Christian philosopher Jean de Léry -- corsaire and ethnologist, anti-racism activist Emmanuel Lévinas Jean-François Lyotard Nicolas Malebranche Gabriel Marcel -- philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty -- phenomenologist Michel de Montaigne -- philosopher essayist Montesquieu, political philosopher Edgar Morin Emmanuel Mounier -- philosopher Jean Luc Nancy -- philosopher Blaise Pascal -- scientist, Christian philosopher and author Jean-François Revel Paul Ricoeur Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Paul Sartre -- existentialist philosopher Michel Serres François-Marie Arouet (Voltaire) -- Enlightenment author, deist/agnostic philosopher Éric Weil -- philosopher Simone Weil Photographers Yann Arthus-Bertrand Henri Cartier-Bresson Raymond Depardon Robert Doisneau Bernard Plossu Politicians See also: Prime Ministers of France, Presidents of France Robert Badinter -- lawyer, statesman and anti death sentence activist François Bayrou -- UDF party leader Léon Blum -- politician, Socialist party leader, prime minister José Bové -- anti-globalization activist, altermondialist Aristide Briand Jacques Chirac -- politician, member of center-right wing party, former city mayor of Paris, two-term French president Georges Clemenceau Gaspard de Coligny Bertrand Delanoë - mayor of Paris Jacques Delors Félix Faure, President of France who died of a heart attack while making love to his mistress Charles de Gaulle -- World War II general, commander of the Free French Forces, heroic French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing Guizot, Prime Minister Gisèle Halimi lawyer and feminist activist François Hollande -- PS (Socialist Party) leader Jean Jaurès, politician, pacifist Lionel Jospin -- Socialist, former prime minister Bernard Kouchner -- founder of Medecins du Monde and other "French Doctors" Jean-Marie Le Pen -- Leader of the extreme right party in France, Front National, presidential candidate Jean-Claude Martinez, lawyer and European deputy Émile Loubet, President of France that elected in 1899, after the death of Félix Faure Pierre Mendès-France -- Lawyer and Statesman, prime minister Honoré Mirabeau François Mitterrand -- Lawyer and Statesman, president Jean Monnet Henri Philippe Pétain -- Head of Vichy France Alexandre de Prouville, Viceroy of New France Ségolène Royal -- politician, Socialist party, presidential candidate Nicolas Sarkozy -- politician, President of the right wing party, current French president Victor Schoelcher -- anti-slavery activist Charles Maurice de Talleyrand Maurice Thorez Jacques Toubon Dominique de Villepin -- former Prime Minister of France Dominique Voynet -- Physician and Green party politician Marthe Richard Popes See List of French popes Resistance workers Resistance workers during the German occupation of France in World War II Lucie Samuel-Aubrac(1912–2007), human rights activist Raymond Aubrac (born 1914), statesman Robert Benoist (1895–1944), SOE operative, champion race car driver Denise Bloch (1915–1945), SOE operative: King's Commendation for Brave Conduct, Legion of Honor, French Resistance Medal Andrée Borrel (1919–1944), SOE operative: Croix de Guerre Madeleine Damerment (1917–1944), SOE operative: Legion of Honor, Croix de Guerre, Médaille combattant volontaire de la Résistance Marie Louise Dissard (1880–1957), U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient William Grover-Williams (1903–1945), SOE operative, champion race car driver Cecily Lefort (1900–1945), SOE operative: Croix de Guerre Pierre Mendès-France (1907–1982), lawyer, statesman Jean Moulin (1899–1943), statesman Abbé Pierre (1912–2007), Priest and founder of Emmaus Christian Pineau(1904–1995), statesman Eliane Plewman (1917–1944), SOE operative: Croix de Guerre Germaine Ribière (1917–1999) Élise Rivet (1890–1945), nun executed by Nazis for aiding the resistance Lilian Rolfe (1914–1945), SOE agent executed by the Nazis Odette Sansom (1912–1995), SOE operative: George Cross, MBE, Legion of Honor Suzanne Spaak, Belgian-born agent: "Red Orchestra" intelligence network; executed 1944 Violette Szabo (1921–1945), SOE operative: George Cross, Croix de Guerre Jean-Pierre Wimille (1908–1949), SOE operative, champion race car driver See also French Resistance Scientists A-B Jean-Loup Bertaux, (CNRS) Marcelin Berthelot -- chemist C-K Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot -- physicist and military engineer Henri Cartan -- mathematician Georges Charpak -- physicist, Nobel prize winner 1992 Alain Connes -- mathematician; Fields Medalist 1982 Marie Curie -- physicist and chemist Pierre Curie -- physicist and chemist Jean Dausset -- biologist, Nobel prize winner 1980 Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre -- mathematician and astronomer Guillaume Delisle -- cartographer René Descartes -- scientist and philosopher Girard Desargues -- mathematician Pierre Drossard -- astrophysician Georges Duby -- historian Robert Debré -- physician Pierre de Fermat -- mathematician Hervé Faye -- astronomer Joseph Fourier -- mathematician and physicist Pierre Gassendi -- philosopher mathematician Pierre-Gilles de Gennes -- physicist, Nobel prize winner 1991 Évariste Galois -- mathematician Camille Guérin -- biologist Alexander Grothendieck -- mathematician; Fields Medalist 1966 (German-born) Joseph-Ignace Guillotin François Jacob -- biologist, Nobel prize winner 1965 Irène Joliot-Curie -- physicist and Nobel Prize winner Frédéric Joliot-Curie -- physicist, Nobel prize winner 1935 L-O Laurent Lafforgue -- mathematician; Fields Medalist 2002 Joseph Louis Lagrange -- mathematician Paul Langevin -- physicist Pierre-Simon Laplace -- mathematician and physicist Antoine Lavoisier Jean le Rond d'Alembert -- mathematician, mechanician, physicist and philosopher Jean-Marie Lehn -- chemist, Nobel prize winner in 1987 Jean-Marc Lévy-Leblond -- physicist Claude Lévi-Strauss, anthropologist Pierre-Louis Lions — mathematician; Fields Medalist 1994 Edmond Locard André Lwoff -- biologist, Nobel prize winner 1965 Benoit Mandelbrot -- mathematician Albert Mathiez -- historian André Michaux -- botanist and explorer François André Michaux -- botanist Jules Michelet -- historian Abraham de Moivre -- mathematician Jacques Monod -- biologist, Nobel prize winner 1965 Theodore Monod -- naturalist and theologian Philippe Morel -- Claude Mossé -- (Ms), historian Louis Néel -- physicist, Nobel prize winner 1970 P-Y Denis Papin — physicist, mathematician and inventor Louis Pasteur — scientist Blaise Pascal — mathematician and philosopher Étienne Pascal — mathematician Henri Poincaré — mathematician and physicist Simeon Poisson — mathematician and physicist Michel Rolle — mathematician Francis Rocard — (CNRS) Jean Rostand — biologist and philosopher. Paul Rohmer — physician Laurent Schwartz — mathematician; Fields Medalist 1950 Jean-Pierre Serre — mathematician; Fields Medalist 1954 Albert Soboul — historian Maria Skłodowska-Curie -- chemist, physicist, and two time Nobel Prize winner René Thom — mathematician; Fields Medalist 1958 Jean-Pierre Vernant — historian Alfred Vidal-Madjar — astrophysician Pierre Vidal-Naquet — historian and Civil Rights activist Pierre Vilar — historian Jean-Christophe Victor — geographer Paul-Emile Victor — ethnologist Wendelin Werner — mathematician; Fields Medalist 2006 (German-born) Jean-Christophe Yoccoz — mathematician; Fields Medalist 1994 Sculptors Frédéric Bartholdi Antonin Carlès Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux César Antoine-Denis Chaudet Camille Claudel Paul Dubois Raymond Duchamp-Villon Alexandre Falguière Jean Antoine Houdon René Iché Antonin Idrac Georges Lacombe Antonin Mercié Hippolyte Moulin Jean-Baptiste Pigalle Auguste Préault Auguste Rodin Francois Rude Niki de Saint Phalle Social Activists Hubertine Auclert -- journalist and feminist leader Simone de Beauvoir -- author, philosopher, and feminist Sophie de Condorcet -- feminist Maria Deraismes -- feminist Marguerite Durand -- journalist and feminist leader Olympe de Gouges -- feminist Samir Kassir -- journalist Jean Theophile Victor Leclerc -- radical revolutionist, newspaper publisher Victor Schoelcher -- Abolisionist Pierre Seel -- homosexual concentration camp survivor, activist, author Séverine -- feminist Flora Tristan -- feminist Soldiers Claude Martin Chevalier Bayard François Achille Bazaine Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte Georges Boulanger Thomas Robert Bugeaud Gaspard de Coligny François Darlan Louis Nicolas Davout Bob Denard Alfred Dreyfus Charles François Dumouriez Ferdinand Foch Louis Franchet d'Espèrey Joseph Gallieni Maurice Gamelin Henri Gouraud Bertrand du Guesclin Joseph Joffre Jean-Baptiste Jourdan Alphonse Juin Marie Pierre Koenig Jacques de la Palice Charles Leclerc Jean Lannes Jean de Lattre de Tassigny Philippe Leclerc de Hautecloque Hubert Lyautey Patrice MacMahon André Masséna Jacques Massu Louis-Joseph de Montcalm Simon de Montfort Philippe Morillon Joachim Murat Michel Ney Robert Nivelle Philippe Pétain Comte de Rochambeau Raoul Salan Nicolas Soult Louis Jules Trochu Henri de Turenne Maxime Weygand Athletes André the Giant -- professional wrestler Sarah Abitbol -- pairs figure skater (with S. Bernadis) Tariq Abdul-Wahad -- basketball player (born Olivier Saint-Jean) Louis Acariès -- boxer, former world title challenger, now promoter Luc Alphand -- Alpine skier Jacques Anquetil -- cyclist Fabien Barthez -- football player Marion Bartoli -- tennis player Alain Bernard -- Olympic swimmer Stephane Bernadis -- pairs figure skater (with S. Abitbol) Serge Betsen -- Cameroon born French citizen, rugby player Alexandre Biamonti -- French Karate World Champion Serge Blanco -- Venezuela born French citizen, rugby player Louison Bobet -- cyclist Surya Bonaly -- figure skater Andrée Brunet & Pierre Brunet -- 1928 & 1932 Olympic skating Gold Medalists Philippe Candeloro - figure skater Eric Cantona -- football player Georges Carpentier -- world champion boxer Marcel Cerdan -- world champion boxer Eugène Christophe -- cyclist Eugène Criqui -- world champion boxer Jean Cruguet -- jockey of Seattle Slew Richard Dacoury -- basketball player Emile Delahaye -- race car pioneer Boris Diaw --basketball player Marcel Desailly -- Ghana born French citizen, football player David Douillet -- judo Isabelle Duchesnay & Paul Duchesnay -- ice dancers Andre Ethier -- Major League Baseball outfielder for the Los Angeles Dodgers Patrice Evra -- football player: Monaco + Manchester United André Fabre -- horse trainer Laurent Fignon -- cyclist Just Fontaine -- football player Jacques Fouroux -- rugby union player and coach Pierre Galle -- basketball player -- basketball coach Lucien Gaudin -- fencer Thierry Henry -- football player Bernard Hinault -- cyclist Cristobal Huet -- hockey player Constant Huret -- cyclist Olivier Jacque -- motorcycle rider Rene Jacquot -- boxer, underdog who became world champion Laurent Jalabert -- cyclist Max Jean -- Formula 1 driver Brian Joubert -- figure skater Olivier Kapo -- football player: Lille, Juventus + Birmingham Jean-Claude Killy -- skier Raymond Kopa -- football player Pascal Lavanchy -- ice dancer (with S. Moniotte) Suzanne Lenglen -- tennis player Bixente Lizarazu - football player Sébastien Loeb - rally driver and 5-time champion Jeannie Longo -- cyclist André Mahé -- cyclist Claude Makelele -- football player: Chelsea Laure Manaudou -- swimmer Amélie Mauresmo -- tennis player Jose Meiffret -- cyclist Eric Millot -- figure skater Alain Mimoun -- athlete Sophie Moniotte -- ice dancer (with P. Lavanchy) Antoine Montero -- boxer, lost to Santos Laciar for the world title Carole Montillet -- skier Hellé Nice -- pioneer female race car driver Joakim Noah --NBA basketball player (Chicago Bulls) Yannick Noah -- tennis player Tony Parker -- Belgian born French citizen, basketball player Gwendal Peizerat -- ice dancer Marie-José Perec -- athlete Mary Pierce-- Canadian born French citizen, tennis player Stéphane Peterhansel -- car and motor racer, 9 time Dakar Rally winner Julien Pillet -- fencer Michel Platini -- football player Alain Prost -- Formula 1 driver and 4-time champion Antoine Rigaudeau -- basketball player Georges Stern -- thoroughbred racing jockey Marcel Thil -- world champion boxer Christophe Tiozzo -- world champion boxer Fabrice Tiozzo -- world champion boxer, Christophe's brother David Trezeguet -- football player Damien Touya -- fencer Patrick Vieira -- Senegal born French citizen, football player Richard Virenque -- Morocco born French citizen, cyclist Roger Walkowiak -- cyclist Jean-Pierre Wimille, race car driver Zinedine Zidane -- Football (Soccer) Player Theologians O.P. (Ordo Praedicatorum) is the abbreviation used to indicate that someone is/was a member of Dominican order, a Catholic religious order. S.J. (Societas Iesu) is the abbreviation used to indicate that someone is/was a member of the Society of Jesus, another Catholic religious order. Marie-Émile Boismard O.P. Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet Jean Calvin Sebastian Castellion -- translator of the Bible Pierre Cauchon -- condemned Joan of Arc Bernard of Clairvaux Jean Claude Yves Congar, O.P. André Gounelle Pierre Lagrange O.P. -- founder of the Ecole Biblique et Archeologique de JérusalemHubert Languet Maurice Leenhardt -- ethnologist, theologian Etienne Mennegoz Wilfred Monod Etienne Nodet O.P. Rachi de Champagne Alexandre de Rhodes S.J. -- 17th c. missionary to Indochina Pierre Teilhard de Chardin S.J. Auguste Sabatier Antonin Sertillanges O.P. -- founder of the Revue ThomisteBernard Sesboué S.J. Military Leaders See: List of French military leaders Marshal of France Constable of France French nobility Others Jaucues Louis Braille, blind inventor Charles Cros, poet and inventor Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Arc), commander and Saint Jeanne Calment, who reached the longest lifespan in human history at 122 years and 164 days André Charles Boulle, cabinet maker Jean René Champion, first Free French Forces soldier to enter the city of Paris on its liberation in August 1944. Pierre de Coubertin, initiator of the modern Olympic Games Jean-Louis David, hairdresser Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt Ninon de l'Enclos, courtesan, patron of the arts Cavalier de la Salle, explorer Marcel Deprez, electrical engineer René Dumont, agronomist engineer and sociologist and ecology activist Jules Dumont d'Urville Maurice Duverger, jurist Jean-Baptiste Ebrard, founder of Liverpool, a chain of department stores in Mexico Gustave Eiffel, engineer Pierre Charles L'Enfant, planned Washington, D.C. Charles Michel de l'Épée, founder of world's first public school for deaf people Marquis de la Fayette, military leader in the American Revolution Arthur de Gobineau, diplomat, author of An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races'' Paul Héroult, inventor Claude de Jouffroy d'Abbans, designed the first steamship in 1783 René Lalique, artist Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds, explorer and canal engineer Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors Jean Paul Marat Jacques Mayol, freediver Marcel Mazoyer, agronomist Montgolfier brothers, balloonists Jean-Marie Pelt, botanist Elisée Reclus, geographer and anarchist César Ritz, hotelier Maximilien Robespierre Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, magician, namesake of "Harry Houdini" Pierre Seel, homosexual survivor of the concentration camps, activist, author Philippe Starck, designer Vauban, engineer François Henri de la Motte, French spy executed for treason 1781 in London See also Franco-Belgian comics List of French people of immigrant origin 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7,023 | Centimetreâ%80%93gramâ%80%93second_system_of_units | The centimetre-gram-second system (abbreviated CGS or cgs) is a metric system of physical units based on centimetre as the unit of length, gram as a unit of mass, and second as a unit of time. All CGS mechanical units are unambiguously derived from these three base units, but there are several different ways of extending the CGS system to cover electromagnetism. The CGS system has been largely supplanted by the MKS system, based on metre, kilogram, and second. MKS was in turn extended and replaced by the International System of Units (SI). The latter adopts the three base units of MKS, plus the ampere, mole, candela and kelvin. In many fields of science and engineering, SI is the only extant system of units. However, there remain certain subfields where CGS is prevalent. In measurements of purely mechanical systems (involving units of length, mass, force, energy, pressure, etc.), the differences between CGS and SI are straightforward and rather trivial; the unit-conversion factors are all powers of 10 arising from the relations 100 cm = 1 m and 1000 g = 1 kg. For example, the CGS derived unit of force is the dyne, equal to 1 g·cm/s2, while the SI derived unit of force is the Newton, 1 kg·m/s2. Thus it is straightforward to show that 1 dyne=10-5 newton. On the other hand, in measurements of electromagnetic phenomena (involving units of charge, electric and magnetic fields, voltage, etc.), converting between CGS and SI is much more subtle and involved. In fact, formulas for physical laws of electromagnetism (such as Maxwell's equations) need to be adjusted depending on what system of units one uses. This is because there is no one-to-one correspondence between electromagnetic units in SI and those in CGS, as there is for mechanical units. Furthermore, within CGS, there are several plausible choices of electromagnetic units, leading to different unit "sub-systems", including Gaussian, "ESU", "EMU", and Heaviside-Lorentz. Among these choices, Gaussian units are the most common today, and in fact the phrase "CGS units" is often used to refer specifically to CGS-Gaussian units. History The CGS system goes back to a proposal made in 1832 by the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. In 1874, it was extended by the British physicists James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson with a set of electromagnetic units. The values (by order of magnitude) of many CGS units turned out to be inconvenient for practical purposes. For example, many everyday length measurements yield hundreds or thousands of centimetres, such as those of human height and sizes of rooms and buildings. Thus the CGS system never gained wide general use outside the field of electrodynamics and laboratory science. Starting in the 1880s, and more significantly by the mid-20th century, CGS was gradually superseded internationally by the MKS (metre-kilogram-second) system, which in turn became the modern standard. From the international adoption of the MKS standard in the 1940s and the SI standard in the 1960s, the technical use of CGS units has gradually declined worldwide, in the United States more slowly than elsewhere. CGS units are today no longer accepted by the house styles of most scientific journals, textbook publishers, or standards bodies, although they are commonly used in astronomical journals such as the Astrophysical Journal. CGS units are still occasionally encountered in technical literature, especially in the United States in the fields of material science, electrodynamics and astronomy. The units gram and centimetre remain useful as prefixed units within the SI system, especially for instructional physics and chemistry experiments, where they match the small scale of table-top setups. However, where derived units are needed, the SI ones are generally used and taught instead of the CGS ones today. For example, a physics lab course might ask students to record lengths in centimeters, and masses in grams, but force (a derived unit) in newtons, a usage consistent with the SI system. Definition of CGS units in mechanics In mechanics, the CGS and SI systems of units are built in an identical way. The two systems differ only in the scale of two out of the three base units (centimetre versus metre and gram versus kilogram, respectively), while the third unit (second as the unit of time) is the same in both systems. There is a one-to-one correspondence between the base units of mechanics in CGS and SI, and the laws of mechanics are not affected by the choice of units. The definitions of all derived units in terms of the three base units are therefore the same in both systems, and there is an unambiguous one-to-one correspondence of derived units: (definition of velocity) (Newton's second law of motion) (energy defined in terms of work) (pressure defined as force per unit area) (dynamic viscosity defined as shear stress per unit velocity gradient). Thus, for example, the CGS unit of pressure, barye, is related to the CGS base units of length, mass, and time in the same way as the SI unit of pressure, pascal, is related to the SI base units of length, mass, and time: 1 unit of pressure = 1 unit of force/(1 unit of length)2 = 1 unit of mass/(1 unit of length·(1 unit of time)2) 1 Ba = 1 g/(cm·s2) 1 Pa = 1 kg/(m·s2). Expressing a CGS derived unit in terms of the SI base units, or vice versa, requires combining the scale factors that relate the two systems: 1 Ba = 1 g/(cm·s2) = 10-3 kg/(10-2 m·s2) = 10-1 kg/(m·s2) = 10-1 Pa. Definitions and conversion factors of CGS units in mechanics Quantity Symbol CGS unit CGS unitabbreviation Definition Equivalentin SI units length, position L, x centimetre cm 1/100 of metre = 10−2 m mass m gram g 1/1000 of kilogram = 10−3 kg time t seconds 1 second = 1 s velocity v centimetre per second cm/s cm/s = 10−2 m/s force F dyne dyn g cm / s2 = 10−5 N energy E erg erg g cm2 / s2 = 10−7 J power P erg per seconderg/s g cm2 / s3 = 10−7 W pressure p barye Ba g / (cm s2) = 10−1 Pa dynamic viscosity η poise P g / (cm s) = 10−1 Pa·s wavenumber k kayser cm-1 cm-1 = 100 m-1 Derivation of CGS units in electromagnetism CGS approach to electromagnetic units The conversion factors relating electromagnetic units in the CGS and SI systems are much more involved — so much so that formulas for physical laws of electromagnetism are adjusted depending on what system of units one uses. This illustrates the fundamental difference in the ways the two systems are built: In SI, the unit of electric current is chosen For historical reasons, 1 ampere is chosen such that the magnetic force exerted by two infinitely long, thin, parallel wires 1 m apart and carrying this current is exactly 2×10–7 N/m. This definition makes all SI electromagnetic units consistent (up to some integer powers of 10) with the EMU CGS system described in further sections. to be 1 ampere (A). It is a base unit of the SI system, along with meter, kilogram, and second. The ampere is not dimensionally equivalent to any combination of other base units, so electromagnetic laws written in SI require an additional constant of proportionality (see Vacuum permittivity) to bridge electromagnetic units to kinematic units. All other electric and magnetic units are derived from these four base units using the most basic common definitions: for example, electric charge q is defined as current I multiplied by time t, , therefore unit of electric charge, coulomb (C), is defined as 1 C = 1 A·s. CGS system avoids introducing new base units and instead derives all electric and magnetic units from centimeter, gram, and second based on the physics laws that relate electromagnetic phenomena to mechanics. Alternative ways of deriving CGS units in electromagnetism Relating electromagnetic quantities to length, time and mass, however, can be done in a variety of equally appealing ways. Two of them rely on the forces observed on charges. There are two fundamental laws that relate (independently of each other) the electric charge or its rate of change (electric current) to a mechanical quantity such as force. They can be written in system-independent form as follows: The first is Coulomb's law, , which describes the electrostatic force F between electric charges and , separated by distance d. Here is a constant which depends on how exactly the unit of charge is derived from the CGS base units. The second is Ampère's force law, , which describes the magnetic force F per unit length L between currents I and I flowing in two long parallel wires, separated by distance d. Since and , the constant also depends on how the unit of charge is derived from the CGS base units. Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism relates these two laws to each other. It states that the ratio of proportionality constants and must obey , where c is the speed of light. Therefore, if one derives the unit of charge from the Coulomb's law by setting , it is obvious that the Ampère's force law will contain a prefactor . Alternatively, deriving the unit of current, and therefore the unit of charge, from the Ampère's force law by setting or , will lead to a constant prefactor in the Coulomb's law. Indeed, both of these mutually-exclusive approaches have been practiced by the users of CGS system, leading to the two independent and mutually-exclusive branches of CGS, described in the subsections below. However, the freedom of choice in deriving electromagnetic units from the units of length, mass, and time is not limited to the definition of charge. While the electric field can be related to the work performed by it on a moving electric charge, the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity of the moving charge, and thus the work performed by the magnetic field on any charge is always zero. This leads to a choice between two laws of magnetism, each relating magnetic field to mechanical quantities and electric charge: The first law describes the Lorentz force produced by a magnetic field B on a charge q moving with velocity v: The second describes the creation of a static magnetic field B by an electric current I of finite length dl at a point displaced by a vector r, known as Biot-Savart law: where r and are the length and the unit vector in the direction of vector r. These two laws can be used to derive Ampère's force law, resulting in the relationship: . Therefore, if the unit of charge is based on the Ampère's force law such that , it is natural to derive the unit of magnetic field by setting . However, if it is not the case, a choice has to be made as to which of the two laws above is a more convenient basis for deriving the unit of magnetic field. Furthermore, if we wish to describe the electric displacement field D and the magnetic field H in a medium other than a vacuum, we need to also define the constants ε0 and μ0, which are the vacuum permittivity and permeability, respectively. Then we have (generally) and , where P and M are polarization density and magnetization vectors. The factors λ and λ′ are rationalization constants, which are usually chosen to be 4πkCε0, a dimensionless quantity. If λ = λ′ = 1, the system is said to be "rationalized": the laws for systems of spherical geometry contain factors of 4π (e.g. point charges), those of cylindrical geometry — factors of 2π (e.g. wires), and those of planar geometry contain no factors of π (e.g. parallel-plate capacitors). However, the original CGS system used λ = λ′ = 4π, or, equivalently, kCε0 = 1. Therefore, Gaussian, ESU, and EMU subsystems of CGS (described below) are not rationalized. Various extensions of the CGS system to electromagnetism The table below shows the values of the above constants used in some common CGS subsystems: system Electrostatic CGS(ESU, esu, or stat-) 1 c−2 1 c−2 c−2 1 4π 4π Electromagnetic CGS(EMU, emu, or ab-) c2 1 c−2 1 1 1 4π 4π Gaussian CGS 1 c−1 1 1 c−2 c−1 4π 4π Heaviside-Lorentz CGS 1 1 c−1 1 1 1 11 The constant b in SI system is a unit-based scaling factor defined as: . Also, note the following correspondence of the above constants to those in Jackson and Leung: In system-independent form, Maxwell's equations in vacuum can be written as: Note that of all these variants, only in Gaussian and Heaviside-Lorentz systems equals rather than 1. As a result, vectors and of an electromagnetic wave propagating in vacuum have the same units and are equal in magnitude in these two variants of CGS. Electrostatic units (ESU) In one variant of the CGS system, Electrostatic units (ESU), charge is defined via the force it exerts on other charges, and current is then defined as charge per time. It is done by setting the Coulomb force constant , so that Coulomb's law does not contain an explicit prefactor. The ESU unit of charge, franklin (Fr), also known as statcoulomb or esu charge, is therefore defined as follows: Therefore, in electrostatic CGS units, a franklin is equal to a centimetre times square root of dyne: . The unit of current is defined as: . Dimensionally in the ESU CGS system, charge q is therefore equivalent to m1/2L3/2t−1. Neither charge nor current are therefore an independent dimension of physical quantity in ESU CGS. This reduction of units is an application of the Buckingham π theorem. ESU notation All electromagnetic units in ESU CGS system that do not have proper names are denoted by a corresponding SI name with an attached prefix "stat" or with a separate abbreviation "esu". Electromagnetic units (EMU) In another variant of the CGS system, Electromagnetic units (EMU), current is defined via the force existing between two thin, parallel, infinitely long wires carrying it, and charge is then defined as current multiplied by time. (This approach was eventually used to define the SI unit of ampere as well). In the EMU CGS subsystem, is done by setting the Ampere force constant , so that Ampère's force law simply contains 2 as an explicit prefactor (this prefactor 2 is itself a result of integrating a more general formulation of Ampère's law over the length of the infinite wire). The EMU unit of current, biot (Bi), also known as abampere or emu current, is therefore defined as follows: Therefore, in electromagnetic CGS units''', a biot is equal to a square root of dyne: . The unit of charge in CGS EMU is: . Dimensionally in the EMU CGS system, charge q is therefore equivalent to m1/2L1/2. Neither charge nor current are therefore an independent dimension of physical quantity in EMU CGS. EMU notation All electromagnetic units in EMU CGS system that do not have proper names are denoted by a corresponding SI name with an attached prefix "ab" or with a separate abbreviation "emu". Relations between ESU and EMU units The ESU and EMU subsystems of CGS are connected by the fundamental relationship (see above), where c = 29,979,245,800 ≈ 3·10<sup>10</sub> is the speed of light in vacuum in cm/s. Therefore, the ratio of the corresponding “primary″ electrical and magnetic units (e.g. current, charge, voltage, etc. — quantities proportional to those that enter directly into Coulomb's law or Ampère's force law) is equal either to c-1 or c: and . Units derived from these may have ratios equal to higher powers of c, for example: . Other variants There were at various points in time about half a dozen systems of electromagnetic units in use, most based on the CGS system. These also include Gaussian units, and Heaviside-Lorentz units. Further complicating matters is the fact that some physicists and engineers in the United States use hybrid units, such as volts per centimetre for electric field. In fact, this is essentially the same as the SI unit system, by the variant to translate all lengths used into cm, e.g. 1 m = 100 cm. Electromagnetic units in various CGS systems + Conversion of SI units in electromagnetism to ESU, EMU, and Gaussian subsystems of CGSc = 29,979,245,800 ≈ 3·10<sup>10</sub> Quantity Symbol SI unit ESU unit EMU unit Gaussian unit electric charge q 1 C = (10-1 c) statC = (10-1) abC = (10-1 c) Fr electric current I 1 A = (10-1 c) statA = (10-1) abA = (10-1 c) Fr·s electric potentialvoltage φV 1 V = (108 c-1) statV = (108) abV = (108 c-1) statV electric field E 1 V/m = (106 c-1) statV/cm = (106) abV/cm= (106 c-1) statV/cm magnetic induction B 1 T = (104 c-1) statT = (104) G = (104) G magnetic field strength H 1 A/m = (4π 10-3 c) statA/cm = (4π 10-3) Oe = (4π 10-3) Oe magnetic dipole moment μ 1 A·m² = (103 c) statA·cm² = (103) abA·cm² = (103) erg/G magnetic fluxΦm 1 Wb = (108 c-1) statT·cm² = (108) Mw = (108) G·cm² resistanceR 1 Ω = (109 c-2) s/cm = (109) abΩ = (109 c-2) s/cm resistivityρ 1 Ω·m = (1011 c-2) s = (1011) abΩ·cm = (1011 c-2) s capacitanceC 1 F = (10-9 c2) cm = (10-9) abF = (10-9 c2) cm inductanceL 1 H = (109 c-2) cm-1·s-2 = (109) abH = (109 c-2) cm-1·s-2 In this table, c = 29,979,245,800 ≈ 3·10<sup>10</sub> is the speed of light in vacuum in the CGS units of cm/s. One can think of the SI value of the Coulomb constant kC as: This explains why SI to ESU conversions involving factors of c2 lead to significant simplifications of the ESU units, such as 1 statF = 1 cm and 1 statΩ = 1 s/cm: this is the consequence of the fact that in ESU system kC=1. For example, a centimetre of capacitance is the capacitance between a sphere of radius 1 cm in vacuum and infinity. The capacitance C between two concentric spheres of radii R and r in ESU CGS system is: . By taking the limit as R goes to infinity we see C equals r. Physical constants in CGS units + Commonly used physical constants in CGS units Constant Symbol Value Atomic mass unit u 1.660 538 782 × 10−24 gBohr magnetonμB 9.274 009 15 × 10−21 erg/G (EMU) 2.780 278 00 × 10−10 statA·cm² (ESU) Bohr radius a0 5.291 772 0859 × 10−9 cm Boltzmann constant k 1.380 6504 × 10−16 erg/K Electron mass me 9.109 382 15 × 10−28 gElementary chargee 4.803 204 27 × 10−10 Fr (ESU) 1.602 176 487 × 10−20 abC (EMU) Fine-structure constant α ≈ 1/137 7.297 352 570 × 10−3 Gravitational constant G 6.674 28 × 10−8 cm3/(g·s2) Impedance of free space Z0 ≡ c-1 ≈ 3.335 640 95 × 10-11 s/cm (ESU) ≡ c = 2.997 924 58 × 1010 abΩ (EMU) ≡ 1 (Gaussian and Heaviside-Lorentz)Planck constant h 6.626 068 85 × 10−27 erg·s 1.054 5716 × 10−27 erg·s Speed of light in vacuum c ≡ 2.997 924 58 × 1010 cm/s Pro and contra While the absence of explicit prefactors in some CGS subsystems simplifies some theoretical calculations, it has the disadvantage that sometimes the units in CGS are hard to define through experiment. Also, lack of unique unit names leads to a great confusion: thus “15 emu” may mean either 15 abvolt, or 15 emu units of electric dipole moment, or 15 emu units of magnetic susceptibility, sometimes (but not always) per gram or per mole. On the other hand, SI starts with a unit of current, the ampere, which is easier to determine through experiment, but which requires extra prefactors in the electromagnetic equations. With its system of unique named units, SI also removes any confusion in usage: 1 ampere is a fixed quantity of a specific variable, and so are 1 henry and 1 ohm. A key virtue of the Gaussian CGS system is that electric and magnetic fields have the same units, is replaced by , and the only dimensional constant appearing in the equations is , the speed of light. The Heaviside-Lorentz system has these desirable properties as well (with equaling 1), but it is a "rationalized" system (as is SI) in which the charges and fields are defined in such a way that there are many fewer factors of appearing in the formulas, and it is in Heaviside-Lorentz units that the Maxwell equations take their simplest form. In SI, and other rationalized systems (e.g. Heaviside-Lorentz), the unit of current was chosen such that electromagnetic equations concerning charged spheres contain 4π, those concerning coils of current and straight wires contain 2π and those dealing with charged surfaces lack π entirely, which was the most convenient choice for electrical-engineering applications. In those fields where formulas concerning spheres dominate (for example, astronomy), it has been argued that the non-rationalized CGS system can be somewhat more convenient notationally. In fact, in certain fields, specialized unit systems are used to simplify formulas even further than either SI or'' CGS, by using some system of natural units. For example, the particle physics community uses a system where every quantity is expressed by only one unit, the eV, with lengths, times, etc. all converted into eV's by inserting factors of c and . This unit system is very convenient for particle-physics calculations, but would be impractical in other contexts. See also Scientific units named after people Units of measurement SI electromagnetism units SI units References and notes General literature be-x-old:СГС (сыстэма адзінак вымярэньня) | Centimetreâ%80%93gramâ%80%93second_system_of_units |@lemmatized centimetre:10 gram:8 second:13 system:58 abbreviated:1 cgs:73 metric:1 physical:7 unit:140 base:20 length:17 mass:11 time:14 mechanical:5 unambiguously:1 derive:20 three:4 several:2 different:2 way:7 extend:3 cover:1 electromagnetism:9 largely:1 supplant:1 mks:5 metre:4 kilogram:5 turn:3 replace:2 international:2 si:37 latter:1 adopt:1 plus:1 ampere:8 mole:2 candela:1 kelvin:1 many:4 field:20 science:3 engineering:2 extant:1 however:6 remain:2 certain:2 subfields:1 prevalent:1 measurement:4 purely:1 involve:4 force:25 energy:3 pressure:6 etc:4 difference:2 straightforward:2 rather:2 trivial:1 conversion:5 factor:12 power:4 arise:1 relation:2 cm:33 g:23 kg:6 example:9 dyne:5 equal:9 newton:4 thus:5 show:2 hand:2 electromagnetic:23 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7,024 | Manorialism | Manorialism or Seigneurialism or Feudal Society "Feudal Society", in its modern sense, was coined in Marc Bloch's 1939-40 books of the same name. was the organizing principle of rural economy and society widely practiced in medieval western and parts of central Europe. Manorialism was characterised by the vesting of legal and economic power in a lord, supported economically from his own direct landholding and from the obligatory contributions of a legally subject part of the peasant population under his jurisdiction. These obligations could be payable in: labor (the French term corvée is conventionally applied), produce ("in kind") or, on rare occasions, money. In the Eastern parts of Germany, the Rittergut manors of Junkers remained until World War II. Historical development and geographical distribution The term is most often used with reference to medieval Western Europe. Antecedents of the system can be traced to the rural economy of the later Roman Empire. With a declining birthrate and population, labor was the key factor of production. Successive administrations tried to stabilize the imperial economy by freezing the social structure into place: sons were to succeed their fathers in their trade. Councillors were forbidden to resign, and coloni, the cultivators of land, were not to move from the demesne they were attached to. They were on their way to becoming serfs. Several factors conspired to merge the status of former slaves and former free farmers into a dependent class of such coloni. Laws of Constantine I around 325 both : reinforced the negative semi-servile status of the coloni and limited their rights to sue in the courts. Their numbers were augmented by barbarian foederati, who were permitted to settle within the imperial boundaries. As the Germanic kingdoms succeeded Roman authority in the West in the fifth century, Roman landlords were often simply replaced by Gothic or Germanic ones, with little change to the underlying situation. Self-sufficiency was given an abrupt boost in the eighth century, when normal trade in the Mediterranean Sea was disrupted. The thesis put forward by Henri Pirenne, disputed by many, supposes that the Arab conquests forced the medieval economy into even greater ruralisation and gave rise to the classic feudal pattern of varying degrees of servile peasantry underpinning a hierarchy of localised power centres History The word derives from traditional inherited divisions of the countryside, reassigned as local jurisdictions known as manors or seigneuries; each manor being subject to a lord (French seigneur), usually holding his position in return for undertakings offered to a higher lord (see Feudalism). The lord held a manor court, governed by public law and local custom. Not all territorial seigneurs were secular; bishops and abbots also held lands that entailed similar obligations. By extension, the word manor is sometimes used in England to mean any home area or territory in which authority is held, often in a police or criminal context. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1559330/Terror-raids-on-homes-of-uranium-ex-employee.html http://www.londonslang.com/db/m/ In the generic plan of a medieval manor from Shepherd's Historical Atlas (illustration, right), the strips of individually-worked land in the open field system are immediately apparent. In this plan, the manor house is set slightly apart from the village, but equally often the village grew up around the forecourt of the manor, formerly walled, while the manor lands stretched away outside, as still may be seen at Petworth House. As concerns for privacy increased in the 18th century, manor houses were often located a farther distance from the village. For example, when a grand new house was required by the new owner of Harlaxton Manor, Lincolnshire, in the 1830s, the site of the existing manor house at the edge of its village was abandoned for a new one, isolated in its park, with the village out of view. In an agrarian society, the conditions of land tenure underlie all social or economic factors. There were two legal systems of pre-manorial landholding. One, the most common, was the system of holding land "allodially" in full outright ownership. The other was a use of precaria or benefices, in which land was held conditionally (giving us our word "precarious"). To these two systems, the Carolingian monarchs added a third, the aprisio, which linked manorialism with feudalism. The aprisio made its first appearance in Charlemagne's province of Septimania in the south of France, when Charlemagne had to settle the Visigothic refugees, who had fled with his retreating forces, after the failure of his Saragossa expedition of 778. He solved this problem by allotting "desert" tracts of uncultivated land belonging to the royal fisc under direct control of the emperor. These holdings aprisio entailed specific conditions. The earliest specific aprisio grant that has been identified was at Fontjoncouse, near Narbonne (see Lewis, links). In former Roman settlements, a system of villas, dating from Late Antiquity, was inherited by the medieval. Common features Manors each consisted of up to three classes of land: Demesne, the part directly controlled by the lord and used for the benefit of his household and dependents; Dependent (serf or villein) holdings carrying the obligation that the peasant household supply the lord with specified labour services or a part of its output (or cash in lieu thereof), subject to the custom attached to the holding; and Free peasant land, without such obligation but otherwise subject to manorial jurisdiction and custom, and owing money rent fixed at the time of the lease. Additional sources of income from the lord included charges for use of his mill, bakery or wine-press, or for the right to hunt or to let pigs feed in his woodland, as well as court revenues and single payments on each change of tenant. On the other side of the account, manorial administration involved significant expenses, perhaps a reason why smaller manors tended to rely less on villein tenure. Dependent holdings were held nominally by arrangement of lord and tenant, but tenure became in practice almost universally hereditary, with a payment made to the lord on each succession of another member of the family. Villein land could not be abandoned, at least until demographic and economic circumstances made flight a viable proposition; nor could they be passed to a third party without the lord's permission, and the customary payment. Though not free, villeins were by no means in the same position as slaves: they enjoyed legal rights, subject to local custom, and had recourse to the law, subject to court charges which were an additional source of manorial income. Sub-letting of villein holdings was common, and labour on the demesne might be commuted into an additional money payment, as happened increasingly from the 13th century. This description of a manor house at Chingford, Essex in England was recorded in a document for the Chapter of St Paul's Cathedral when it was granted to Robert Le Moyne in 1265: He received also a sufficient and handsome hall well ceiled with oak. On the western side is a worthy bed, on the ground, a stone chimney, a wardrobe and a certain other small chamber; at the eastern end is a pantry and a buttery. Between the hall and the chapel is a sideroom. There is a decent chapel covered with tiles, a portable altar, and a small cross. In the hall are four tables on trestles. There are likewise a good kitchen covered with tiles, with a furnace and ovens, one large, the other small, for cakes, two tables, and alongside the kitchen a small house for baking. Also a new granary covered with oak shingles, and a building in which the dairy is contained, though it is divided. Likewise a chamber suited for clergymen and a necessary chamber. Also a hen-house. These are within the inner gate. Likewise outside of that gate are an old house for the servants, a good table, long and divided, and to the east of the principal building, beyond the smaller stable, a solar for the use of the servants. Also a building in which is contained a bed, also two barns, one for wheat and one for oats. These buildings are enclosed with a moat, a wall, and a hedge. Also beyond the middle gate is a good barn, and a stable of cows, and another for oxen, these old and ruinous. Also beyond the outer gate is a pigstye. From J.H. Robinson, trans., University of Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints (1897) in Middle Ages, Volume I: pp283–284. Variation among manors Like feudalism which, together with manorialism, formed the legal and organizational framework of feudal society, manorial structures were not uniform. In the later Middle Ages, areas of incomplete or non-existent manorialization persisted while the manorial economy underwent substantial development with changing economic conditions. Not all manors contained all three kinds of land: typically, demesne accounted for roughly a third of the arable area, and villein holdings rather more; but some manors consisted solely of demesne, others solely of peasant holdings. The proportion of unfree and free tenures could likewise vary greatly, with more or less reliance on wage labour for agricultural work on the demesne. The proportion of the cultivated area in demesne tended to be greater in smaller manors, while the share of villein land was greater in large manors, providing the lord of the latter with a larger supply of obligatory labour for demesne work. The proportion of free tenements was generally less variable, but tended to be somewhat greater on the smaller manors. Manors varied similarly in their geographical arrangement: most did not coincide with a single village, but rather consisted of parts of two or more villages, most of the latter containing also parts of at least one other manor. This sometimes led to replacement by cash payments of the demesne labour obligations of those peasants living furthest from the lord's estate. As with peasant plots, the demesne was not a single territorial unit, but consisted rather of a central house with neighbouring land and estate buildings, plus strips dispersed through the manor alongside free and villein ones: in addition, the lord might lease free tenements belonging to neighbouring manors, as well as holding other manors some distance away to provide a greater range of produce. Nor were manors held necessarily by lay lords rendering military service (or again, cash in lieu) to their superior: a substantial share (estimated by value at 17% in England in 1086) belonged directly to the king, and a greater proportion (rather more than a quarter) were held by bishoprics and monasteries. Ecclesiastical manors tended to be larger, with a significantly greater villein area than neighbouring lay manors. The effect of circumstances on manorial economy is complex and at times contradictory: upland conditions tended to preserve peasant freedoms (livestock husbandry in particular being less labour-intensive and therefore less demanding of villein services); on the other hand, some such areas of Europe showed some of the most oppressive manorial conditions, while lowland eastern England is credited with an exceptionally large free peasantry, in part a legacy of Scandinavian settlement. Similarly, the spread of money economy stimulated the replacement of labour services by money payments, but the growth of the money supply and resulting inflation after 1170 initially led nobles to take back leased estates and to re-impose labour dues as the value of fixed cash payments declined in real terms. References See also Allodial title Folwark (Poland/Lithuania) Heerlijkheid (Dutch manorialism) Junker (Prussian manorialism) Lord of the Manor Manor house Patroon (17th century New Netherland) Seigneurial system of New France in 17th century Canada Shōen (Japanese Manorialism) External links Archibald R. Lewis, The Development of Southern French and Catalan Society, 718–1050 Estonian Manors Portal - the English version gives the overview of 438 best preserved historical manors in Estonia Medieval manors and their records Specific to the British Isles. | Manorialism |@lemmatized manorialism:7 seigneurialism:1 feudal:4 society:6 modern:1 sense:1 coin:1 marc:1 bloch:1 book:1 name:1 organize:1 principle:1 rural:2 economy:7 widely:1 practice:2 medieval:6 western:3 part:8 central:2 europe:3 characterise:1 vesting:1 legal:4 economic:4 power:2 lord:15 support:1 economically:1 direct:2 landholding:2 obligatory:2 contribution:1 legally:1 subject:6 peasant:7 population:2 jurisdiction:3 obligation:5 could:4 payable:1 labor:2 french:3 term:3 corvée:1 conventionally:1 apply:1 produce:2 kind:2 rare:1 occasion:1 money:6 eastern:3 germany:1 rittergut:1 manor:34 junker:2 remain:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 historical:3 development:3 geographical:2 distribution:1 often:5 use:6 reference:2 antecedent:1 system:7 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7,025 | Jan_van_Goyen | Portrait of Jan von Goyen by Gerard ter Borch. Jan Josephszoon van Goyen (13 January 1596, Leiden 27 April 1656, The Hague) was a Dutch landscape painter. Van Goyen was an extremely prolific artist; approximately twelve hundred paintings and more than one thousand drawings by him are known. Biography Jan van Goyen was the son of a shoemaker and started as an apprentice in Leiden. Like many Dutch painters of his time, Jan van Goyen studied art in the town of Haarlem with Esaias van de Velde. At age 35, he established a permanent studio at Den Haag (The Hague). Crenshaw tells (and mentions the sources) that Van Goyen's landscape paintings rarely fetched high prices, but he made up for the modest value of individual pieces by increasing his production, painting thinly and quickly with a limited palette of inexpensive pigments. Despite his market innovations, he always sought more income, not only through related work as an art dealer and auctioneer but also by speculating in tulips and real estate. Although the latter was usually a safe avenue of investing money, in Van Goyen's experience it led to enormous debts. Paulus Potter rented one of his houses. Nicolaes van Berchem became his pupil. In 1652 and 1654 he was forced to sell his collection of paintings and graphic art, and he subsequently moved to a smaller house. He died in 1656, still unbelievably 18,000 guilders in debt, forcing his widow to sell their remaining furniture and paintings. Van Goyen's troubles also may have affected the early business prospects of his student and son-in-law Jan Steen, who left The Hague in 1654. Crenshaw, P. (2006) Rembrandt's Bankruptcy. The artist, his patrons and the art market in seventeenth-century Netherlands, p. 23. Dutch Painting River Scene Typically, a Dutch painter of the 17th century (also known as the Dutch Golden Age) will fall into one of four categories, a painter of portraits, landscapes, still-lifes, or genre. Dutch painting was highly specialized and rarely could an artist hope to achieve greatness in more than one area in a lifetime of painting. Jan van Goyen would be classified primarily as a landscape artist with an eye for the genre subjects of everyday life. He painted many of the canals in and around Den Haag as well as the villages surrounding countryside of Delft, Rotterdam, Leiden, and Gouda. Other popular Dutch landscape painters of the sixteenth and seventeenth century were Jacob van Ruisdael, Aelbert Cuyp, Hendrick Avercamp, Ludolf Backhuysen, Meindert Hobbema, Aert van der Neer. Van Goyen's Technique Jan van Goyen would begin a painting using a support primarily of thin oak wood. To this panel, he would scrub on several layers of a thin animal hide glue. With a blade, he would then scrape over the entire surface a thin layer of tinted white lead to act as a ground and to fill the low areas of the panel. The ground was tinted light brown, sometimes reddish, or ochre in colour. Typical Dutch bridge with anglers, Groninger Museum Next, Van Goyen would loosely and very rapidly sketch out the scene to be painted with pen and ink without going into the small details of his subject. This walnut ink drawing can be clearly seen in some of the thinly painted areas of his work. For a guide, he would have turned to a detailed drawing. The scene would have been drawn from life outdoors and then kept in the studio as reference material. Drawings by artists of the time were rarely works of art in their own right as they are viewed today. On his palette he would grind out a colour collection of neutral grays, umbers, ochre and earthen greens that looked like they were pulled from the very soil he painted. A varnish oil medium was used as vehicle to grind his powered pigments into paint and then used to help apply thin layers of paint which he could easily blend. The dark areas of the painting were kept very thin and transparent with generous amounts of the oil medium. The light striking the painting in these sections would be lost and absorbed into the painting ground. The lighter areas of the picture were treated heavier and opaque with a generous amount of white lead mixed into the paint. Light falling on the painting in a light section is reflected back at the viewer. The effect is a startling realism and three-dimensional quality. The surface of a finished painting resembles a fluid supple mousse, masterfully whipped and modeled with the brush. When looking at a Van Goyen painting one can almost feel the wind in the trees laced with the scent of a bluest smoke lingering above a rustic cottage, or taste the salted air near the seashore he painted. Sources External links View of Dordrecht 1644 Bibliography | Jan_van_Goyen |@lemmatized portrait:2 jan:7 von:1 goyen:13 gerard:1 ter:1 borch:1 josephszoon:1 van:16 january:1 leiden:3 april:1 hague:3 dutch:8 landscape:5 painter:5 extremely:1 prolific:1 artist:5 approximately:1 twelve:1 hundred:1 painting:12 one:5 thousand:1 drawing:4 know:2 biography:1 son:2 shoemaker:1 start:1 apprentice:1 like:2 many:2 time:2 study:1 art:5 town:1 haarlem:1 esaias:1 de:1 velde:1 age:2 establish:1 permanent:1 studio:2 den:2 haag:2 crenshaw:2 tell:1 mention:1 source:2 rarely:3 fetch:1 high:1 price:1 make:1 modest:1 value:1 individual:1 piece:1 increase:1 production:1 paint:10 thinly:2 quickly:1 limited:1 palette:2 inexpensive:1 pigment:2 despite:1 market:2 innovation:1 always:1 seek:1 income:1 related:1 work:3 dealer:1 auctioneer:1 also:3 speculate:1 tulip:1 real:1 estate:1 although:1 latter:1 usually:1 safe:1 avenue:1 invest:1 money:1 experience:1 lead:3 enormous:1 debt:2 paulus:1 potter:1 rent:1 house:2 nicolaes:1 berchem:1 become:1 pupil:1 force:2 sell:2 collection:2 graphic:1 subsequently:1 move:1 small:2 die:1 still:2 unbelievably:1 guilder:1 widow:1 remaining:1 furniture:1 trouble:1 may:1 affect:1 early:1 business:1 prospect:1 student:1 law:1 steen:1 leave:1 p:2 rembrandt:1 bankruptcy:1 patron:1 seventeenth:2 century:3 netherlands:1 river:1 scene:3 typically:1 golden:1 fall:2 four:1 category:1 life:3 genre:2 highly:1 specialized:1 could:2 hope:1 achieve:1 greatness:1 area:5 lifetime:1 would:9 classify:1 primarily:2 eye:1 subject:2 everyday:1 canal:1 around:1 well:1 village:1 surround:1 countryside:1 delft:1 rotterdam:1 gouda:1 popular:1 sixteenth:1 jacob:1 ruisdael:1 aelbert:1 cuyp:1 hendrick:1 avercamp:1 ludolf:1 backhuysen:1 meindert:1 hobbema:1 aert:1 der:1 neer:1 technique:1 begin:1 use:3 support:1 thin:5 oak:1 wood:1 panel:2 scrub:1 several:1 layer:3 animal:1 hide:1 glue:1 blade:1 scrape:1 entire:1 surface:2 tinted:1 white:2 act:1 ground:3 fill:1 low:1 tint:1 light:5 brown:1 sometimes:1 reddish:1 ochre:2 colour:2 typical:1 bridge:1 angler:1 groninger:1 museum:1 next:1 loosely:1 rapidly:1 sketch:1 pen:1 ink:2 without:1 go:1 detail:1 walnut:1 clearly:1 see:1 painted:1 guide:1 turn:1 detailed:1 draw:1 outdoors:1 keep:2 reference:1 material:1 right:1 view:2 today:1 grind:2 neutral:1 gray:1 umber:1 earthen:1 green:1 look:2 pull:1 soil:1 varnish:1 oil:2 medium:2 vehicle:1 powered:1 help:1 apply:1 easily:1 blend:1 dark:1 transparent:1 generous:2 amount:2 strike:1 section:2 lose:1 absorb:1 picture:1 treat:1 heavy:1 opaque:1 mixed:1 reflect:1 back:1 viewer:1 effect:1 startling:1 realism:1 three:1 dimensional:1 quality:1 finished:1 resemble:1 fluid:1 supple:1 mousse:1 masterfully:1 whip:1 model:1 brush:1 almost:1 feel:1 wind:1 tree:1 lace:1 scent:1 blue:1 smoke:1 linger:1 rustic:1 cottage:1 taste:1 salted:1 air:1 near:1 seashore:1 external:1 link:1 dordrecht:1 bibliography:1 |@bigram van_goyen:12 de_velde:1 den_haag:2 real_estate:1 sixteenth_seventeenth:1 van_der:1 thin_layer:2 pen_ink:1 external_link:1 |
7,026 | Michael_Schumacher | Michael Schumacher (German pronunciation: ; ) (born January 3, 1969, in Hürth-Hermülheim, Germany) is a former Formula One driver, seven-time world champion, and current advisor and occasional test driver for Ferrari. According to the official Formula One website, he is "statistically the greatest driver the sport has ever seen". He is the only German to win the Formula One World championship, Jochen Rindt, who was born in Germany, won the Formula One World Championship under the Austrian flag. and is credited with popularising Formula One in Germany. In a 2006 FIA survey, Michael Schumacher was voted the most popular driver of the season among Formula One fans. After winning two championships with Benetton, Michael Schumacher moved to Scuderia Ferrari in 1996 and won five consecutive drivers' titles with them from 2000–2004. Schumacher holds many records in Formula One, including most drivers' championships, race victories, fastest laps, pole positions, points scored and most races won in a single season. Schumacher is the only Formula One driver to have an entire season of podium finishes, a feat he accomplished in 2002. His driving sometimes created controversy: he was twice involved in collisions that determined the outcome of the world championship, most notably his disqualification from the 1997 championship for causing a collision with Jacques Villeneuve. After the 2006 Formula One season Schumacher retired from race driving. Off the track, Schumacher is an ambassador for UNESCO and a spokesman for driver safety. He has been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts throughout his life and donated tens of millions of dollars to charity. He is the elder brother of former F1 driver Ralf Schumacher, currently racing in Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM). They stand as the only brothers in F1 history to have both won races and scoring the first ever 1-2 finish in Formula One. Early years Schumacher's title-winning German Formula Three car from 1990. Schumacher was born in Hürth Hermülheim, to Rolf, a bricklayer, and Elisabeth. When Schumacher was four, his father modified his pedal kart by adding a small motorcycle engine. After Schumacher crashed it into a lamp post in Kerpen, his parents took him to the local karting track at Kerpen-Horrem where he became the youngest member of the karting club. His father soon built him a proper kart from discarded parts and at the age of six Schumacher won his first club championship. To support his son's racing, Rolf Schumacher took on a second job renting and repairing karts at the circuit, while his wife worked at the track's canteen stand. Despite the extra income, when Schumacher needed a new engine costing 800 DM (400 €) his parents were unable to afford it, but their son was able to continue racing through support offered by several local businessmen. In Germany, the regulations require the driver to be at least 14 years old in order to obtain a kart license. To get around this, Schumacher obtained a license in Luxembourg in 1981, at the age of 12. In 1983, he obtained his German license and the year after he won the German Junior Kart Championship. From 1984, Schumacher won numerous German and European kart championships. He joined Eurokart dealer Adolf Neubert in 1985. By 1987 he was the German and European kart champion, at which point he withdrew from school and began working as a mechanic. In 1988 Schumacher made his first step into single-seat car racing by racing in the German Formula Ford and Formula König series, winning the latter. In 1989, Schumacher signed with Willi Weber's WTS Formula 3 team. For the next two years, funded by Weber, he competed in the German Formula 3 series, winning the title in 1990. Towards the end of 1990, along with his Formula 3 rivals Heinz-Harald Frentzen and Karl Wendlinger, he joined the Mercedes junior racing programme in the World Sports-Prototype Championship. This was an unusual move for a young driver: most of Schumacher's contemporaries would instead compete in Formula 3000 on their way to Formula One. However, Weber advised Schumacher that exposure to professional press conferences and driving powerful cars in long distance races would help his career. Schumacher gained victory at the season finale at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in a Sauber-Mercedes C11 and finished fifth in the drivers' championship. He continued with the team in the 1991 World Sportscar Championship season, winning again at the final race of the season at Autopolis in Japan with a Sauber-Mercedes-Benz C291, leading to a ninth place finish in the drivers championship. In 1991, he competed in one race in the Japanese Formula 3000 Championship, finishing second. Formula One career Overview Schumacher was noted throughout his career for his ability to produce fast laps at crucial moments in a race, to push his car to the very limit for sustained periods. Motor sport author Christopher Hilton observed in 2003 that "A measure of a driver's capabilities is his performance in wet races, because the most delicate car control and sensitivity are needed," and noted that like other great drivers, Schumacher's record in wet conditions shows very few mistakes: up to the end of the 2003 season, Schumacher won 17 of the 30 races in wet conditions he contested. Hilton has defined a race in wet conditions as "all races where it rained — even if that was a shower." Some of Schumacher's best performances occurred in such conditions, earning him the title "Regenkönig" (rain king) or "Regenmeister" (rain master). He is known as "the Red Baron", due to his red Ferrari and in reference to the German Manfred von Richthofen, the famous flying ace of World War I. Schumacher's nicknames include "Schumi", "Schuey" and "Schu". Schumacher is often credited with popularising Formula One in Germany, where it was formerly considered a fringe sport. When Schumacher retired in 2006, three of the top ten drivers were German, more than any other nationality and more than have ever been present in Formula One history. Younger German drivers, such as Sebastian Vettel, felt Schumacher was key in their becoming Formula One drivers. In the latter part of his Formula One career, and as one of the senior drivers, Schumacher was the president of the Grand Prix Drivers' Association. Debut Schumacher testing the Jordan 191. Schumacher made his Formula One debut with the Jordan-Ford team at the 1991 Belgian Grand Prix, driving car number 32 as a replacement for the imprisoned Bertrand Gachot. Schumacher, still a contracted Mercedes driver, was signed by Eddie Jordan after Mercedes paid Jordan $150,000 for his debut. The week before the race, Schumacher impressed Jordan designer Gary Anderson and team manager Trevor Foster during a test drive at Silverstone. His manager Willi Weber assured Jordan that Schumacher knew the challenging Spa track well, although in fact he had only seen it as a spectator. During the race weekend, team-mate Andrea de Cesaris was meant to show Schumacher the circuit but was held up with contract negotiations. Schumacher then learned the track on his own, by cycling around the track on a fold-up bike he had brought with him. He impressed the paddock by qualifying seventh in this race. This matched the team's season-best grid position, and out-qualified 11-year veteran de Cesaris. Motorsport journalist Joe Saward reported that after qualifying "clumps of German journalists were talking about 'the best talent since Stefan Bellof'". Schumacher retired on the first lap of the race with clutch problems. Benetton After his debut, and despite Jordan's signed agreement in principle with Schumacher's Mercedes management for the remainder of the season, Schumacher was signed by Benetton-Ford for the following race. Jordan applied for an injunction in the UK courts to prevent Schumacher driving for Benetton, but lost the case as they had not yet signed a contract. Schumacher finished the 1991 Formula One Season with four points in six races. His best finish was fifth in his second race, the Italian Grand Prix, in which he finished ahead of his team-mate and three-time World Champion Nelson Piquet. At the start of the 1992 Formula One season the Sauber team, planning their Formula One debut with Mercedes backing for the following year, invoked a clause in Schumacher's contract which stated that if Mercedes entered Formula One, Schumacher would drive for them. It was eventually agreed that Schumacher would stay with Benetton, Peter Sauber said that "[Schumacher] didn't want to drive for us. Why would I have forced him?". The year was dominated by the Williams of Nigel Mansell and Riccardo Patrese, featuring powerful Renault engines, semi-automatic gearboxes and active suspension to control the car's ride height. In the 'conventional' Benetton B192 Schumacher took his place on the podium for the first time, after finishing third in the 1992 Mexican Grand Prix. He went on to take his first victory at the 1992 Belgian Grand Prix, in a wet race at the Spa-Francorchamps circuit, which by 2003 he would call "far and away my favourite track". He finished third in the Drivers' Championship in 1992 with 53 points, three points behind runner-up Patrese. The Williams of Damon Hill and Alain Prost also dominated the season. Benetton introduced their own active suspension and traction control early in the season, last of the frontrunning teams to do so. . Benetton first raced traction control at the 1993 Monaco Grand Prix, having introduced active suspension at the 1993 European Grand Prix (Domenjoz (2002) p. 40). Williams had first raced an active system in 1987 and used it throughout 1992,(Autocourse (1992) p.50) while McLaren and Ferrari both introduced active cars in the final races of the 1992 season.(Autocourse (1992) pp.42 & 80) Schumacher won one race, the Portuguese Grand Prix where he beat Prost, and had nine podium finishes, but retired in seven of the other 15 races. He finished the season in fourth, with 52 points. 1994–1995: World Championship years Schumacher drove the Benetton B194 to his first World Championship in 1994. The season was Schumacher's first Drivers' Championship. The season, however, was marred by the deaths of Ayrton Senna and Roland Ratzenberger during the San Marino Grand Prix and by allegations that several teams, including Schumacher's Benetton team, broke the sport's technical regulations. Schumacher won six of the first seven races and was leading the Spanish Grand Prix, before a gearbox failure left him stuck in fifth gear. Schumacher finished the race in second. Following the San Marino Grand Prix, the Benetton, Ferrari and McLaren teams were investigated on suspicion of breaking the FIA-imposed ban on electronic aids. Benetton and McLaren initially refused to hand over their source code for investigation. When they did so, the FIA discovered hidden functionality in both teams' software, but no evidence that it had been used in a race. Both teams were fined $100,000 for their initial refusal to cooperate. However, the McLaren software, which was a gearbox program that allowed automatic shifts, was deemed legal. By contrast, the Benetton software was deemed to be a form of 'launch control' which would have allowed Schumacher to make perfect starts, which was explicitly outlawed by the regulations. At the British Grand Prix, Schumacher was penalised for overtaking on the formation lap. He then ignored the penalty and the subsequent black flag, which indicates that the driver must immediately return to the pits, for which he was disqualified and later given a two-race ban. Benetton blamed the incident on a communication error between the stewards and the team. Schumacher was also disqualified after winning the Belgian Grand Prix after his car was found to have illegal wear on its skidblock, a measure used after the accidents at Imola to limit downforce and hence cornering speed. Benetton protested that the skidblock had been damaged when Schumacher spun over a kerb, but the FIA rejected their appeal. These incidents helped Damon Hill close the points gap, with Schumacher leading by a single point going into the final race in Australia. On lap 36 of the race Schumacher ran off the track while leading from Hill. After rejoining at a reduced speed, he collided with Hill as Hill attempted to pass him, and crashed out of the race. The damage he caused to Hill's car forced him to retire. As neither he nor Hill scored, Schumacher won the championship, the first German to do so. In Schumacher successfully defended his title with Benetton. He now had the same Renault engine as Williams. He accumulated 33 more points than second-placed Damon Hill. With team-mate Johnny Herbert, he took Benetton to its first Constructors' Championship and became the youngest two-time world champion in Formula One history. The season was marred by several collisions with Hill, in particular an overtaking manoeuvre by Hill took them both out of the British Grand Prix on lap 45 and again on lap 23 of the Italian Grand Prix . Schumacher won nine of the 17 races, and finished on the podium 11 times. Only once did he qualify worse than fourth; at the 1995 Belgian Grand Prix, he qualified 16th, but went on to win the race. After Schumacher left Benetton at the end of the year, the team won only one more race before being bought by Renault in 2000. Ferrari In , Schumacher joined Scuderia Ferrari S.p.A., a team which had last won the Drivers' Championship with Jody Scheckter in and which had not won the Constructors' Cup since 1983 with drivers René Arnoux and Patrick Tambay at the wheel. He left Benetton a year before his contract with them expired; he later cited the team's damaging actions in 1994 as his reason for opting out of his deal. A year later, ex-Benetton employees Rory Byrne and Ross Brawn, who had been Technical Director at Benetton since 1991, and who was one of the key members behind Schumacher's title successes with the team in 1994 and 1995, decided to join Schumacher at Ferrari. This increased Schumacher's motivation to build a more experienced and potentially championship-winning team around him. Ferrari had previously come close to the championship in 1982 and 1990. The team had suffered a disastrous downturn in the early 1990s, partially as their famous V12 engine was no longer competitive against the smaller, lighter and more fuel efficient V10s of their competitors. Various drivers, notably Alain Prost, had given the vehicles labels such as "truck", "pig", and "accident waiting to happen". The poor performance of the Ferrari pit crews was considered a running joke. At the end of 1995, though the team had improved into a solid competitor, it was still considered inferior to front-running teams such as Benetton and Williams. Schumacher declared the Ferrari 412T good enough to win the championship. Schumacher, Ross Brawn, Rory Byrne, and Jean Todt (hired in 1993), have been credited as turning this once struggling team into the most successful team in Formula One history. Three-time World Champion Jackie Stewart believes the transformation of the Ferrari team was Schumacher's greatest feat. Eddie Irvine also joined the team, moving from Jordan. 1996–1999 Schumacher finished third in the Drivers' Championship in 1996, and helped Ferrari to second place in the constructors' championship ahead of his old team Benetton. He won three races, more than the team's total tally for the period from 1991 to 1995. During the initial part of the 1996 season, the car had had reliability trouble and Schumacher did not finish 6 of the 16 races. He took his first win for Ferrari at the Spanish Grand Prix, where he lapped the entire field up to third place in the wet. In the French Grand Prix Schumacher qualified in pole position, but suffered engine failure on the race's formation lap. However at Spa-Francorchamps, Schumacher used well-timed pit-stops to fend off the Williams' Jacques Villeneuve. Following that, at Monza, Schumacher won in front of the tifosi. Schumacher's ability, combined with the improving reliability of Ferrari, enabled him to end the season, putting up a challenge to eventual race and championship winner Damon Hill at Suzuka. Schumacher celebrates a second place finish at the 1997 German Grand Prix. Schumacher battles with David Coulthard at the 1998 British Grand Prix. Michael Schumacher and Jacques Villeneuve vied for the title in . Villeneuve, driving the superior Williams FW19, led the championship in the early part of the season. However, by mid-season, Schumacher had taken the Championship lead, winning five races, and entered the season's final Grand Prix with a one-point advantage. During the race, held at Jerez, Schumacher and Villeneuve collided as Villeneuve passed his rival. Schumacher retired from the race and Villeneuve scored four points to take the championship. Schumacher was held to be at fault for the collision and was disqualified from the Drivers' Championship. In , Finnish driver Mika Häkkinen became Schumacher's main title competition. Häkkinen won the first two races of the season, gaining a 16 point advantage over Schumacher. With the Ferrari improving significantly in the second half of the season, Schumacher won six races and had five other podium finishes. Ferrari took a 1–2 finish at the Italian Grand Prix, which tied Schumacher with Häkkinen for the lead of the Drivers' Championship with 80 points, but Häkkinen won the Championship by winning the final two races. There were two controversies; at the British Grand Prix Schumacher was leading on the last lap when he turned into the pit lane, crossed the start finish line and stopped for a ten second stop go penalty. There was some doubt whether this counted as serving the penalty, but the win stood. At Spa, Schumacher was leading the race by 40 seconds in heavy spray, but collided with David Coulthard's McLaren when the Scot, a lap down, slowed in very poor visibility to let Schumacher past. After both cars returned to the pits, Schumacher rushed to McLaren's garage and accused Coulthard of trying to kill him. Later in 2003 David Coulthard admitted it was his mistake after he was involved in a similar incident in the European Grand Prix, this time he shunted the back of the backmarker just like Michael did in 1998. Schumacher's efforts helped Ferrari win the Constructors title in . He lost his chance to win the Drivers' Championship at the British Grand Prix: At the high-speed Stowe Corner, his car's rear brake failed, sending him off the track and resulting in a broken leg. During his long absence, he was replaced by Finnish driver Mika Salo. After missing six races, he made his return at the inaugural Malaysian Grand Prix, qualifying in the pole position by almost a second. He then assumed the role of second driver, assisting team mate Eddie Irvine's bid to win the Drivers' Championship for Ferrari. In the last race of the season, the Japanese Grand Prix, Häkkinen won his second consecutive title. Schumacher would later say that Häkkinen was the opponent he respected the most. 2000–2004: World Championship years Schumacher won his fourth world title in . Schumacher driving the Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro F2002 at the 2002 French Grand Prix, the race at which he clinched the Drivers' Championship, setting the record for the fewest races in locking up the title. Schumacher won his third World Championship in after a year-long battle with Häkkinen. Schumacher won the first three races of the season and five of the first eight. Mid-way through the year, Schumacher's chances suffered with three consecutive non-finishes, allowing Häkkinen to close the gap in the standings. Häkkinen then took another two victories, before Schumacher won at the Italian Grand Prix. At the post race press conference, after equalling the number of wins (41) won by his idol, Ayrton Senna, Schumacher broke into tears. The championship fight would come down to the penultimate race of the season, the Japanese Grand Prix. Starting from pole position, Schumacher lost the lead to Häkkinen at the start. After his second pit-stop, however, Schumacher came out ahead of Häkkinen and went on to win the race and the championship. In , Schumacher took his fourth drivers' title. Four other drivers won races, but none sustained a season-long challenge for the championship. Schumacher scored a record-tying nine wins and clinched the world championship with four races yet to run. He finished the championship with 123 points, 58 ahead of runner-up Coulthard. Season highlights included the Canadian Grand Prix, where Schumacher finished 2nd to his brother Ralf, thus scoring the first ever 1–2 finish by brothers in Formula One; and the Belgian Grand Prix in which Schumacher scored his 52nd career win, breaking Alain Prost's record for most career wins. In , Schumacher used the Ferrari F2002 to retain his Drivers' Championship. There was again some controversy however at the Austrian Grand Prix, where his teammate, Rubens Barrichello was leading but in the final metres of the race, under orders, slowed to allow Schumacher to win the race. The crowd broke into outrageous boos at the result and Schumacher tried to make amends by placing Barrichello at the top step of the podium. At the United States Grand Prix later that year, Schumacher dominated the race and was set for a close finish with Barrichello. At the end he slowed down and Barrichello took the victory. In winning the Drivers' Championship he equalled the record set by Juan Manuel Fangio of five world championships. Ferrari won 15 out of 17 races, and Schumacher won the title with six races remaining in the season. Schumacher broke his own record, shared with Nigel Mansell, of nine race wins in a season, by winning eleven times and finishing every race on the podium. He finished with 144 points, a record-breaking 67 points ahead of the runner-up, his teammate Rubens Barrichello. This pair finished 9 of the 17 races in the first two places. Schumacher at Indianapolis in 2004, where he won the 2004 United States Grand Prix. Schumacher broke Juan Manuel Fangio's record of five World Drivers' Championships by winning the drivers' title for the sixth time in , a closely contested season. The biggest competition came once again from the McLaren Mercedes and Williams BMW teams. In the first race, Schumacher ran off track, and in the following two, was involved in collisions. He fell 16 points behind Kimi Räikkönen. Schumacher won the San Marino Grand Prix and the next two races, and closed within two points of Räikkönen. Aside from Schumacher's victory in Canada, and Barrichello's victory in Britain, the mid-season was dominated by Williams drivers Ralf Schumacher and Juan Pablo Montoya, who each claimed two victories. After the Hungarian Grand Prix, Michael Schumacher led Juan Pablo Montoya and Kimi Räikkönen by only one and two points, respectively. Ahead of the next race, the FIA announced changes to the way tyre widths were to be measured: this forced Michelin, supplier to Williams and McLaren among others, to rapidly redesign their tyres before the Italian Grand Prix. Schumacher, running on Bridgestone tyres, won the next two races. After Montoya was penalised in the United States Grand Prix, only Schumacher and Räikkönen remained in contention for the title. At the final round, the Japanese Grand Prix, Schumacher needed only one point whilst Räikkönen needed to win. By finishing the race in eighth place, Schumacher took one point and assured his sixth World Drivers' title, ending the season two points ahead of Räikkönen. In , Schumacher won a record twelve of the first thirteen races of the season, only failing to finish in Monaco after an accident with Juan Pablo Montoya during a safety car period when he briefly locked his car's brakes. He clinched a record seventh drivers' title at the Belgian Grand Prix. He finished that season with a record 148 points, 34 points ahead of the runner-up, teammate Rubens Barrichello, and set a new record of 13 race wins out of a possible 18, surpassing his previous best of 11 wins from the 2002 season. 2005–2006 Schumacher battling with Kimi Räikkönen during the 2005 Canadian Grand Prix. In Schumacher's sole win came at the United States Grand Prix. Prior to that race, the Michelin tyres, used by most teams, were found to have significant safety issues. When no compromise between the teams and the FIA could be reached, all but the six drivers using Bridgestone tyres dropped out of the race after the formation lap. However, rule changes for the 2005 season required tyres to last an entire race, tipping the overall advantage to teams using Michelins over teams such as Ferrari that relied on Bridgestone tyres. The rule changes were partly in an effort to dent Ferrari's dominance and make the series more interesting. Less than half-way through the season, Schumacher said "I don't think I can count myself in this battle any more. It was like trying to fight with a blunted weapon.... If your weapons are weak you don't have a chance." The most notable moment of the season for Schumacher was his battle with Fernando Alonso in San Marino, where he started 13th and finished only 0.2 seconds behind the Spanish driver. Schumacher retired in six of the 19 races. He finished the season in third with 62 points, less than half the points of world champion Alonso. became the last season of Schumacher's racing career. After three races, Schumacher had 11 points and was already 17 points behind Alonso. He won the following two races, his first wins in 18 months, not including the boycotted 2005 United States Grand Prix. Schumacher was stripped of pole position at the Monaco Grand Prix and started the race at the back of the grid. This was due to him stopping his car and blocking part of the circuit while Alonso was on his qualifying lap; he still managed to work his way up to 5th place on the notoriously cramped Monaco circuit. By the Canadian Grand Prix, the ninth race of the season, he was 25 points behind Alonso, and the three wins that followed helped him reduce his disadvantage to 11. His win at Hockenheim was the last home win for a German as of 2008. After his victories in Italy (in which Alonso had an engine failure) and China, in which Alonso had tyre problems, Schumacher led in the championship standings for the first time during the season. Although he and Alonso had the same point total, Schumacher was in front because he had won more races. Schumacher overtakes Kimi Räikkönen for 4th with three laps to go of his final race at Interlagos, having dropped to 19th early on. The Japanese Grand Prix was led by Schumacher with only 16 laps to go, when, for the first time since the 2000 French Grand Prix, Schumacher's car suffered engine failure. Alonso won the race, which gave him a ten point championship lead. With only one race left in the season, Schumacher could only win the championship if he won the season finale and Alonso scored no points. Before the Brazilian Grand Prix, the last race of his career, Schumacher conceded the title to Alonso. In pre-race ceremonies, football legend Pelé presented a trophy to Schumacher for his years of dedication to Formula One. During the race's qualifying session, Schumacher had the best time of all drivers through the first two sessions; but a fuel pressure problem prevented him from completing a single lap during the third session, forcing him to start the race in tenth position. Early in the race Schumacher moved up to sixth place. However, in overtaking Alonso's teammate, Giancarlo Fisichella, Schumacher experienced a tyre puncture caused by the front wing of Fisichella's car. Schumacher pitted and consequently fell to 19th place, 70 seconds behind teammate and race leader Felipe Massa. Schumacher recovered and overtook both Fisichella and Räikkönen to secure fourth place. His performance was classified in the press as "heroic", an "utterly breath-taking drive", and a "performance that ... sums up his career". Helmet Schumacher's helmet from the and seasons. Schumacher in conjunction with Schuberth helped develop the first lightweight carbon helmet. In 2004, a prototype was publicly tested by being driven over by a tank; it survived intact. The helmet keeps the driver cool by funneling directed airflow through fifty holes. Schumacher's helmet sports the colours of the German flag and his sponsor's decals. On the top is a blue circle with white astroids. After Schumacher joined Ferrari, a prancing horse was added on the back. In 2000 in order to differentiate his colours from new teammate Rubens Barrichello, Schumacher changed the upper blue colour and some of the white areas to red. In his final Grand Prix race, Schumacher wore a special helmet that included the names of his ninety-one Grand Prix victories. Honours Schumacher has been honoured many times during his career. In April 2002, for his contributions to sport and his contributions in raising awareness of child education, he was named as one of the UNESCO Champions for sport , joining the other eight which include Pelé, Serhiy Bubka and Justine Henin. He won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year award twice, in 2002 and 2004 for his performances in the and seasons respectively. He has also received nominations for the 2001, 2003, 2005 and 2007 awards. No-one has been nominated more times than Schumacher in the award's seven-year history. In honour of Schumacher's racing career and his efforts to improve safety and the sport, he was awarded an FIA Gold Medal for Motor Sport in 2006. In 2007, in recognition of his contribution to Formula One racing, the Nürburgring racing track renamed turns 8 and 9 (the Audi and Shell Kurves) as the Schumacher S, and a month later he presented A1 Team Germany with the A1 World Cup at the A1GP World Cup of Motorsport 2007 awards ceremony. He was nominated for the Prince of Asturias Award for Sport for 2007, which he won both for sporting prowess and for his humanitarian record. In 2008 the Swiss Football Association appointed Schumacher as the Swiss ambassador for the 2008 European football championship. Retirement BMW Sauber with "Thanks Michael" messages towards Michael Schumacher on the back of their carsWhile Schumacher was on the podium after winning the 2006 Italian Grand Prix, Ferrari issued a press release stating that he would retire from racing at the end of the 2006 season. Schumacher confirmed his retirement. The press release stated that Schumacher would continue working for Ferrari. It was revealed on October 29, 2006 that Ferrari wanted Schumacher to act as assistant to the newly appointed CEO Jean Todt. This would involve selecting the team's future drivers. After Schumacher's announcement, leading Formula One figures such as Niki Lauda and David Coulthard hailed Schumacher as the greatest all-round racing driver in the history of Formula One. The tifosi and the Italian press, who did not always take to Schumacher's relatively cold public persona, displayed an affectionate response after he announced his retirement. Advisor for Ferrari 2007: Advisor Schumacher at Finali Mondiali celebrations in the F2007 During the 2007 Formula One season Schumacher acted as Ferrari's advisor and Jean Todt's 'super assistant'. He attended several Grands Prix during the season. Schumacher drove the Ferrari F2007 for the first time on October 24 at Ferrari's home track in Fiorano, Italy. He ran no more than five laps and no lap times were recorded. A Ferrari spokesman said the short drive was done for the Fiat board of directors, who were holding their meeting in Maranello. On November 13, 2007 Schumacher, who had not driven a Formula One car since he had retired a year earlier, undertook a formal test session for the first time aboard the F2007. He returned in December, to continue helping Ferrari with their development program at Jerez circuit. He focused on testing electronics and tyres for the 2008 Formula One season. 2008: Car development In 2007, former Ferrari top manager Ross Brawn said that Schumacher is very likely and also happy to continue testing in 2008. Michael Schumacher later explained his role further, saying that he will "deal with the development of the car inside Gestione Sportiva", and as part of that, will drive the car, but not too often. During 2008 Schumacher has also competed as a motorcycle racer in the IDM Superbike-series. He states that he has no intention of a second competitive career in this sport. Schumacher slips up in Superbike race www.itv-f1.com Retrieved 5 July 2008 He is quoted as saying that riding a Ducati was the most exhilarating thing he has done, the second most being sky diving. Motorcycle Sport and leisure magazine, Nov 2008 (interview with Randy Mamola) Controversy During his long career Schumacher has been involved in several incidents, which have caused considerable controversy. Schumacher has been vilified in the British media for his involvement in title-deciding collisions in 1994 and 1997. German and Italian newspapers widely condemned his actions in 1997. The 1994 incident was viewed by the FIA as a racing incident, and brought no sanction; whereas the 1997 incident saw Schumacher disqualified from the championship standings. Championship deciding collisions Hill (left) and Schumacher (right) crash at the Flinders Street corner during the 1994 Australian Grand Prix. Going into the 1994 Australian Grand Prix, the final race of the 1994 season, Schumacher led Damon Hill by a single point in the Drivers' Championship. Schumacher led the race from the beginning with Hill closely following him. On lap 35, Schumacher went off track, hitting a wall with his right side wheels. It is unknown whether Schumacher's car was damaged, as he returned to the track at reduced speed but still leading the race. At the next corner, when Hill attempted a pass on the inside while Schumacher was turning into the corner, Schumacher and Hill collided. Schumacher's car was tipped up onto two wheels and eliminated on the spot. Hill pitted immediately and retired from the race with irreparable damage. As neither driver scored Schumacher took the title. Coverage of the collision occurs between 02:14 and 03:30. Opinion is divided over the incident. British Formula One journalist and author Alan Henry has written that Schumacher was blamed by "many F1 insiders" for the incident, however British Formula One commentator Murray Walker believes it was not a deliberate move. The race stewards judged it a racing accident and took no action against either driver. Michael Schumacher (red) and Jacques Villeneuve (blue) in the moment of the collision at the Dry Sack corner in the 1997 European Grand Prix at Jerez. At the 1997 European Grand Prix at Jerez, the last race of the season, Schumacher led another driver, this time Williams' Jacques Villeneuve, by one point in the Drivers' Championship. Although Schumacher and Villeneuve had set the same time during qualifying, the Canadian driver started the race in pole position due to his being the first to set the time. By the first corner of the race, Schumacher was ahead of Villeneuve. On lap 48, Villeneuve passed Schumacher at the Dry Sac Corner. As he did so, Schumacher turned into the Williams, the right-front wheel of Schumacher's Ferrari hitting the left side pod of Villeneuve's car. Schumacher retired from the race immediately while Villeneuve was able to finish the race in the third place, taking four points and so becoming the World Champion. Two weeks after the race, Schumacher was excluded from the results for the season after a FIA disciplinary hearing disqualified him, finding that his "manoeuvre was an instinctive reaction and although deliberate not made with malice or premeditation. It was a serious error." This made him the only driver in the history of the sport, to be disqualified from a World Championship. Schumacher accepted the decision and admitted having made a mistake. Other incidents In 1994, it was found that the Benetton car had a launch-control system hidden in its software that could be activated via a sequence of driver actions. While this caused controversy, the team successfully argued that the rule "banning" such software for 1994 merely stated that such software must not be used, rather than saying it must not be present. Later in the season, Schumacher was banned for 2 races following the 1994 British Grand Prix, where his team instructed him to keep racing despite being shown the black flag for several laps while they argued with officials about a penalty incurred for overtaking Hill on the parade lap. Furthermore, the team faced allegations of tampering with their fuel rig in order to speed up refuelling, resulting in a large fire that engulfed Jos Verstappen's car at the 1994 German Grand Prix. In 1995, Schumacher and Benetton were publicly determined not to incur such controversy, but got off to a bad start when Schumacher and Williams driver David Coulthard were disqualified for fuel irregularities. On appeal, both drivers had their results and points reinstated, but both teams lost the points the results would normally have earned in the constructors championship. Two laps from the finish of the 1998 British Grand Prix, Michael Schumacher was leading the race when he was issued a stop-and-go penalty for overtaking a lapped car (Alexander Wurz) under a yellow flag. This penalty involves going into the pit lane and stopping for 10 seconds. But as the penalty was given with fewer than 12 laps remaining, and since it was issued as a handwritten note, the Ferrari team was confused as to whether the penalty was a stop and go penalty or merely a penalty of 10 seconds to be added to Schumacher's race time. The rules state that a driver must serve his penalty within three laps of the penalty being issued, and on the third lap after receiving the penalty, Schumacher turned into the pit lane to serve his penalty. However, this happened to be the last lap of the race, and Ferrari's pit box was located after the start/finish line, meaning that Schumacher finished the race before serving the penalty. The stewards initially resolved that problem by adding 10 seconds to Schumacher's race time, then later rescinded the penalty completely. In the same season, after a race-ending collision whilst trying to lap David Coulthard in heavy spray during the Belgian Grand Prix, Schumacher stormed into the McLaren garage and accused Coulthard of trying to kill him. Television viewers saw an obviously-furious Schumacher shouting at Coulthard, while both McLaren and Ferrari team members attempted to restrain him and move him away from the McLaren garage. Coulthard recanted some 5 years later after an incident caused him to suffer a similar accident Rubens Barrichello makes way for Schumacher at the end of the 2002 Austrian Grand Prix. Historically, team orders had always been an accepted part of Formula One. During Schumacher's tenure at both Benetton and Ferrari, the team often employed team orders as a matter of routine. Schumacher would generally benefit, with the exception of the final 2 races of 1999, when he supported Eddie Irvine's title bid. This did not attract controversy in years where Schumacher was clearly involved in a title battle with drivers from other teams, his dominant years (2001-2004) saw many accuse him and Ferrari of deploying team orders in a manner that undermined the sport: At the 2002 Austrian Grand Prix, Schumacher's teammate, Rubens Barrichello, took pole and led the race from the start. In the final metres of the race, the Brazilian driver, under orders from Ferrari, slowed his car to make way for Schumacher to pass and win the race. This angered fans who were watching the race and it was claimed that the team's actions showed a lack of sportsmanship and respect to the spectators, with many claiming that Schumacher did not need to be "gifted" wins in only the 6th race of the season, particularly given that he had already won 4 of the previous 5 grand prix, and that Barrichello had dominated the race weekend up to that point. At the podium ceremony, Schumacher pushed Barrichello onto the top step, and for this disturbance, the Ferrari team incurred a US$1 million fine. The switching of positions did not bring a penalty, as it did not involve breaking an actual sporting or technical regulation. Later in the season at the end of the 2002 United States Grand Prix, Schumacher slowed down within sight of the finishing line, meaning that Barrichello took the win by 0.011 seconds, the 2nd closest margin in F1 history. Nobody, including Barrichello, appeared to know why Schumacher lifted, and Schumacher's own explanation varied between it being him "returning the favour" for Austria (now that Schumacher's title was secure), or trying to engineer a dead-heat a feat derided as near-impossible in a sport where timings are taken to within a thousandth of a second. The FIA subsequently banned "Team orders which interfere with the race result". Although Schumacher took the pole position during the qualifying for the 2006 Monaco Grand Prix, there was controversy near the end of the session. Schumacher stopped his car in the Rascasse corner, partially blocking the circuit, while his main contender for the season title, Fernando Alonso, was on his qualifying lap. Schumacher stated that he simply locked up the wheels going into the corner and that the car then stalled while he attempted to reverse out. Alonso believed he would have been on pole if the incident had not happened. Schumacher was later stripped of pole position by the race stewards and started the race at the back of the grid. Family and off-track life Schumacher's younger brother Ralf was a Formula One driver until the end of 2007. Their stepbrother Sebastian Stahl has also been competing as a race car driver. In August 1995, Michael married Corinna Betsch. They have two children, Gina-Maria (born in 1997) and Mick (born in 1999). He has always been very protective of his private life and is known to dislike the celebrity spotlight, preferring a simple life. The family currently lives near Gland, Switzerland. Their home is a 650 m² mansion with its own underground garage and petrol station, situated on a private beach on Lake Geneva. The family has two dogs - one stray that Corinna fell in love with in Brazil, and an Australian Shepherd named "Ed" whose entrance to the family made headlines. Schumacher personally drove a taxi through the Bavarian town of Coburg after collecting the dog, enabling the family to catch their return flight to Switzerland. Both Schumacher and the taxi driver were reprimanded by local police. In 2005 Eurobusiness magazine identified Schumacher as the world's first billionaire athlete. His 2004 salary was reported to be around US$80 million. Forbes magazine has not yet included him on its billionaires list. More recently other sources have estimated his net worth in 2006 somewhat lower, www.f1i.com reports that it 'surpassed $800M'. ) Forbes magazine ranked him 17th in their "The World's Most Powerful Celebrities" list. A significant share of his income came from advertising. For example, Deutsche Vermögensberatung paid him $8 million over three years from 1999 for wearing a 10 by 8 centimetre advertisement on his post-race cap. The deal was extended until 2010. He donated $10 million for aid after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. His donation surpassed that of any other sports person, most sports leagues, many worldwide corporations and even some countries. Schumacher's bodyguard Burkhard Cramer was killed in the tsunami along with his two sons. nbc.sports.msnbc.com/id6786663 One of his main hobbies is horse riding, and he plays football for his local team FC Echichens. He has appeared in several football charity games and organised games between Formula One drivers. Schumacher is a special ambassador to UNESCO and has donated 1.5 million Euros to the organization. Additionally, he paid for the construction of a school for poor children and for area improvements in Dakar, Senegal. He supports a hospital for child victims of war in Sarajevo, which specialises in caring for amputees. In Lima, Peru he funded the "Palace for the Poor", a centre for helping homeless street children obtain an education, clothing, food, medical attention, and shelter. He stated his interest in these various efforts was piqued both by his love for children and the fact that these causes had received little attention. While an exact figure for the amount of money he has donated throughout his life is unknown, it is known that in his last four years as a driver, he donated at least $50 million. Since his participation in a FIA European road safety campaign, as part of his punishment after the collision at the 1997 European Grand Prix, Schumacher has continued to support other campaigns, such as Make Roads Safe, which is led by the FIA Foundation and calls on G8 countries and the UN to recognise global road deaths as a major global health issue. In 2008, Schumacher was the figurehead of an advertising campaign by Bacardi to raise awareness about responsible drinking, with a focus on communicating an international message 'drinking and driving don't mix'. He featured in an advertising campaign for television, cinema and online media, supported by consumer engagements, public relations and digital media across the world. Also in 2008 it was revealed that he was a donor to the William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park of Bill Clinton. He donated at least 5,000,000 Dollars but no more than 10,000,000 Dollars. Racing record Career summary Season Series Team Name Races Poles Wins Points Final Placing 1988 European Formula Ford 1600 Eufra Racing 4 1 2 50 2nd German Formula Ford 1600 Eufra Racing 6 1 3 124 6th Formula König Hoecker Sportwagenservice 10 1 9 192 1st 1989 German Formula Three WTS Racing 12 2 2 163 3rd European Formula Three Cup WTS Racing 1 0 0 N/A NC Macau Grand Prix WTS Racing 1 0 0 N/A NC 1990 World Sportscar Championship Team Sauber Mercedes 3 0 1 21 =5th German Formula Three WTS Racing 11 6 5 148 1st European Formula Three Cup WTS Racing 1 1 0 N/A NC Macau Grand Prix WTS Racing 1 0 1 N/A 1st 1991 Formula One Jordan 1 0 0 0 14th Benetton 5 0 0 4 World Sportscar Championship Team Sauber Mercedes 8 0 1 43 =9th Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft Zakspeed Mercedes 4 0 0 0 NC Japanese Formula 3000 Team Le Mans 1 0 0 6 12th 1992 Formula One Benetton 16 0 1 53 3rd 1993 Formula One Benetton 16 0 1 52 4th 1994 Formula One Benetton 14 6 8 92 1st 1995 Formula One Benetton 17 4 9 102 1st 1996 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari S.p.A. 16 4 3 59 3rd 1997 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro 17 3 5 78DSQ* 1998 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro 16 3 6 86 2nd 1999 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro 10 3 2 44 5th 2000 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro 17 9 9 108 1st 2001 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro 17 11 9 123 1st 2002 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro 17 7 11 144 1st 2003 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro 16 5 6 93 1st 2004 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro 18 8 13 148 1st 2005 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro 19 1 1 62 3rd 2006 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro 18 4 7 121 2nd Complete Formula One results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 WDC Points Team 7UP Jordan Jordan 191 Ford HB 3.5 V8 USA BRA SMR MON CAN MEX FRA GBR GER HUN BELRet 14th 4 Camel Benetton Ford Benetton B191 ITA5 POR6 ESP6 JPNRet AUSRet Camel Benetton Ford Benetton B191B Ford HB 3.5 V8 RSA4 MEX3 BRA3 3rd 53 Benetton B192 ESP2 SMRRet MON4 CAN2 FRARet GBR4 GER3 HUNRet BEL1 ITA3 POR7 JPNRet AUS2 Camel Benetton Ford Benetton B193 Ford HB 3.5 V8 RSARet BRA3 4th 52 Benetton B193B EURRet SMR2 ESP3 MONRet CAN2 FRA3 GBR2 GER2 HUNRet BEL2 ITARet POR1 JPNRet AUSRet Mild Seven Benetton Ford Benetton B194 Ford Zetec-R 3.5 V8 BRA1 PAC1 SMR1 MON1 ESP2 CAN1 FRA1 GBRDSQ GERRet HUN1 BELDSQ ITAEX POREX EUR1 JPN2 AUSRet 1st 92 Mild Seven Benetton Renault Benetton B195 Renault RS7 3.0 V10 BRA1 ARG3 SMRRet ESP1 MON1 CAN5 FRA1 GBRRet GER1 HUNRet BEL1 ITARet POR2 EUR1 PAC1 JPN1 AUSRet 1st 102 Scuderia Ferrari S.p.A. Ferrari F310 Ferrari 046 3.0 V10 AUSRet BRA3 ARGRet EUR2 SMR2 MONRet ESP1 CANRet FRADNS GBRRet GER4 HUN9 BEL1 ITA1 POR3 JPN2 3rd 59 Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Ferrari F310B Ferrari 046/2 3.0 V10 AUS2 BRA5 ARGRet SMR2 MON1 ESP4 CAN1 FRA1 GBRRet GER2 HUN4 BEL1 ITA6 AUT6 LUXRet JPN1 EUR<small>Ret</small/>DSQ*78 Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Ferrari F300 Ferrari 047 3.0 V10 AUSRet BRA3 ARG1 SMR2 ESP3 MON10 CAN1 FRA1 GBR1 AUT3 GER5 HUN1 BELRet ITA1 LUX2 JPNRet 2nd 86 Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Ferrari F399 Ferrari 048 3.0 V10 AUS8 BRA2 SMR1 MON1 ESP3 CANRet FRA5 GBRRet AUTInj GERInj HUNInj BELInj ITAInj EURInj MAL2 JPN2 5th 44 Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Ferrari F1-2000 Ferrari 049 3.0 V10 AUS1 BRA1 SMR1 GBR3 ESP5 EUR1 MONRet CAN1 FRARet AUTRet GERRet HUN2 BEL2 ITA1 USA1 JPN1 MAL1 1st 108 Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Ferrari F2001 Ferrari 050 3.0 V10 AUS1 MAL1 BRA2 SMRRet ESP1 AUT2 MON1 CAN2 EUR1 FRA1 GBR2 GERRet HUN1 BEL1 ITA4 USA2 JPN1 1st 123 Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Ferrari F2001 Ferrari 050 3.0 V10 AUS1 MAL3 1st 144 Ferrari F2002 Ferrari 051 3.0 V10 BRA1 SMR1 ESP1 AUT1 MON2 CAN1 EUR2 GBR1 FRA1 GER1 HUN2 BEL1 ITA2 USA2 JPN1 Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Ferrari F2002 Ferrari 051 3.0 V10 AUS4 MAL6 BRARet SMR1 1st 93 Ferrari F2003-GA Ferrari 052 3.0 V10 ESP1 AUT1 MON3 CAN1 EUR5 FRA3 GBR4 GER7 HUN8 ITA1 USA1 JPN8 Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Ferrari F2004 Ferrari 053 3.0 V10 AUS1 MAL1 BHR1 SMR1 ESP1 MONRet EUR1 CAN1 USA1 FRA1 GBR1 GER1 HUN1 BEL2 ITA2 CHN12 JPN1 BRA7 1st 148 Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Ferrari F2004M Ferrari 054 3.0 V10 AUSRet MAL7 3rd 62 Ferrari F2005 Ferrari 055 3.0 V10 BHRRet SMR2 ESPRet MON7 EUR5 CAN2 USA1 FRA3 GBR6 GER5 HUN2 TURRet ITA10 BELRet BRA4 JPN7 CHNRet Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Ferrari 248 F1 Ferrari 056 2.4 V8 BHR2 MAL6 AUSRet SMR1 EUR1 ESP2 MON5 GBR2 CAN2 USA1 FRA1 GER1 HUN8 TUR3 ITA1 CHN1 JPNRet BRA4 2nd 121 * Schumacher was disqualified from the 1997 WDC due to dangerous driving in the European Grand Prix, where he caused an avoidable accident with Villeneuve. His points tally would have placed him in second place in that year's standings. Formula One records As of the end of the 2008 Formula One season, Michael Schumacher holds the following F1 records: Record Number 1 Championship titles 7 (1994, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004) 2 Consecutive titles 5 (2000–2004) 3 Race victories 91 4 Consecutive wins 7 (, Europe–Hungary) 5 Wins with one team 72 (Ferrari) 6 Wins at same GP 8 (France) 7 Wins at different GPs 22 8 Longest Time between first and last wins 14 years, 1 month and 2 days 9 Second places 43 10 Podiums (Top 3) 154 11 Consecutive podium finishes 19 (US 2001–Japan 2002) 12 Points finishes 190 13 Consecutive points finishes 24 (Hungary 2001–Malaysia 2003) 14 Laps leading 4741 (22,155 km) 15 Pole positions 68 16 Front row starts 115 17 Fastest laps 76 18 Doubles (Pole and win) 40 19 Perfect Score (Pole, fastest lap and win) 22 20 Championship points 1,369 21 Most points in a season for a runner-up 121 () 22 Most wins in a season for a runner-up 7 () 23 Wins at Indianapolis (any racing class) 5 24 Wins at Monza (Formula One) 5 25 Wins in a season 13 () 26 Fastest laps in a season 10 () 27 Points scored in a season 148 () 28 Podium finishes in a season 17 (100%) () 29 Championship won with most races left 6 () 30 Consecutive years with a win 15 (–) 31 Consecutive days as champion 1813 (from 8 October 2000 until 25 September 2005) Record shared with Alberto Ascari (1952 Belgian GP–1953 Argentine GP). Some sources credit Ascari with nine consecutive wins, disregarding the 1953 Indianapolis 500 race, in which Ascari did not compete. The American race formed part of the world championship, but was not run to the same regulations as the other races and was very rarely attended by world championship drivers. Record shared with Kimi Räikkönen () and Alain Prost ( and ) Record shared with Kimi Räikkönen ( and ). All race and championship results (1991 - 2006) are taken from the Official Formula 1 Website. 1991 Season review onwards. www.formula1.com. Retrieved 23 May 2007 Books References and notes All race and championship results (1991 - 2006) are taken from the Official Formula 1 Website. 1991 Season review onwards. www.formula1.com. Retrieved 23 May 2007 External links Michael Schumacher's official website Cartcenter and Museum Cartteam Kaiser-Schumacher-Muchow Formula1.com Profile Career statistics Michael Schumacher Profile and Statistics on F1db Michael Schumacher career statistics News Articles about Michael Schumacher | Michael_Schumacher |@lemmatized michael:17 schumacher:237 german:22 pronunciation:1 bear:5 january:1 hürth:2 hermülheim:2 germany:6 former:3 formula:74 one:73 driver:70 seven:6 time:24 world:32 champion:9 current:1 advisor:4 occasional:1 test:7 ferrari:94 accord:1 official:5 website:4 statistically:1 great:4 sport:20 ever:4 see:2 win:93 championship:66 jochen:1 rindt:1 austrian:4 flag:5 credit:4 popularise:2 fia:12 survey:1 vote:1 popular:1 season:72 among:2 fan:2 two:24 benetton:43 move:6 scuderia:25 five:7 consecutive:10 title:27 hold:6 many:6 record:22 include:9 race:149 victory:11 fast:6 lap:34 pole:15 position:13 point:46 score:11 single:5 entire:3 podium:12 finish:41 feat:3 accomplish:1 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7,027 | Cologne | Cologne (, ; local dialect: Kölle ) is Germany's fourth-largest city (after Berlin, Hamburg and Munich), and is the largest city both in the German Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the major European metropolitan areas with more than ten million inhabitants. It is one of the oldest cities in Germany, having been founded by the Romans in the year 38 BC. Cologne lies on the River Rhine. The city's famous Cologne Cathedral (Kölner Dom) is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cologne. The University of Cologne (Universität zu Köln) is one of Europe's oldest universities. Cologne is a major cultural center of the Rhineland and has a vibrant arts scene. Cologne is home to more than 30 museums and hundreds of galleries. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics and sculpture. The city's Trade Fair Grounds are host to a number of trade shows such as the Art Cologne Fair, the International Furniture Fair (IMM) and the Photokina. Cologne is also well-known for its celebration of Cologne Carnival, the annual reggae summerjam, and the gay/lesbian pride festival Christopher Street Day (CSD). Within Germany, Cologne is known as an important media center. Several radio and television stations, including Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR), RTL and VOX, are based in the city. Pro7 also produces many shows in Studios in Cologne (i.E. TV Total). The city also hosts the Cologne Comedy Festival, which is considered to be the largest comedy festival in mainland Europe Cologne Comedy Festival website . In 2005 Cologne hosted the 20th Roman Catholic World Youth Day with Pope Benedict XVI. Demographics Cologne is the fourth-largest city in Germany in terms of inhabitants after Berlin, Hamburg and Munich. Officially, the city still has somewhat fewer than a million inhabitants (as of 31 December 2006: 989,766 Bevölkerung im Regierungsbezirk Köln ). However, this might change rapidly as the city's registration rules will change in the course of 2007. Cologne is the center of an urban area of around 2 million inhabitants (including the neighboring cities of Bonn, Hürth, Leverkusen, and Bergisch-Gladbach). According to local statistics, in 2006 the population density in the city was 2,528 inhabitants per square kilometer. 31.4 percent of the population has migrated there, and 17.2 percent of Cologne's population is non-German. The largest group, comprising 6.3 percent of the total population, is Turkish. 2007 - Einwohnerdaten im Überblick - Zahlen + Statistik - Bevölkerung - Stadt Köln As of September 2007, there are about 120,000 Muslims living in Cologne, mostly of Turkish origin. WDR Article of 15.08.2007 In the city the population was spread out with 15.5% under the age of 18, 67.0% from 18 to 64 and 17.4% who were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females there were 95 males. City of Cologne -> Figures Statistics Population (german) Administration Cologne is incorporated as an independent city (Kreisfreie Stadt) under the Gemeindeordnung Nordrhein-Westfalen (GO NRW) (Municipality Code of North Rhine-Westphalia). The city's administration is headed by a mayor (Oberbürgermeister) and three deputy mayors. Subdivision Cologne is subdivided into 9 boroughs (Stadtbezirke) and 86 quarters (Stadtteile): Innenstadt (Stadtbezirk 1) Altstadt-Nord, Altstadt-Süd, Neustadt-Nord, Neustadt-Süd, Deutz Rodenkirchen (Stadtbezirk 2) Bayenthal, Godorf, Hahnwald, Immendorf, Marienburg, Meschenich, Raderberg, Raderthal, Rodenkirchen, Rondorf, Sürth, Weiß, Zollstock Lindenthal (Stadtbezirk 3) Braunsfeld, Junkersdorf, Klettenberg, Lindenthal, Lövenich, Müngersdorf, Sülz, Weiden, Widdersdorf Ehrenfeld (Stadtbezirk 4) Bickendorf, Bocklemünd/Mengenich, Ehrenfeld, Neuehrenfeld, Ossendorf, Vogelsang Nippes (Stadtbezirk 5) Bilderstöckchen, Longerich, Mauenheim, Niehl, Nippes, Riehl, Weidenpesch Chorweiler (Stadtbezirk 6) Blumenberg, Chorweiler, Esch/Auweiler, Fühlingen, Heimersdorf, Lindweiler, Merkenich, Pesch, Roggendorf/Thenhoven, Seeberg, Volkhoven/Weiler, Worringen Porz (Stadtbezirk 7) Eil, Elsdorf, Ensen, Finkenberg, Gremberghoven, Grengel, Langel, Libur, Lind, Poll, Porz, Urbach, Wahn, Wahnheide, Westhoven, Zündorf Kalk (Stadtbezirk 8) Brück, Höhenberg, Humboldt/Gremberg, Kalk, Merheim, Neubrück, Ostheim, Rath/Heumar, Vingst Mülheim (Stadtbezirk 9) Buchforst, Buchheim, Dellbrück, Dünnwald, Flittard, Höhenhaus, Holweide, Mülheim, Stammheim Culture Cologne has several museums of many kinds. The famous Romano-Germanic Museum features art and architecture from the city's distant past (also see landmarks). Several orchestras are active in the city, among them the Gürzenich Orchestra and Musica Antiqua Köln, as well as several choirs, including the WDR Rundfunkchor Köln. Cologne was also an important centre of electronic music in the 1950s (Studio für elektronische Musik, Karlheinz Stockhausen) and again from the 90s onward. The public radio and TV station WDR was involved in promoting musical movements such as Krautrock in the 70s. There are several centers of nightlife, among them the Kwartier Latäng (the student quarter around the Zülpicher Straße) and the nightclub-studded areas around the Friesenplatz and Rudolfplatz. The large annual literary festival Lit.Cologne features regional and international authors. The main literary figure connected to Cologne is writer Heinrich Böll, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature. Cologne is well-known for its beer, called Kölsch. Kölsch is also the name of the local dialect. This has led to the common joke of Kölsch being the only language one can drink. Cologne is also famous for Eau de Cologne (Kölnisch Wasser). At the beginning of the 18th century, Italian expatriate Johann Maria Farina created a new fragrance and named it after his hometown Cologne, Eau de Cologne (Water of Cologne). In the course of the 18th century the fragrance became increasingly popular. Eventually, Cologne merchant Wilhelm Mülhens secured the name Farina, which at that time had become a household name for Eau de Cologne, under contract and opened a small factory at Cologne's Glockengasse. In later years, and under pressure from court battles, his grandson Ferdinand Mülhens chose a new name for the firm and their product. It was the house number that was given to the factory at Glockengasse during French occupation of the Rhineland in the early 19th century, number 4711. In 1994, the Mülhens family sold their company to German Wella corporation. In 2003 Procter & Gamble took over Wella. Today, original Eau de Cologne still is produced in Cologne by both the Farina family (Farina gegenüber since 1709), currently in the eighth generation, and by Mäurer and Wirtz who bought the 4711 brand in December 2006. Carnival Cologne carnival is one of the biggest street festivals in Europe. In Cologne, the carnival season officially starts on 11 November at 11 minutes past 11 a.m. with the proclamation of the new Carnival Season, and continues until Ash Wednesday. But the so-called "Tolle Tage" (mad days) don't start until Weiberfastnacht (Women's Carnival) or, in dialect, Wieverfastelovend (Thursday before Ash Wednesday), which is the beginning of the street carnival. Hundreds of thousands of visitors flock to Cologne during this time. Generally, around a million people are celebrating in the streets on the Thursday before Ash Wednesday. Carnival - Cologne`s “fifth season” - Cologne Sights & Events - Stadt Köln History Roman Cologne The first urban settlement on the grounds of what today is the center of Cologne was Oppidum Ubiorum, which was founded in 38 BC by the Ubii, a Germanic tribe. Cologne became acknowledged as a city by the Romans in 50 AD by the name of Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium. Considerable Roman remains can be found in contemporary Cologne, especially near the wharf area, where a notable discovery of a 1900 year old Roman boat was made in late 2007. C.Michael Hogan, Cologne Wharf, The Megalithic Portal, editor Andy Burnham, 2007 From 260 to 271 Cologne was the capital of the Gallic Empire under Postumus, Marius and Victorinus. In 310 under Constantine a bridge was built over the Rhine at Cologne. Maternus, who was elected as bishop in 313, was the first known bishop of Cologne. The city was the capital of a Roman province until occupied by the Franks in 459. In 785, Cologne became the seat of an archbishopric. Middle Ages During the time of the Holy Roman Empire in the Middle Ages, the Archbishop of Cologne was one of the seven prince-electors and one of the three ecclesiastical electors. The archbishops had ruled large temporal domains but in 1288 Sigfried II von Westerburg was defeated in the Battle of Worringen and forced into exile at Bonn. Cologne's location on the river Rhine placed it at the intersection of the major trade routes between east and west and was the basis of Cologne's growth. Cologne was a member of the Hanseatic League and became a Free Imperial City in 1475. Interestingly the archbishop nevertheless preserved the right of capital punishment. Thus, the municipal council (though in strict political opposition towards the archbishop) depended upon him in all matters concerning criminal jurisdiction. This included torture, which sentence was only allowed to be handed down by the episcopal judge, the so-called "Greve". This legal situation lasted until the French conquest of Cologne. Besides its economic and political significance Cologne also became an outstanding centre of medieval pilgrimage, when Cologne's Archbishop Rainald of Dassel gave the relics of the Three Wise Men to Cologne's cathedral in 1164 (after they in fact had been captured from Milan). Besides the three magi Cologne preserves the relics of Saint Ursula and Albertus Magnus. The economic structures of medieval and early modern Cologne were characterized by the city's status as a major harbor and transport hub upon the Rhine. Craftsmanship was organized by self-administrating guilds, some of which were exclusive to women. As a free city Cologne was a sovereign state within the Holy Roman Empire and as such had the right (and obligation) of maintaining its own military force. Wearing a red uniform these troops were known as the Rote Funken (red sparks). These soldiers were part of the Army of the Holy Roman Empire ("Reichskontingent") and fought in the wars of the 17th and 18th century, including the wars against revolutionary France, when the small force almost completely perished in combat. The tradition of these troops is preserved as a military persiflage by Cologne's most outstanding carnival society, the Rote Funken. The free city of Cologne must not be confused with the Archbishopric of Cologne which was a state of its own within the Holy Roman Empire. Since the second half of the 16th century the archbishops were taken from the Bavarian dynasty Wittelsbach. Due to the free status of Cologne, the archbishops usually were not allowed to enter the city. Thus they took residence in Bonn and later in Brühl on Rhine. As members of an influential and powerful family and supported by their outstanding status as electors, the archbishops of Cologne repeatedly challenged and threatened the free status of Cologne during the 17th and 18th century, resulting in complicated affairs, which were handled by diplomatic means and propaganda as well as by the supreme courts of the Holy Roman Empire. 19th and 20th century Cologne lost its status as a free city during the French period. According to the Peace Treaty of Lunéville (1801) all the territories of the Holy Roman Empire on the left bank of the Rhine were officially incorporated into the French Republic (which already had occupied Cologne in 1798). Thus, this region later became part of Napoleon's Empire. Cologne was part of the French Département Roer (named after the River Roer, German: Rur) with Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) as its capital. The French modernized public life, for example by introducing the Napoleonic code and removing the old elites from power. The Napoleonic code remained in use on the left bank of the Rhine until 1900, when a unified civil code (the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch) was introduced in the German Empire. In 1815, at the Congress of Vienna, Cologne was made part of the Kingdom of Prussia, first in the Jülich-Cleves-Berg province and then the Rhine province. The permanent tensions between the Roman Catholic Rhineland and the overwhelmingly Protestant Prussian state repeatedly escalated with Cologne being in the focus of the conflict. In 1837 the archbishop of Cologne, Clemens August von Droste-Vischering, was arrested and imprisoned for two years after a dispute over the legal status of marriages between Protestants and Roman Catholics Mischehenstreit). In 1874 during the Kulturkampf, Archbishop Paul Melchers was imprisoned before taking refuge in the Netherlands. These conflicts alienated the Catholic population from Berlin and contributed to a deeply felt anti-Prussian resentment, which was still significant after World War II, when the former mayor of Cologne, Konrad Adenauer, became the first West German chancellor. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Cologne absorbed numerous surrounding towns, and by World War I had already grown to 700,000 inhabitants. Industrialization changed the city and spurred its growth. Vehicle and engine manufacturing were especially successful, though heavy industry was less ubiquitous than in the Ruhr area. The cathedral, started in 1248 but abandoned around 1560, was eventually finished in 1880 not just as a place of worship but also as a German national monument celebrating the newly founded German empire and the continuity of the German nation since the Middle Ages. Some of this urban growth happened at the expense of the city's historic heritage with much being demolished (e.g. the city walls or in the area around the cathedral) and sometimes replaced by contemporary constructions. On the other hand, Cologne was turned into a heavily armed fortress (opposing the French and Belgian fortresses of Verdun and Liège) with two fortified belts surrounding the city, the relics of which can be seen to this day. The military demands on what became Germany's largest fortress presented a significant obstacle to urban development, with forts, bunkers and wide defensive dugouts completely encircling the city and preventing expansion; this resulted in a very dense built-up area within the city itself. After WWI, during which several minor air raids had targeted the city, Cologne was occupied by British Forces until 1926 under the terms of the armistice and the subsequent Versailles Peace Treaty. Cologne Evacuated, TIME Magazine, February 15, 1926 In contrast to the harsh measures of French occupation troops in the Rhineland, the British acted with more tact towards the local population. The mayor of Cologne (the future West German chancellor) Konrad Adenauer acknowledged the political significance of this approach, as the British opposed French plans for a permanent Allied occupation of the Rhineland. In 1919 the University of Cologne (closed by the French in 1798) was refounded. It was meant as a substitute for the German University of Strasbourg that had become French in 1918-19. During the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) Cologne prospered under the guidance of Mayor Adenauer, with improvements especially in public governance, housing, planning and social affairs. Large public parks were created, in particular the two Grüngürtel (green belts), which were planned on the areas of the former fortifications, which had to be dismantled as part of the de-militarization of the Rhineland imposed by the peace treaty (this project was not completed until 1933). New social housing was held up as an example for other German cities. As Cologne competed for hosting the Olympics a modern stadium was erected in Müngersdorf. By the end of the British occupation, German civil aviation was readmitted over Cologne and the airport of Butzweilerhof soon became a hub for national and international air traffic, second in Germany only to Berlin-Tempelhof. By 1939 the population had risen to 772,221. Compared to other major cities the Nazis did not gain decisive support in Cologne and the number of votes cast for the NSDAP in Reichstag elections was always below the national average. Weimarer Wahlen World War II During World War II, Köln was a Military Area Command Headquarters (Militärische Bereich Befehl Hauptsitze) for Military District (Wehrkreis) VI in Münster. Cologne was under the command of Lieutenant-General Freiherr Roeder von Diersburg, who was responsible for military operations at Bonn, Siegburg, Aachen, Jülich, Düren, and Monschau. Cologne was the Home Station for the 211th Infantry Regiment and the 26th Artillery Regiment. Devastation of Cologne in 1945 In World War II, Cologne endured exactly 262 air raids koelnarchitektur.de on the reconstruction of Cologne by the Western Allies, which caused approximately 20,000 civilian casualties and almost completely wiped out the center of the city. During the night of 31 May 1942, Cologne was the site of "Operation Millennium", the first 1,000 bomber raid by the Royal Air Force in World War II. 1,046 heavy bombers attacked their target with 1,455 tons of explosives. This raid lasted about 75 minutes, destroyed of built-up area, killed 486 civilians and made 59,000 people homeless. By the end of the war, the population of Cologne was reduced by 95%. This loss was mainly caused by a massive evacuation of the people to more rural areas. The same happened in many other German cities in the last two years of war. At the end of 1945, the population had already risen to about 500,000 again. By that time, essentially all of Cologne's pre-war Jewish population of 20,000 had been deported or killed. The six synagogues of the city were destroyed . The only rebuilt synagogue on Roonstraße was the site of a historic visit in 2005 by the German-born Pope Benedict XVI, only the second Pope to ever visit a synagogue. Post-war Cologne Despite Cologne's status of being the largest city in the region, nearby Düsseldorf was chosen as the political capital of the Federal State North Rhine-Westphalia. With Bonn being chosen as the provisional capital (provisorische Bundeshauptstadt) and seat of the government of the Federal Republic of Germany, Cologne benefited by being sandwiched between the two important political centers of the former West Germany. The city became home to a large number of Federal agencies and organizations. After re-unification in 1990 Berlin was made the Federal capital of Germany. In 1945 architect and urban planner Rudolf Schwarz called Cologne the "world's greatest heap of debris". Schwarz designed the master plan of reconstruction in 1947, which called for the construction of several new thoroughfares through the downtown area, especially the Nord-Süd-Fahrt ("North-South-Drive"). The masterplan took into consideration the fact that even shortly after the war a large increase in automobile traffic could be anticipated. Plans for new roads had already to a certain degree evolved under the Nazi administration, but the actual construction became easier in times when the majority of downtown lots were undeveloped. The destruction of famous Romanesque churches like St. Gereon, Great St. Martin, St. Maria im Capitol and about a dozen others in World War II meant a tremendous loss of cultural substance to the city. The rebuilding of those churches and other landmarks like the Gürzenich event hall was not undisputed among leading architects and art historians at that time, but in most cases, civil intention prevailed. The reconstruction lasted until the 1990s, when Romanesque church of St. Kunibert was finished. It took some time to rebuild the city. In 1959 the city's population reached pre-war numbers again. It then grew steadily, exceeding 1 million for about one year from 1975. It has remained just below that since. In the 1980s and 1990s Cologne's economy prospered for two main reasons. Firstly, a growth in the number of media companies, both in the private and public sectors; they are especially catered for in the newly-developed Media Park, which creates a strongly visual focal point in down-town Cologne and includes the KölnTurm, one of Cologne's most prominent high-rises. Secondly, a permanent improvement of the diverse traffic infrastructure made Cologne one of the most easily accessible metropolitan areas in Central Europe. Due to the economic success of the Cologne Trade Fair, the city arranged a large extension to the fair site in 2005. At the same time the original buildings, which date back to the 1920s are rented out to RTL, Germany's largest private broadcaster, as their new corporate headquarters. Floods and flood protection The 1930 flood in Cologne The 1970 flood in Cologne Cologne is regularly affected by flooding from the Rhine and is considered the most flood-prone European city. A city agency (Stadtentwässerungsbetriebe Köln ) manages an extensive flood control system which includes both permanent and mobile flood walls, protection from rising waters for buildings close to the river banks, monitoring and forecasting systems, pumping stations and programs to create or protect floodplains and river embankments. The system was redesigned after a 1993 flood which resulted in heavy damages. Landmarks The center of Cologne was completely destroyed during World War II. The reconstruction of the city followed the style of the 1950s, while respecting the old layout and naming of the streets. Thus, the city today is characterized by simple and modest post-war buildings, with few interspersed pre-war buildings which were reconstructed due to their historical importance. Some buildings of the "Wiederaufbauzeit" (era of reconstruction), for example the opera house by Wilhelm Riphahn, are nowadays regarded as classics in modern architecture. Nevertheless, the uncompromising style of the opera house and other modern buildings has remained controversial. Cologne Cathedral (German: Kölner Dom) is the city's famous landmark and unofficial symbol. It is a Gothic church, started in 1248, and completed in 1880. In 1996, it was designated a World Heritage site; it houses the Shrine of the Three Holy Kings that supposedly contains the relics of the Three Magi (see also ). Residents of Cologne sometimes refer to the cathedral as "the eternal construction site" (Dauerbaustelle). Twelve Romanesque Churches: These buildings are outstanding examples of medieval sacral architecture. The roots of some of the churches date back as far as Roman times, like St. Gereon, which originally was a chapel on a Roman graveyard. With the exception of St. Maria Lyskirchen all of these churches were very badly damaged during World War II. Reconstruction was only finished in the 1990s. Cologne University, with approx. 44,000 students as of 2005, is the largest university in Germany. Farina Fragrance museum, the birthplace of Eau de Cologne. Römisch-Germanisches Museum (English: Roman-Germanic Museum) for ancient Roman and Germanic culture. Wallraf-Richartz Museum for medieval art. Museum Ludwig for modern art. EL-DE Haus, the former local headquarters of the Gestapo houses a museum documenting the Nazi rule in Cologne with a special focus on the persecution of political dissenters and minorities. Kölner Philharmonie - the Cologne Philharmonic Orchestra Building housing both the Gürzenich Orchestra and the WDR Symphony Orchestra Cologne. RheinEnergieStadion, the major Cologne stadium, primarily used for soccer games, seating 50,997 visitors in national games and 46,134 in international games, home to the local first division (Bundesliga) team, 1.FC Köln. Lanxess Arena (formerly known as Kölnarena), a multifunctional event hall, home to the local hockey team, the Kölner Haie (English: Cologne Sharks). Kölnturm (English: Cologne Tower), Cologne's second tallest building at in height, second only to the Colonius (). Colonius - a telecommunication tower with an observation deck (closed since 1992). Colonia Hochhaus - Germany's tallest residential building. Köln Triangle Tower - opposite the cathedral with a high viewing platform - in contrast to the cathedral with an elevator and a view with the cathedral over the Rhine. Hansa Hochhaus - designed by architect Jakob Koerfer and completed in 1925, it was at one time Europe's tallest office building. Rheinseilbahn - an aerial tramway crossing the Rhine. Messe Köln (English: Cologne Fair). Exhibition area of . Messeturm Köln (English: Exhibition Tower Cologne). Hohe Strasse (English: High Street) is one of the main shopping areas and extends past the cathedral in an approximately southerly direction. This street is particularly popular with tourists and contains many gift shops, clothing stores, fast food restaurants and electronic goods dealers. Ford Motor Company plants, assembling the Ford Fiesta and Ford Fusion as well as manufacturing engines and parts; headquarters for Ford of Europe. The Panasonic Toyota Racing Formula One team has its factory in the city. Schildergasse - extends the shopping area of Hohe Strasse to the west ending at Neumarkt. Ehrenstrasse - the shopping area around Apostelnstrasse, Ehrenstrasse, and Rudolfplatz is a little more on the eccentric and stylish side. Historic Ringe boulevards (such as Hohenzollernring, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Ring, Hansaring) with their medieval city gates (such as Hahnentorburg on Rudolfplatz) are also known for their night life. German Sports & Olympic Museum, with exhibitions about sports from antiquity until the present. Chocolatemuseum officially called Imhoff-Schokoladenmuseum. JavaMuseum - Forum for Internet Technology in Contemporary Art - collections of Internet based art, corporate part of (NewMediaArtProjectNetwork):cologne - the experimental platform for art and New Media. Economy The main entrance to the Lufthansa headquarters in Cologne Lufthansa, the German flag carrier, has its main corporate headquarters in Cologne. Lufthansa CityLine, a Lufthansa subsidiary, also has its main offices in Cologne. "Contact." Lufthansa CityLine. Retrieved on 26 May 2009. Transport Roads Major roads through and around Cologne. Road building had been a major issue in the 1920s under the leadership of mayor Konrad Adenauer. The first German limited access road was constructed after 1929 between Cologne and Bonn. Today, this is A 555. In 1965 Cologne became the first German city to be fully encircled by a freeway belt. Roughly at the same time a downtown bypass freeway (Stadtautobahn) was planned, but only partially executed, due to opposition by environmental groups. The completed section became Bundesstraße ("Federal Road") B 55a which begins at the Zoobrücke ("Zoo Bridge") and meets with A 4 and A 3 at the interchange Cologne East. Nevertheless, it is referred to as Stadtautobahn by most locals. Fully accomplished in contrast was the Nord-Süd-Fahrt ("North-South-Drive"), a new four/six lane downtown thoroughfare, which had already been anticipated by planners like Fritz Schumacher in the 1920s. The last section south of Ebertplatz was completed in 1972. In 2005 the first stretch of an eight-lane freeway in North Rhine-Westphalia was opened to traffic on Bundesautobahn 3, part of the eastern section of the freeway belt between the interchanges Cologne East and Heumar. Public transport |Subway at Dom/Central Station |- |Cologne Central Station |- |Cyclist in downtown |- |ICE3 at Cologne Central Station |} Cologne has a railway service with Deutsche Bahn Intercity and ICE-trains stopping at Köln Hauptbahnhof (Cologne Central Station), Köln-Deutz station and at Cologne Bonn Airport (Konrad-Adenauer-Flughafen). ICE and Thalys high-speed trains link Cologne with Amsterdam, Brussels and Paris. There are frequent ICE trains to other German cities, including Frankfurt am Main and Berlin. The Cologne city railway operated by Kölner Verkehrsbetriebe (KVB) Kölner Verkehrsbetriebe (KVB) is an extensive light rail system that is partially underground (referred to as U-Bahn) and serves Cologne and a number of neighboring cities. Nearby Bonn is linked by both the city railway and Deutsche Bahn trains, and occasional recreational boats on the Rhine. Düsseldorf is also linked by S-Bahn trains which are operated by Deutsche Bahn. There are also frequent buses covering most of the city and surrounding suburbs, and Eurolines coaches to London via Brussels. Cycling Like most German cities, Cologne has a traffic layout designed to be bicycle-friendly. There is an extensive cycle network, featuring pavement-edge cycle lanes linked by cycle priority crossings. In many of the narrow one-way central streets, cyclists are explicitly allowed to cycle both ways. Air transport Cologne's international airport is Cologne Bonn Airport (CGN). It is also called Konrad Adenauer Airport after Germany's post-war Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who was born in Cologne and was mayor of the city from 1917 until 1933. The airport is shared with the neighbouring city of Bonn. Sport A 2006 FIFA World Cup venue, The RheinEnergieStadion, hosts both the city's football team "1. FC Köln" which competes in the Bundesliga, and the American football Cologne Centurions who played in the now defunct NFL Europa. The city is also home of the hockey team Kölner Haie (Cologne Sharks), in the highest hockey league in Germany, the DEL. They are based at the Lanxess Arena. Cologne's basketball team "Köln 99ers" competes in the Basketball Bundesliga. An annual Cologne Marathon was started in 1997. Coat of arms The three crowns symbolize the Magi (Three Wise Men) whose bones are said to be kept in a golden sarcophagus in Cologne Cathedral (see Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral). In 1164, Rainald of Dassel, the archbishop of Cologne, brought the relics to the city, making it a major pilgrimage destination. This led to the design of the current cathedral as the predecessor was considered too small to accommodate the pilgrims. The eleven tears are a reminder of Cologne's patron, Saint Ursula, a Britannic princess, and her legendary 11,000 virgin companions who were supposedly martyred by Attila the Hun at Cologne for their Christian faith in 383. The entourage of Ursula and the number of victims was significantly smaller; according to one source, the original legend referred to only eleven companions and the number was later inflated by relic traders. Climate Twinned cities Cologne is "twinned" with the following cities: Liverpool, United Kingdom, since 1952 Lille, France, since 1958 Liège, Belgium, since 1958 Rotterdam, Netherlands, since 1958 Turin, Italy, since 1958 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg, since 1958 Kyoto, Japan, since 1963 Tunis, Tunisia, since 1964 Turku, Finland, since 1967 Neukölln, Germany, since 1967 Tel Aviv-Jaffa, Israel, since 1979 Barcelona, Spain, since 1984 Beijing, China, since 1987 Cork, Ireland, since 1988 Thessaloniki, Greece, since 1988 Corinto/El Realejo, Nicaragua, since 1988 Indianapolis, United States, since 1988 Volgograd, Russia, since 1988 Treptow-Köpenick, Germany, since 1990 Katowice, Poland, since 1991 Bethlehem, Palestinian Territories, since 1996 Istanbul, Turkey, since 1997 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, since 1999 Dunstable, United Kingdom (only borough of Porz) Benfleet, United Kingdom (only borough of Rodenkirchen) Igny, France Brive-la-Gaillarde, France Hazebrouck, France Islamabad, Pakistan Eygelshoven, Netherlands Batangas, Philippines Born in Cologne Notable people, whose roots can be found in Cologne: Adenauer, Konrad (5 January 1876 - 19 April 1967), politician, mayor of Cologne (1917 - 1933, 1945) and first West German Federal Chancellor Agrippa, Heinrich Cornelius (1486 - 1535), alchemist, occultist, and author of Three Books of Occult Philosophy Agrippina the Younger (6 November 15 - between 19 March and 23 March 59), Roman Empress (wife of Emperor Claudius) and mother of Emperor Nero Bach, Dirk (born 23 April 1961), actor and comedian Birnbaum, Heinrich (1403 - 1473), a Catholic monk Blum, Robert (10 November 1807 - 9 November 1848), politician and martyr of the 19th century democratic movement in Germany Böll, Heinrich (21 December 1917 - 16 July 1985), writer and winner of the Nobel prize for literature in 1972 Bruch, Max (6 January 1838 - 2 October 1920) composer Calatrava, Alex (born 14 June 1973), Spanish professional tennis player Donnersmarck, Florian Henckel von (born 2 May 1973), Academy Award-winning director and screenwriter Ernst, Max (2 April 1891 - 1 April 1976), artist Fresh, Eko (born 3 September 1983), rap artist Gossow, Angela (born 5 November 1974), vocalist for Melodic death metal band Arch enemy Heidemann, Britta (born 22 December 1982), épée fencer and Olympic medalist Herr, Trude (4 May 1927 - 16 March 1991), actress and singer Kier, Udo (born 14 October 1944), actor Klemperer, Werner (22 March 1920 - 6 December 2000), Emmy Award-winning comedy actor Krekel, Hildegard (born 2 June 1952), actress Krekel, Lotti (born 23 August 1941), actress and singer Krupp, Uwe (born 24 June 1965), professional (ice) hockey player Kühn, Heinz (18 February 1912 - 12 March 1992), Minister-President of North Rhine-Westphalia (1966 - 1978) Lauterbach, Heiner (born 10 April 1953), actor Liebert, Ottmar (born 1 February 1961), musician Millowitsch, Marie-Luise (born 23 November 1955), actress Millowitsch, Peter (born 1 February 1949), actor, playwright and theatre director Millowitsch, Willy (8 January 1909 - 20 September 1999), actor, playwright and theatre director Niedecken, Wolfgang (born 30 March 1951), singer, musician, artist and bandleader of BAP Neuhoff, Theodor von (25 August 1694 - 11 December 1756), briefly King Theodore of Corsica Offenbach, Jacques (20 June 1819 - 5 October 1880), composer Ostermann, Wilhelm (1 October 1876 - 6 August 1936) composer Prausnitz, Frederik William (26 August 1920 - 12 November 2004), American conductor and teacher Päffgen, Christa aka Nico (16 October 1938 - 18 July 1988), model, actress, singer and songwriter (see Velvet Underground) and Warhol Superstar Raab, Stefan Konrad (born 20 October 1966), entertainer and comedian Ruland, Tina (born 9 October 1966), actress Rüttgers, Jürgen (born 26 June 1951), Minister-President of North Rhine-Westphalia since 2005 Stockhausen, Markus (born 2 May 1957), musician and composer Trips, Wolfgang Graf Berghe von, Formula One racing driver Vondel, Joost van den (17 November 1587 - 5 February 1679), Dutch poet and playwright Weimar, Robert (born 13 May 1932), legal scientist and psychologist References External links Colonipedia, the city-wiki of Cologne Official information City of Cologne, official City of Cologne page Cologne, Cologne information portal Kölner Dom, Cologne Cathedral's official website University of Cologne Churches of Cologne Cologne Museums Cologne Philharmonics Cologne Zoo Tourism and travel Cologne Tourist Board Cologne Traffic Information Cologne Airport KVB - Cologne Public Transport Eau de Cologne Museum 20th World Youth Day 2005 Official Cologne City Map with Buses, Subways and Trains Cologne Zoo at Zoo-Infos.de (in English) Dom WebCam 250 pictures with guide of Cologne's places of interest Site with photos from Cologne Gay Games Cologne 2010 Culture and history Academy for the Language of Cologne Rote Funken The Prussian fortress Cologne Soundmap of Cologne Livius.org: Colonia Claudia 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7,028 | Agricultural_science | Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. (Veterinary science, but not animal science, is often excluded from the definition.) Agriculture and agricultural science The two terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts: Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. Agronomy is research and development related to studying and improving plant-based agriculture. Agricultural sciences include research and development on: Production techniques (e.g., irrigation management, recommended nitrogen inputs) Improving agricultural productivity in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of drought-resistant crops and animals, development of new pesticides, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro cell culture techniques) Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of dairy products) Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., soil degradation, waste management, bioremediation) Theoretical production ecology, relating to crop production modeling traditional agricultural systems, sometime termed subsistence agriculture, which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological greater than that of industrial agriculture, which in may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil and the USA. Agricultural science: a local science With the exception of theoretical agronomy, research in agronomy, more than in any other field, is strongly related to local areas. It can be considered a science of ecoregions, because it is closely linked to soil properties and climate, which are never exactly the same from one place to another. Many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather, soil characteristics, and specific crops has to be studied locally. Others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible, and the human dimension of interaction with nature. History of agricultural science Agricultural science began with Mendel's genetic work, but in modern terms might be better dated from the chemical fertilizer outputs of plant physiological understanding in eighteenth century Germany. In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887, which used the term "agricultural science". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built. Hillison J. (1996). The Origins of Agriscience: Or Where Did All That Scientific Agriculture Come From?. Journal of Agricultural Education. After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years. Huffman WE, Evenson RE. (2006). Science for Agriculture. Blackwell Publishing. Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and developing countries, often referred to as the Green Revolution, was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial fertilizers and phytosanitary products. As the oldest and largest human intervention in nature, the environmental impact of agriculture in general and more recently intensive agriculture, industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields. These include technological fields that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology, such as integrated pest management, waste treatment technologies, landscape architecture, genomics, and agricultural philosophy fields that include references to food production as something essentially different from non-essential economic 'goods'. In fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science. New technologies, such as biotechnology and computer science (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including genetic engineering, agrophysics, improved statistical analysis, and precision farming. Balancing these, as above, are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human-nature interactions of traditional agriculture, including interaction of religion and agriculture, and the non-material components of agricultural production systems. Prominent agricultural scientists Justus von Liebig Robert Bakewell Norman Borlaug Luther Burbank George Washington Carver René Dumont Jay Lush Gregor Mendel Louis Pasteur Eli Whitney Sewall Wright Agricultural science and agriculture crisis Agriculture sciences seek to feed the world's population while preventing biosafety problems that may affect human health and the environment. This requires promoting good management of natural resources and respect for the environment, and increasingly concern for the psychological wellbeing of all concerned in the food production and consumption system. Economic, environmental, and social aspects of agriculture sciences are subjects of ongoing debate. Recent crises (such as Avian Flu, mad cow disease and issues such as the use of genetically modified organisms) illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate. Fields or related disciplines Agricultural economics Agricultural engineering Agricultural philosophy Agricultural marketing Agrophysics Animal science Animal breeding Animal nutrition Agronomy Plant science Theoretical production ecology Horticulture Plant breeding Plant fertilization Aquaculture Biological engineering Genetic engineering Microbiology Environmental science Food science Human nutrition Irrigation and water management Soil science Agrology Waste management See also Agriculture ministry Agricultural sciences basic topics Agroecology American Society of Agronomy List of agriculture topics History of agricultural science Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development Research Institute of Crop Production (RICP) (in the Czech Republic) University of Agricultural Sciences References Further reading Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (2007),Johns Hopkins University Press Food Policy Report (Brief) Claude Bourguignon, Regenerating the Soil: From Agronomy to Agrology, Other India Press, 2005 Pimentel David, Pimentel Marcia, Computer les kilocalories, Cérès, n. 59, sept-oct. 1977 Russell E. Walter, Soil conditions and plant growth, Longman group, London, New York 1973 Salamini Francesco, Oezkan Hakan, Brandolini Andrea, Schaefer-Pregl Ralf, Martin William, Genetics and geography of wild cereal domestication in the Near East, in Nature, vol. 3, ju. 2002 Saltini Antonio, Storia delle scienze agrarie, 4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, ISBN 88-206-2412-5, ISBN 88-206-2413-3, ISBN 88-206-2414-1, ISBN 88-206-2414-X Vavilov Nicolai I. (Starr Chester K. editor), The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants. Selected Writings, in Chronica botanica, 13: 1-6, Waltham, Mass., 1949-50 Vavilov Nicolai I., World Resources of Cereals, Leguminous Seed Crops and Flax, Academy of Sciences of Urss, National Science Foundation, Washington, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem 1960 Winogradsky Serge, Microbiologie du sol. Problèmes et methodes. Cinquante ans de recherches, Masson & c.ie, Paris 1949 External links Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Indian Council of Agricultural Research International Institute of Tropical Agriculture International Livestock Research Institute The National Agricultural Library (NAL) - The most comprehensive agricultural library in the world. 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7,029 | Disco | Disco is a genre of dance music that originated in African American and Hispanic communities in the United States, starting in Philadelphia and later in New York City during the late 1960s and early 1970s. (1995) "Out in Culture: Gay, Lesbian and Queer Essays on Popular Culture", ISBN 030433488X, 9780304334889, p.439:(Disco 1990). "Although the disco pulse was born in the small gay black clubs of New York, disco music only began to gain commercial attention when it was exposed to the dance floor public of large, predominantly white gay discos." (1998) "The Cambridge History of American Music", ISBN 0521454298, 9780521454292, p.372: "Initially, disco musicians and audiences alike belonged to marginalized communities: women, gay, black, and Latinos" (2007) "The 1970s", ISBN 0313339198, 9780313339196, p.203-204: "During the late 1960s various male counterculture groups, most notably gay, but also heterosexual black and Latino, created an alternative to rock'n'roll, which was dominated by white — and presumably heterosexual — men. This alternative was disco,..." (2002) "Traces of the Spirit: The Religious Dimensions of Popular Music", ISBN 0814798098, 9780814798096, p.117: "New York City was the primary center of disco, and the original audience was primarily gay African Americans and Latinos." (1976) "Stereo Review", University of Michigan, p.75: "[..] and the result - what has come to be called disco - was clearly the most compelling and influential form of black commercial pop music since the halcyon days of the "Motown Sound" of the middle Sixties." In what is considered a forerunner to disco style clubs, in February 1970, the New York City DJ, David Mancuso, opened The Loft, a members-only private dance club set in his own home. empsfm.org Past Exhibitions discomusic.com Timeline Most agree that the first disco songs were released in 1973, though some claim Manu Dibango's 1972 Soul Makossa to be the first disco record. Disco origins The first article about disco was written in September 1973 by Vince Aletti for Rolling Stone Magazine. ARTS IN AMERICA; Here's to Disco, It Never Could Say Goodbye, The New York Times, December 10, 2002] Excerpt from first article about disco In 1974 New York City's WPIX-FM premiered the first disco radio show. discomusic.com Timeline first disco radio show Musical influences include funk and soul music. The disco sound has soaring, often reverberated vocals over a steady "four-on-the-floor" beat, an eighth note (quaver) or sixteenth note (semi-quaver) hi-hat pattern with an open hi-hat on the off-beat, and a prominent, syncopated electric bass line sometimes consisting of octaves. Strings, horns, electric pianos, and electric guitars create a lush background sound. Orchestral instruments such as the flute are often used for solo melodies, and unlike in rock, lead guitar is rarely used. Well-known late 1970s disco performers included The Bee Gees, Amanda Lear, Donna Summer and The Jacksons. Summer would become the first well-known and most popular female disco artist, and also played a part in pioneering the electronic sound that later became a part of disco (see below). While performers and singers garnered the lion's share of public attention, the behind-the-scenes producers played an equal, if not more important role in disco, since they often wrote the songs and created the innovative sounds and production techniques that were part of the "disco sound". allmusic Many non-disco artists recorded disco songs at the height of disco's popularity, and films such as Saturday Night Fever and Thank God It's Friday contributed to disco's rise in mainstream popularity. An angry backlash against disco music and culture emerged in the United States hitting its peak with the July 1979 Disco Demolition Night riot. While the popularity of disco in the United States declined markedly as a result of the backlash the genre continued to be popular elsewhere during the 1980's. Disco would be influential on several dance music genres such as House ,Techno, and Nu Disco that have emerged in the intervening years. In addition there have been numerous acts that have revived the genre directly or added various elements of it to their sound. History Early history Disco has its musical roots in the late 1960s. Philly and New York soul were evolutions of the Motown sound. The Philly Sound is typified by lavish percussion, which became a prominent part of mid-1970s disco songs. Music with proto-"disco" elements appeared in the late 1960s, with "Tighten Up" and "Mony, Mony", "Dance to the Music" and "Love Child" . Two early songs with disco elements include Jerry Butler’s 1969 "Only the Strong Survive" "Only the Strong Survive" and Manu Dibango's 1972 "Soul Makossa" . The early "disco" sound was largely an urban American phenomenon with from producers and labels such as SalSoul Records (Ken, Joe and Stanley Cayre), Westend Records (Mel Cheren), Casablanca (Neil Bogart), and Prelude (Marvin Schlachter) to name a few. They inspired and influenced such prolific European dance-track producers as Giorgio Moroder and Jean-Marc Cerrone. Moroder was the Italian producer, keyboardist, and composer who produced many songs of the singer Donna Summer. These included the 1975 hit "Love to Love You Baby", a 17-minute-long song with "shimmering sound and sensual attitude". Allmusic.com calls Moroder "one of the principal architects of the disco sound". Giorgio Moroder Allmusic.com The disco sound was also shaped by Tom Moulton who wanted to extend the enjoyment of the music — thus single-handedly creating the "Remix" which has influenced many other latter genres such as hip hop, techno, and pop. DJs and remixers would often remix (i.e., re-edit) existing songs using reel-to-reel tape machines. Their remixed versions would add in percussion breaks, new sections, and new sounds. Influential DJs and remixers who helped to establish what became known as the "disco sound" included David Mancuso, Tom Moulton, Nicky Siano, Shep Pettibone, the legendary and much-sought-after Larry Levan, Walter Gibbons, and later, New York–born Chicago "Godfather of House" Frankie Knuckles. Disco was also shaped by nightclub DJs such as Francis Grasso, who used multiple record players to seamlessly mix tracks from genres such as soul, funk and pop music at discotheques, and was the forerunner to later styles such as hip-hop and house. Women also played important roles at the turntable. Karen Cook, the first female disco DJ in the United States, spun the vinyl hits from 1974 – 1977 at 'Elan, Houston, TX, and also programmed music for clubs throughout the US that were owned by McFaddin Ventures. Chart-topping songs The Trammps - Disco Inferno album cover The Hues Corporation's 1974 "Rock The Boat", a U.S. #1 single and million-seller, was one of the early disco songs to hit #1. Other chart-topping songs included "Walking in Rhythm" by The Blackbyrds, "Rock Your Baby" by George McCrae and "Love's Theme" by Barry White's Love Unlimited Orchestra. Also in 1975, Gloria Gaynor released the first side-long disco mix vinyl album, which included a remake of The Jackson 5's "Never Can Say Goodbye" and two other songs, "Honey Bee" and "Reach Out (I'll Be There)". Also significant during this early disco period was Miami's KC and the Sunshine Band. Formed by Harry Wayne Casey ("KC") and Richard Finch, KC and the Sunshine Band had a string of disco-definitive top-five hits between 1975 and 1977, including "Get Down Tonight", "That's the Way (I Like It)", "(Shake, Shake, Shake) Shake Your Booty", "I'm Your Boogie Man" and "Keep It Comin' Love". The Bee Gees used Barry Gibb's falsetto to garner hits such as "You Should Be Dancing", "Stayin' Alive", "Night Fever" and "More Than A Woman". In 1975, hits such as Van McCoy's "The Hustle" and Donna Summer's "Love to Love You Baby" and "Could It Be Magic" brought disco further into the mainstream. Other notable early disco hits include The Jacksons’s "Dancing Machine" (1974), Barry White’s "You're the First, the Last, My Everything" (1974), LaBelle’s "Lady Marmalade" (1975) and Silver Convention’s "Fly Robin Fly" (1975). Chic's "Le Freak" (1978) became a classic and is heard almost everywhere disco is mentioned; other hits by Chic include the often-sampled "Good Times" (1979) and "Everybody Dance" (1978). Also noteworthy are Cheryl Lynn's "Got to Be Real" (1978) and Walter Murphy's various attempts to bring classical music to the mainstream, most notably his hit "A Fifth of Beethoven" (1976). The rich orchestral accompaniment that became identified with the disco era conjured up the memories of the big band era which brought out several artists that recorded and disco-ized some Big Band Music including Perry Como, who re recorded his 1929 and 1939 hit, Temptation in 1975 as well as some unlikely Country artists such as Bill Anderson (Double S) and Ronnie Milsap (High Heel Sneakers). Even the I Love Lucy theme wasn't spared from being disco-ized. Prominent European pop and disco groups were Luv' from the Netherlands and Boney M, a group of four West Indian singers and dancers masterminded by West German record producer Frank Farian. Boney M charted worldwide hits with such songs as "Daddy Cool", "Ma Baker" and "Rivers of Babylon." In France, Dalida released "J'attendrai", which became a big hit in Canada and Japan, and Cerrone's early hit songs - "Love In C Minor", "Give Me Love" and "Supernature" - became major hits in the U.S. and Europe. As one of the first movies to be scored with disco music before Saturday Night Fever, the James Bond film The Spy Who Loved Me garnered great popularity from composer Marvin Hamlisch's score, especially the disco-flavored Bond 77 opening track. 1978–1980: Pop pre-eminence The release of the film and soundtrack of Saturday Night Fever in December 1977, which became the best-selling soundtrack of all time, turned disco into a mainstream phenomenon. This in turn led many non-disco artists to record disco songs at the height of its popularity. Many of these songs were not "pure" disco, but were instead rock or pop songs with (sometimes inescapable) disco influence or overtones. Notable examples include Roxy Music's Love Is the Drug (1975), Steely Dan's "Kid Charlemagne" (1976), The Eagles' "One of These Nights" (1975), The Grateful Dead's "Shakedown Street" (1979), Barry Manilow’s "Copacabana (song)" (1978), The Rolling Stones' "Hot Stuff" (1976) and "Miss You" (1978), Bette Midler's "Married Men" (1979), Dolly Parton's "Baby I'm Burning" (1978), Rod Stewart's "Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?" (1979), Wings’ "Goodnight Tonight" (1979), Barbra Streisand's "The Main Event/Fight" (1979), Ann-Margret's "Love Rush" (1979), Kiss' "I Was Made for Lovin' You" (1979), Electric Light Orchestra’s "Shine a Little Love" and "Last Train to London" (1979), Isaac Hayes' "Don't Let Go" (1980), The Spinners' "Working My Way Back to You" (1980), Queen's "Another One Bites the Dust" (1980), and George Benson's "Give Me the Night" (1980). Disco hit the airwaves with Marty Angelo's Disco Step-by-Step Television Show in 1975, Steve Marcus' Disco Magic/Disco 77, Eddie Rivera's Soap Factory and Merv Griffin's, Dance Fever, hosted by Deney Terrio, who is credited with teaching actor John Travolta to dance for his upcoming role in the hit movie Saturday Night Fever. Several parodies of the disco style were created, most notably "Disco Duck" and "Dancin' Fool". Rick Dees, at the time a radio DJ in Memphis, Tennessee, recorded "Disco Duck"; Frank Zappa parodied the lifestyles of disco dancers in "Dancin' Fool" on his 1979 Sheik Yerbouti album. Characteristics Disco bass pattern The "disco sound", while unique, almost defies a unified description, as it was an ultra-inclusive art form that drew on as many influences as it produced interpretations. Jazz, classical, calypso, rock, Latin, soul, funk, and new technologies — just to name a few of the obvious — were all mingled with aplomb. Vocals could be frivolous or serious love intrigues — all the way to extremely serious socially-conscious commentary. The music tended to layer soaring, often-reverberated vocals, which are often doubled by horns, over a background "pad" of electric pianos and wah-pedaled "chicken-scratch" (palm muted) guitars. Other backing keyboard instruments include the piano, string synth, and electroacoustic keyboards such as the Fender Rhodes piano, Wurlitzer electric piano, and Hohner Clavinet. Synthesizers were also fairly common in disco, especially in the late 1970s. The rhythm is laid down by prominent, syncopated basslines (with heavy use of octaves) played on the bass guitar and by drummers using a drum kit, African/Latin percussion, and electronic drums such as Simmons and Roland drum modules). The sound was enriched with solo lines and harmony parts played by a variety of orchestral instruments, such as harp, violin, viola, cello, trumpet, saxophone, trombone, clarinet, flugelhorn, French horn, tuba, English horn, oboe, flute, and piccolo. Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat, a quaver or semi-quaver hi-hat pattern with an open hi-hat on the off-beat, and a heavy, syncopated bass line. This basic beat would appear to be related to the Dominican merengue rhythm. Other Latin rhythms such as the rhumba, the samba and the cha-cha-cha are also found in disco recordings, and Latin polyrhythms, such as a rhumba beat layered over a merengue, are commonplace. The quaver pattern is often supported by other instruments such as the rhythm guitar and may be implied rather than explicitly present. It often involves syncopation, rarely occurring on the beat unless a synthesizer is used to replace the bass guitar. In 1977, Giorgio Moroder again became responsible for a development in disco. Alongside Donna Summer and Pete Bellotte he wrote the song "I Feel Love" for Summer to perform. It became the first well-known disco hit to have a completely synthesised backing track. The song is still considered to have been well ahead of its time. Other disco producers, most famously Tom Moulton, grabbed ideas and techniques from dub music (which came with the increased Jamaican migration to New York City in the seventies) to provide alternatives to the four on the floor style that dominated. Larry Levan utilized style keys from dub and jazz and more as one of the most successful remixers of all time to create early versions of house music that sparked the genre see p.45, 46 . Production The "disco sound" was much more costly to produce than many of the other popular music genres from the 1970s. Unlike the simpler, four-piece band sound of the funk, soul of the late 1960s, or the small jazz organ trios, disco music often included a large pop band, with several chordal instruments (guitar, keyboards, synthesizer), several drum or percussion instruments (drumkit, Latin percussion, electronic drums), a horn section, a string orchestra, and a variety of "classical" solo instruments (e.g., flute, piccolo, etc.). Disco songs were arranged and composed by experienced arrangers and orchestrators, and producers added their creative touches to the overall sound. Recording complex arrangements with such a large number of instruments and sections required a team that included a conductor, copyists, record producers, and mixing engineers. Mixing engineers had an important role in the disco production process, because disco songs used as many as 64 tracks of vocals and instruments. Mixing engineers compiled these tracks into a fluid composition of verses, bridges, and refrains, complete with orchestral builds and breaks. Mixing engineers helped to develop the "disco sound" by creating a distinctive-sounding disco mix. Early records were the "standard" 3 minute version until Tom Moulton came up with a way to make songs longer, wanting to take a crowd to another level that was impossible with 45-RPM vinyl discs of the time (which could usually hold no more than 5 minutes of good-quality music). With the help of José Rodriguez, his remasterer, he pressed a single on a 10" disc instead of 7". They cut the next single on a 12" disc, the same format as a standard album. This method fast became the standard format for all DJs of the genre. DISCO History @ Disco-Disco.com Because record sales were often dependent on floor play in clubs, DJs were also important to the development and popularization of disco music. Notable DJs include Rex Potts (Loft Lounge, Sarasota, Florida), Karen Cook ('Elan, Houston, TX) Notably the first female discjockey (DJ) in the United States and programmer for all McFaddin Ventures properties, Jim Burgess, Walter Gibbons, John "Jellybean" Benitez, Richie Kaczar of Studio 54, Rick Gianatos, Francis Grasso of Sanctuary, Larry Levan, Ian Levine, Neil "Raz" Rasmussen & Mike Pace of L'amour Disco in Brooklyn, Preston Powell of Magique, Jennie Costa of Lemontrees, Tee Scott, John Luongo, Robert Ouimet of The Limelight, and David Mancuso. The 12-inch single format also allowed longer dance time and format possibilities. In May, 1976, Salsoul Records released Walter Gibbons' remix of Double Exposure's "Ten Percent", the first commercially-available 12-inch single. Motown Records’ "Eye-Cue" label also marketed 12-inch singles; however, the play time remained the same length as the original 45s. In 1976, Scepter/Wand released the first 12-inch extended-version single, Jesse Green's "Nice and Slow." This single was packaged in a collectible picture sleeve, a relatively new concept at the time. Twelve-inch singles became commercially available after the first crossover, Tavares' "Heaven Must Be Missing an Angel". Disco clubs and dancing Disco ball Saturday Night Fever impact on culture. Studio 54 Disco palace Blue disco quad roller skates By the late 1970s many major US cities had thriving disco club scenes which were centered around discotheques, nightclubs, and private loft parties where DJs would play disco hits through powerful PA systems for the dancers. The DJs played "...a smooth mix of long single records to keep people 'dancing all night long'". The Body and soul of club culture Some of the most prestigious clubs had elaborate lighting systems that throbbed to the beat of the music. McFaddin Ventures in Houston, Texas comissioned a study on the stimulation of males and females during the playing of music. They accordingly custom tuned their speakers to make their numerous properties more exciting. Their programmer/disc jockey, Karen Cook, was the first female disco DJ in the states and trained other McFaddin Ventures discjockeys to work the music format - 6 up, 3 down, to sell more drinks. Some cities had disco dance instructors or dance schools which taught people how to do popular disco dances such as "touch dancing", "the hustle" and "the cha cha." The pioneer of disco dance instruction was Karen Lustgarten in San Francisco in 1973. Her book The Complete Guide to Disco Dancing (Warner Books, 1978) was the first to name and break down popular disco dances and distinguish between disco freestyle, partner and line dances. The book hit the New York Times Best Seller List for 13 weeks and was translated into Chinese, German and French. There were also disco fashions that discotheque-goers wore for nights out at their local disco, such as sheer, flowing Halston dresses for women and shiny polyester Qiana shirts for men with pointy collars, preferably open at the chest, often worn with double-knit suit jackets. Some notable professional dance troupes of the 1970s included Pan's People and Hot Gossip. For many dancers, the primary influence of the 1970s disco age is still predominantly the film Saturday Night Fever (1977). This developed into the music and dance style of such films as Fame (1980), Flashdance (1983), and the musical A Chorus Line (1975). Drug subculture In addition to the dance and fashion aspects of the disco club scene, there was also a thriving drug subculture, particularly for drugs that would enhance the experience of dancing to the loud music and the flashing lights, such as cocaine Gootenberg, Paul 1954- - Between Coca and Cocaine: A Century or More of U.S.-Peruvian Drug Paradoxes, 1860-1980 - Hispanic American Historical Review - 83:1, February 2003, pp. 119-150. He says that "The relationship of cocaine to 1970s disco culture cannot be stressed enough; ..." - (nicknamed "blow"), amyl nitrite "poppers" Amyl, butyl and isobutyl nitrite (collectively known as alkyl nitrites) are clear, yellow liquids which are inhaled for their intoxicating effects. Nitrites originally came as small glass capsules that were popped open. This led to nitrites being given the name 'poppers' but this form of the drug is rarely found in the UK. The drug became popular in the UK first on the disco/club scene of the 1970s and then at dance and rave venues in the 1980s and 1990s. Available at: http://www.drugscope.org.uk/druginfo/drugsearch/ds_results.asp?file=%5Cwip%5C11%5C1%5C1%5Cnitrites.html , and the "...other quintessential 1970s club drug Quaalude, which suspended motor coordination and gave the sensation that one’s arms and legs had turned to Jell-O." www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1999/7/1999_7_43.shtml - 76k - According to Peter Braunstein, the "massive quantities of drugs ingested in discotheques produced the next cultural phenomenon of the disco era: rampant promiscuity and public sex. While the dance floor was the central arena of seduction, actual sex usually took place in the nether regions of the disco: bathroom stalls, exit stairwells, and so on. In other cases the disco became a kind of 'main course' in a hedonist’s menu for a night out." Peter Braunstein. Available at: http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1999/7/1999_7_43.shtml Famous disco bars included the very important Paradise Garage and Crisco Disco as well as "...cocaine-filled celeb hangouts such as Manhattan's Studio 54", which was operated by Steve Rubell and Ian Schrager. Studio 54 was notorious for the hedonism that went on within; the balconies were known for sexual encounters, and drug use was rampant. Its dance floor was decorated with an image of the "Man in the Moon" that included an animated cocaine spoon. Backlash From 1979, the popularity of the film Saturday Night Fever prompted major record labels to mass-produce hits, a move which some perceived as turning the genre from something vital and edgy into a safe "product" homogenized for mainstream audiences. Though disco music had enjoyed several years of popularity, an anti-disco sentiment manifested in America. This sentiment proliferated at the time because of oversaturation and the big-business mainstreaming of disco. Worried about declining profits, rock radio stations and record producers encouraged this trend. According to Gloria Gaynor, the music industry supported the destruction of disco because rock music producers were losing money and rock musicians were losing the spotlight. empsfm.org - EXHIBITIONS - Featured Exhibitions Many hard rock fans expressed strong disapproval of disco throughout the height of its popularity. Among these fans, the slogan "Disco Sucks" was common by the late 1970s and appeared in written form in places ranging from tee shirts to graffiti. (2001) "Encyclopedia of Contemporary American Culture", ISBN 0415161614, 9780415161619, p.217: "In fact, by 1977, before punk spread, there was a "disco sucks" movement sponsored by radio stations that attracted suburban white youth, who insisted that disco was escapist, synthetic and overproduced." In the late 1970s, Disco music and dancing fads began to be depicted by rock music fans as silly and effeminate, such as in Frank Zappa's satirical song "Dancin' Fool". Some listeners objected to the perceived sexual promiscuity and illegal drug use that had become associated with disco music. Others were put off by the exclusivity of the disco scene, especially in major clubs in large cities such as the Studio 54 discotheque, where bouncers only let in fashionably-dressed club-goers, celebrities, and their hangers-on. Rock fans objected to the idea of centering music around an electronic drum beat and synthesizers instead of live performers. Some have contended that there was also an element of bigotry to the anti-disco backlash; in his book A Change Is Gonna Come, Craig Werner wrote, "the attacks on disco gave respectable voice to the ugliest kinds of unacknowledged racism, sexism and homophobia." Disco Inferno, Daryl Easlea, The Independent, December 11, 2004 Some historians have referred to July 12, 1979 as "the day disco died" because of an anti-disco demonstration that was held in Chicago. Rock station DJs Steve Dahl and Garry Meier, along with Michael Veeck, son of Chicago White Sox owner Bill Veeck, staged Disco Demolition Night, a promotional event with an anti-disco theme, between games at a White Sox doubleheader for disgruntled rock fans. During this event, which involved exploding disco records, the raucous crowd tore out seats and turf in the field and did other damage to Comiskey Park. It ended in a riot in which police made numerous arrests. The damage done to the field forced the Sox to forfeit the second game to the Detroit Tigers who won the first game. The stadium suffered thousands of dollars in damage. The television industry — taking a cue from the music industry — responded with an anti-disco agenda as well. A recurring theme on the television show WKRP in Cincinnati contained a hateful attitude towards disco music. The anti-disco backlash may have helped to cause changes to the landscape of Top 40 radio. Negative responses from the listenerships of many Top 40 stations encouraged these stations to drop all disco songs from rotation, filling the holes in their playlists with New Wave, punk rock, and album-oriented rock cuts. For example, WLS in Chicago, KFJZ-FM (now KEGL) in Dallas/Fort Worth, and 1050 CHUM in Toronto were among the stations that took this approach. Although WLS continued to list some disco tracks, such as "Funkytown" by Lipps Inc., on its record surveys in the early 1980s, it refused to air them. . Indeed, Jello Biafra of anarcho-punk band The Dead Kennedys likened disco to the cabaret culture of Weimar Germany for its apathy towards government policy and its escapism (which Biafra saw as delusional). He sang about this in the song "Saturday Night Holocaust", the B-side of the song "Halloween". It should be noted that, unlike in the U.S., there was never a focused backlash against disco in Europe, and discotheques and the Disco culture continued past 1980 in Europe. It was during this backlash and decline that several record companies were folded, reorganized or sold. TK Records closed in 1981. ABC Records was sold to MCA Records in 1979, which shut down the label. Casablanca Records' founder Neil Bogart was forced out in 1980 by label owner PolyGram. RSO Records founder Robert Stigwood left the label in 1981. Influence on other music The transition from the late-1970s disco styles to the early-1980s dance styles was marked primarily by the change from complex arrangements performed by large ensembles of studio session musicians (including a horn section and an orchestral string section), to a leaner sound, in which one or two singers would perform to the accompaniment of synthesizer keyboards and drum machines. In addition, dance music during the 1981–83 period borrowed elements from blues and jazz, creating a style different from the disco of the 1970s. This emerging music was still known as disco for a short time, as the word had become associated with any kind of dance music played in discothèques. Examples of early 1980s dance sound performers include D. Train, Kashif, and Patrice Rushen. These changes were influenced by some of the notable R&B and jazz musicians of the 1970s, such as Stevie Wonder and Herbie Hancock, who had pioneered "one-man-band"-type keyboard techniques. Some of these influences had already begun to emerge during the mid-1970s, at the height of disco’s popularity. Songs such as Gloria Gaynor’s "Never Can Say Goodbye" (1974), Thelma Houston’s "Don't Leave Me This Way" (1976), Donna Summer’s "Spring Affair" (1977), Rod Stewart’s "Do Ya Think I'm Sexy?&quot; (1978), Donna Summer’s "Bad Girls" (1979), and The Bee Gees’ "Love You Inside Out" (1979) foreshadowed the dramatic change in dance music styles which was to follow in the 1980s. During the first years of the 1980s, the "disco sound" began to be phased out, and faster tempos and synthesized effects, accompanied by guitar and simplified backgrounds, moved dance music toward the funk and pop genres. This trend can be seen in singer Billy Ocean's recordings between 1979 and 1981. Whereas Ocean's 1979 song American Hearts was backed with an orchestral arrangement played by the Los Angeles Symphony Orchestra, his 1981 song "One of Those Nights (Feel Like Gettin' Down)" had a more bare, stripped-down sound, with no orchestration or symphonic arrangements. This drift from the original disco sound is called post-disco. During the early 1980s, dance music dropped the complicated melodic structure and orchestration which typified the "disco sound". Examples of well-known songs which illustrate this difference include Kool & the Gang’s "Celebration" (1980), Rick James’ "Super Freak" (1981), Grace Jones's "Pull Up to the Bumper" (1981), Carol Jiani's "Hit N' Run Lover" (1981), Laura Branigan's "Gloria" (1982), The Pointer Sisters’ "I'm So Excited" (1982), Prince’s "1999" (1982), The Weather Girls's "It's Raining Men" (1982), Madonna’s "Holiday" (1983), Irene Cara's "Flashdance (What A Feeling)" (1983), Angela Bofill's "Too Tough" (1983), Miquel Brown's "So Many Men, So Little Time" (1983), Michael Jackson’s "Thriller" (1983), Cerrone's "Back Track" (1984), Jocelyn Brown's "Somebody Else's Guy" (1984), and Klymaxx's "Meeting in the Ladies Room" (1984). TV themes During the mid to late 1970s a number of TV themes began to be produced (or older themes updated) with disco influenced music. Examples include S.W.A.T. (1975), Charlie's Angels (1976), NBC Saturday Night At The Movies (1976), The Love Boat (1977), The Donahue Show (1977), CHiPs (1977), The Professionals (1977), Dallas (1978), Kojak (1978). DJ culture The rising popularity of disco came in tandem with developments in turntablism and the use of records to create a continuous mix of songs. The resulting DJ mix differed from previous forms of dance music, which were oriented towards live performances by musicians. This in turn affected the arrangement of dance music, with songs since the disco era typically containing beginnings and endings marked by a simple beat or riff that can be easily slipped into the mix. Hip hop and electro The disco sound had a strong influence on early hip hop. Most of the early rap/hip-hop songs were created by isolating existing disco bass-guitar lines and dubbing over them with MC rhymes. The Sugarhill Gang used Chic's "Good Times" as the foundation for their 1979 hit "Rapper's Delight", generally considered to be the song that first popularized hip hop in the United States and around the world. In 1982, Afrika Bambataa released the single "Planet Rock," which incorporated electronica elements from Kraftwerk's "Trans-Europe Express" and "Numbers." The "Planet Rock" sound also spawned a hip-hop electronic dance trend (electro music), which included such songs as Planet Patrol's "Play At Your Own Risk" (1982), C Bank's "One More Shot" (1982), Cerrone's "Club Underworld" (1984), Shannon's "Let the Music Play" (1983), Freeez's "I.O.U." (1983), Midnight Star's "Freak-A-Zoid" (1983), and Chaka Khan's "I Feel For You" (1984). House music House music is the direct heir apparent of disco. A large number of disco performers and musicians have stated it is the same thing with a different name. Some might agree that record producers and synthesizer pioneers such as the American Patrick Cowley and Italian Giorgio Moroder, who both had a number of hit disco singles such as Moroder's "From Here to Eternity" (1977) and Sylvester's "You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)" (1978) and "Hills of Katmandu" (1978) influenced to some degree the development of the later electric dance music genres such as house and its offshoot techno. Both early/proto House music and its stripped down offshoot techno rely on the repetitive bass drum rhythm and hi-hat rhythm patterns introduced by disco. However, as House music evolved over time, the productions became more lush with productions maintaining soulful vocals while re-introducing live instrumentation and live complex percussion mixed with the electronic drums and synthesizers — basically coming full circle back to the Disco musical ideals with a contemporary edge to them. Techno became more mechanical and devoid of organic flourishes, relying more on instrumental compositions or with minimal synthesized vocals. Early house music, which was developed by innovative DJs such as Larry Levan in New York and Frankie Knuckles in Chicago, consisted of various disco loops overlapped by strong bass beats. House music was usually computer-driven, and longer segments were used for mixing. Clubs associated with the birth of house music include New York's Paradise Garage and Chicago's Warehouse and The Music Box. Resurgence from the 1990s to the present day In the late 1980s and increasingly through the 1990s, a revival of the original disco style began to emerge. The disco influence can be heard in songs as Rick Astley's "Never Gonna Give You Up" (1988) http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=33:aifwxztrld0e Gloria Estefan's "Get On Your Feet" (1991), Paula Abdul's "Vibeology" (1992), Whitney Houston's "I'm Every Woman" (1993), U2’s "Lemon" (1993), Diana Ross's "Take Me Higher" (1995), The Spice Girls’ "Who Do You Think You Are" (1997) and "Never Give up on the Good Times" (1997), Gloria Estefan's "Heaven's What I Feel" (1998) & "Don't Let This Moment End" (1999), Cher’s "Strong Enough" (1998), and Jamiroquai's "Canned Heat" (1999). The trend continued in the 2000s with hit songs such as Kylie Minogue's "Spinning Around" (2000) and "Love at First Sight" (2002), Sheena Easton's "Givin' Up, Givin' In" (2001), Alcazar's breakthrough single Crying at the Discotheque (2001), Sophie Ellis-Bextor's smash single Murder on the Dancefloor (2002), S Club 7's singles "Don't Stop Movin'" (2001), "Alive" (2002) and "Love Ain't Gonna Wait For You" (2003), The Shapeshifters' "Lola's Theme" (2003), Janet Jackson's "R&B Junkie" (2004) and Madonna's 2005 album Confessions on a Dance Floor echoes traditional disco themes, particularly in the single "Hung Up," which samples ABBA's "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)." Madonna continued doing disco music in her 2008 release, "Hard Candy", this time experimenting with the old days of funk- and soul-influenced disco in songs like "Beat Goes On" and "Dance 2nite". In the mid-late part of the decade, many disco songs have been released, becoming hits, including (2005) Gorillaz's "Dare", Ultra Nate's "Love's The Only Drug" (2006), Gina G's "Tonight's The Night" (2006), The Shapeshifters' "Back To Basics" (2006), Michael Gray's "Borderline" (2006), Irene Cara's "Forever My Love" (2006), Bananarama's "Look on the Floor (Hypnotic Tango)", Akcent's "Kings of Disco" (2007), the Freemasons "Rain Down Love" (2007), Claudja Barry's "I Will Stand" (2006), Pepper Mashay's "Lost Yo Mind" (2007), Sophie Ellis-Bextor’s "Me and My Imagination" (2007), Maroon 5's "Makes Me Wonder" (2007) Justice’s "D.A.N.C.E.", "Phanton (Part II)" (2007), Dannii Minogue's "Touch Me Like That"(2007), Cerrone's "Misunderstanding" and "Tatoo Woman" (2008), Sean Ensign's "I Wanna Be With You" (2008), Donna Summer's "I'm a Fire" (2008), Jody Watley's "A Beautiful Life" (2008), Crystal Waters's "Dancefloor" (2008) and Alcazar's comeback single We Keep on Rockin' (2008). Music producer, Ian Levine has also produced many new songs with such singers as George Daniel Long, Hazell Dean, Sheila Ferguson, Steve Brookstein and Tina Charles among others for the compilation album titled, Disco 2008, a tribute to Disco music using original material. In recent years, artists such as DE SIGNER, Ali Love, Hercules and Love Affair, producer JMV and Lady Gaga have revived the disco sound helping bring further mainstream interest and success. Disco tributes continue to be popular draws. The World's Largest Disco, an annual celebration held over Thanksgiving weekend in Buffalo, New York, draws thousands of disco fans in 1970s attire. In addition to playing disco hits of the era, live performers from the 1970s make appearances. Nu Disco Nu-disco is a 21st century dance music genre associated with the renewed interest in 1970s and early 1980s disco,[1] mid-1980s Italo disco, and the synthesizer-heavy Eurodisco aesthetics.[2] The moniker appeared in print as early as 2002, and by mid-2008 was used by record shops such as the online retailers Juno and Beatport.[3]. These vendors often associate it with re-edits of original-era disco music, as well as with music from European producers who make dance music inspired by original-era American disco, electro and other genres popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It is also used to describe the music on several American labels that were previously associated with the genres electroclash and deep house. Artists associated with Nu Disco include the following: Alcazar Dannii Minogue Jamiroquai Escort DE SIGNER Sophie Ellis-Bextor Ali Love Hercules & Love Affair Modjo Hed Kandi JMV Shapeshifters Metro Area Sheila Ferguson Kennedy Lady Gaga Moloko The Golden Filter The Brand New Heavies D'Sound Dimitri From Paris Kylie Minogue Paul Johnson Zee Asha Mr. Oizo Justice SR-71 Scissor Sisters Shena capsule (group) See also Number-one dance hits of 1978 (USA) Number-one dance hits of 1979 (USA) Philadelphia International Records References and notes Michaels, Mark (1990). The Billboard Book of Rock Arranging. ISBN 0-8230-7537-0. Jones, Alan and Kantonen, Jussi (1999). Saturday Night Forever: The Story of Disco. Chicago, Illinois: A Cappella Books. ISBN 1-55652-411-0. Article on the 30th Annversary of Saturday Night Fever DVD, re-mastered by writer John Reed. Further reading Brewster, Bill and Broughton, Frank (1999) Last Night a DJ Saved my Life: the History of the Disc Jockey Headline Book Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-7472-6230-6 Lawrence, Tim (2004) Love Saves the Day: A History of American Dance Music Culture, 1970-1979. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-3198-5. Angelo, Marty (2006) Once Life Matters: A New Beginning. Impact Publishing. ISBN 0961895446. Shapiro, Peter (2005) Turn The Beat Around - The Secret History of Disco. Faber And Faber. ISBN 0865479526 ISBN 978-0865479524 Disco Inferno 2.0: A Slightly Less Hedonistic Comeback Charting the DJs, labels, and edits fueling an old new craze article by Andy Beta for The Village Voice (November 2008) External links '70s disco music (IT) Radio Disco music disco music.com | Disco |@lemmatized disco:187 genre:15 dance:47 music:71 originate:1 african:3 american:11 hispanic:2 community:2 united:6 state:8 start:1 philadelphia:2 later:4 new:22 york:13 city:8 late:16 early:21 culture:11 gay:6 lesbian:1 queer:1 essay:1 popular:10 isbn:12 p:8 although:2 pulse:1 bear:2 small:3 black:4 club:17 begin:6 gain:1 commercial:2 attention:2 expose:1 floor:9 public:3 large:7 predominantly:2 white:7 cambridge:1 history:7 initially:1 musician:6 audience:3 alike:1 belong:1 marginalized:1 woman:6 latinos:1 various:4 male:2 counterculture:1 group:4 notably:4 also:21 heterosexual:2 latino:2 create:10 alternative:3 rock:19 n:3 roll:3 dominate:2 presumably:1 men:5 trace:1 spirit:1 religious:1 dimension:1 primary:2 center:3 original:7 primarily:2 stereo:1 review:2 university:2 michigan:1 result:3 come:7 call:3 clearly:1 compelling:1 influential:3 form:6 pop:9 since:3 halcyon:1 day:5 motown:3 sound:32 middle:1 sixty:1 consider:3 forerunner:2 style:11 february:2 dj:18 david:3 mancuso:3 open:5 loft:3 member:1 private:2 set:1 home:1 empsfm:2 org:3 past:2 exhibition:3 discomusic:2 com:9 timeline:2 agree:2 first:23 song:41 release:9 though:2 claim:1 manu:2 dibango:2 soul:9 makossa:2 record:31 origins:1 article:6 write:5 september:1 vince:1 aletti:1 stone:2 magazine:3 art:2 america:2 never:6 could:4 say:4 goodbye:3 time:18 december:3 excerpt:1 wpix:1 fm:2 premier:1 radio:7 show:5 musical:4 influence:14 include:27 funk:6 soar:2 often:13 reverberate:2 vocal:6 steady:2 four:5 beat:13 eighth:1 note:4 quaver:5 sixteenth:1 semi:2 hi:5 hat:5 pattern:5 prominent:4 syncopate:2 electric:7 bass:8 line:6 sometimes:2 consist:2 octave:2 string:5 horn:6 piano:5 guitar:9 lush:2 background:3 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7,030 | History_of_Poland | Settled agricultural people have lived in the area that is now Poland for the last 7500 years, the Slavic people have been in this territory for over 1500 years, and the history of Poland as a state spans well over a millennium. The territory ruled by Poland has shifted and varied greatly. At one time, in the late 16th and early 17th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a huge state in central-eastern Europe, with an area of about one million square kilometers. At other times there was no separate Polish state at all. Poland regained its independence in 1918, after more than a century of rule by its neighbors, but its borders shifted again after World War II. Poland largely lost its traditional multiethnic character and the communist system was imposed. When the opportunity arose in 1989, the country became a parliamentary democracy. Following its emergence in the 10th century, the Polish nation was led by a series of rulers who converted the Poles to Christianity, created a strong kingdom and integrated Poland into the European culture. Internal fragmentation eroded this initial structure in the 13th century, but consolidation in the 1300s laid the base for the new dominant Kingdom of Poland that was to follow. Beginning with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila (Władysław II Jagiełło), the Jagiellon dynasty (1385–1569) formed the Polish-Lithuanian union. The partnership proved beneficial for the Poles and Lithuanians, who coexisted and cooperated in one of the most powerful states in Europe for the next three centuries. The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish Sejm (parliament) in 1505, transferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the Sejm. This event marked the beginning of the period known as "Golden Liberty", when the state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility. The Union of Lublin of 1569 established the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, spreading the Western culture eastwards. By the 18th century the nobles' democracy had gradually declined into anarchy, making the once powerful Commonwealth vulnerable to foreign intervention. Over the course of three successive partitions by the countries bordering it (the Russian Empire, Habsburg Austria and the Kingdom of Prussia), the Commonwealth was significantly reduced in size the first two times and ultimately ceased to exist in 1795. The idea of Polish independence however was kept alive throughout the 19th century and led to several Polish uprisings against the partitioning powers. Poland regained its independence in 1918, but the Second Polish Republic was destroyed by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union by their Invasion of Poland at the beginning of the Second World War. Nevertheless the Polish government in exile kept functioning and through the many Polish military formations contributed significantly to the Allied victory. Nazi Germany's forces were compelled to retreat from Poland as the Soviet Red Army advanced, which led to the creation of the People's Republic of Poland. The country's geographic location was shifted to the west and Poland existed as a Soviet satellite state. By the late 1980s Solidarity, a Polish reform movement, became crucial in causing a peaceful transition from a communist state to a capitalist democracy, which resulted in the creation of the modern Polish state. Prehistory and protohistory Stone Age The Stone Age era in Poland lasted five hundred thousand years and involved three different human species. The Stone Age cultures ranged from early human groups with primitive tools to advanced agricultural societies using sophisticated stone tools, building fortified settlements and developing copper metallurgy. Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), p. 10-53. Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, Wrocław 2002, ISBN 83-7023-954-4. The Stone Age in Poland is divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic eras. The Paleolithic extended from about 500,000 BCE to 8000 BCE. The Paleolithic is subdivided into periods, the Lower Paleolithic, 500,000 to 350,000 BCE, the Middle Paleolithic, 350,000 to 40,000 BCE, the Upper Paleolithic, 40,000 to 10,000 BCE, and the Final Paleolithic, 10,000 to 8000 BCE. The Mesolithic lasted from 8000 to 5500 BCE, and the Neolithic from 5500 to 2300 BCE. The Neolithic is subdivided into the Neolithic proper, 5500 to 2900 BCE, and the Copper Age, 2900 to 2300 BCE. Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 8, Jacek Poleski. Copyright 1999 Wydawnictwo Literackie Kraków, ISBN 83-08-02855-1. Bronze Age and Early Iron Age The reconstruction of Lusatian culture's Biskupin fortified settlement The Bronze and Iron Age cultures in Poland are known mainly from archeological research. Early Bronze Age cultures in Poland begin around 2400/2300 BC. The Iron Age commences ca. 750/700 BC. The subject of the ethnicity and linguistic affiliation of the groups living in central and eastern Europe at that time is, given the absence of written records, speculative, and accordingly there is considerable disagreement. In Poland the most famous archeological finding from that period is the Biskupin fortified settlement (gord), representing the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age. Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), p. 54-85 The Bronze Age in Poland consisted of Period I, 2300 to 1600 BCE; Period II, 1600 to 1350 BCE; Period III, 1350 to 1100 BCE; Period IV, 1100 to 900 BCE; Period V, 900 to 700 BCE. The Early Iron Age included Hallstatt Period C, 700 to 600 BCE, and Hallstatt Period D, 600 to 450 BCE. La Tène and Roman periods Peoples belonging to numerous archeological cultures identified with Celtic, Germanic and Baltic tribes lived in and migrated through various parts of the territory that now constitutes Poland from about 400 BC. Expanding and moving out of their homeland in Scandinavia and northern Germany, the Germanic people settled this area and used it as a migrating route for several centuries. Many Germanic tribes moved from present-day Poland in the southern and eastern directions, while other remained. As the Roman Empire was nearing its collapse and the nomadic peoples invading from the east destroyed, damaged or destabilized the various Germanic cultures and societies, the Germanic people left eastern and central Europe for the safer and wealthier southern and western parts of the continent. The northeast corner of modern Poland's territory was and remained populated by Baltic tribes. Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), p. 86-121 The La Tène period is subdivided into La Tène A, 450 to 400 BCE; La Tène B, 400 to 250 BCE; La Tène C, 250 to 150 BCE; La Tène D, 150 to 0 BCE. It was followed by the period of Roman influence, of which the early stage had lasted from 0 to 150 CE, and the late stage from 150 to 375 CE. 375 to 500 CE constituted the (pre-Slavic) Migration Period. Arrival of the Slavs According to the currently predominant scholarly opinion, the Slavs were not present in central Europe before the earliest Medieval period. In Poland their first waves migrated in and settled the area of the upper Vistula River and elsewhere in southeastern part of the country and southern Masovia, coming from the upper and middle regions of the Dnieper River, beginning in the second half of the 5th century, some half century after these territories were vacated by Germanic tribes. From there the new population dispersed north and west over the course of the 6th century. Slavic people lived from cultivation of crops and were generally farmers, but also engaged in hunting and gathering. Their migration was likely caused by the pursuit of fertile soils and invasions of eastern and central Europe by waves of people and armies from the east, such as the Huns, Avars and Magyars. Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), p. 122-129 Polish tribes and tribal states A Vistulan stronghold in Wiślica once stood here A number of West Slavic Polish tribes formed small dominions beginning in the 8th century, some of which coalesced later into larger ones. Among the tribes listed in the Bavarian Geographer's 9th century document were the Vistulans (Wiślanie) in southern Poland. Kraków and Wiślica were their main centers. Major building of fortified structures and other developments in their country took place in the 9th century. During the later part of the 9th century, according to a written account in the The Life of St. Methodius, the Vistulan state was subjected to Great Moravian rule, and after Great Moravia's fall in the 10th century it had become a part of the Czech state. The tribal unions built many gords - fortified enclosures with earth and wood walls and embankments, from the 7th century onwards. Some of them were developed and inhabited, others had a very large empty area and may have served primarily as refuges in times of trouble. Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), p. 130-143 From the early part of the 10th century the Polans (Polanie, lit. "people of the fields") of what is now Greater Poland became a moving force behind the historic processes that gave rise to the Polish state. The Polans settled in the flatlands around Giecz, Poznań, Gniezno and Ostrów Lednicki, that eventually became the foundation and early center of Poland, lending their name to the country. They went through a period of accelerated building of fortified settlements and territorial expansion beginning in the first half of the 10th century, and the Polish state developed from their tribal entity in the second half of that century. At that time, according to the chronicler Gallus Anonymus, the Polans were ruled by the Piast dynasty. In existing sources a Piast ruler, Mieszko I, was first mentioned by Widukind of Corvey in his Res gestae saxonicae. According to the chronicler, in 963 Mieszko's forces were twice defeated by the Veleti acting in cooperation with the Saxon exile Wichmann the Younger. Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 29, Krzysztof Stopka Under Mieszko's rule (around 960 to 992), his tribal state accepted Christianity and became the Polish state. Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), p. 144-159 Piast dynasty Mieszko I; adoption of Christianity Ostrów Tumski (Poznań Cathedral on the right) is the area of the early beginnings of the Polish state and church The viability of the emerging state was assured by the early Piast leaders' persistent territorial expansion, which beginning with a very small area around Gniezno (before the town itself existed), lasted throughout most of the 10th century, resulting in a territory approximating that of the present day Poland. The Polanie tribe conquered and merged with other Slavic tribes, formed a tribal federation and then a centralized state, which after the addition of Lesser Poland and Silesia (taken from the Czech state during the later part of the 10th century) reached its mature form, including the main regions regarded as ethnically Polish. Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), p. 146-167, Zofia Kurnatowska Mieszko I, initially a pagan, was the first ruler of the Polans tribal union known from contemporary written sources. Mieszko was one of the four Slavic "kings", as reported by Ibrâhîm ibn Ya`qûb, a Jewish traveler. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Dzieje Polski piastowskiej (VIII w. - 1370) (History of Piast Poland (8th century - 1370)), p. 77, Fogra, Kraków 1999, ISBN 83-85719-38-5 In 965 Mieszko, at that time allied with Boleslaus I of Bohemia, married his daughter Dubrawka, a Christian princess. Mieszko's 966 conversion to Christianity in its Western Latin Rite followed and is considered by many to be the founding event of the Polish state. In the aftermath of Mieszko's 967 victory over a force of the Wolinians led by Wichmann the first missionary bishop was appointed, which counteracted the intended eastern expansion of the Magdeburg Archdiocese, established at about the same time. Polski mogło nie być (There could have been no Poland) - an interview with the historian Tomasz Jasiński by Piotr Bojarski, Gazeta Wyborcza July 7, 2007 Mieszko's state had a complex political relationship with the German Holy Roman Empire, as Mieszko was a "friend", ally and vassal of Otto I, paying him tribute from the western part of his lands. It fought wars with the Polabian Slavs, the margraves of the Saxon Eastern March (Gero in 963-964 and Hodo in 972, see Battle of Cedynia), and the Czechs. By around 990, when Mieszko I officially submitted his country to the authority of the Holy See (Dagome iudex), he had transformed Poland into one of the strongest powers in central-eastern Europe. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 80-88, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN), Warszawa 1986, ISBN 83-01-03732-6 Bolesław I; Church province, conquests, Kingdom of Poland Bolesław buys Adalbert's body back from the Prussians (Gniezno Doors) Poland 992–1025; the area at the end of the rule of Mieszko I (992) in dark pink, at the end of the rule of Bolesław I (1025) within the dark purple border Contrary to what Mieszko had intended, his oldest son Bolesław managed to become the sole ruler of Poland. A man of high ambition and strong personality, he embarked on further territorial expansion to the west (Lusatia region), south, and east. While often successful, the campaigns and the gains turned out to be of only passing significance and badly strained the resources of the young nation. Bolesław lost the economically crucial Farther Pomerania, together with its new bishopric in Kołobrzeg; the region had previously been conquered with great effort by Mieszko. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 88-93 Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), p. 168-183, Andrzej Pleszczyński Bolesław Chrobry (ruled 992-1025) started by continuing his father's policy of alliance with the Holy Roman Empire. He skillfully took advantage of the death of Vojtěch Slavník or Wojciech, a Czech bishop in exile and missionary, whom Bolesław received and helped and who was killed in Prussia. The martyrdom of Wojciech in 997 gave Poland a patron saint, St. Adalbert, and soon resulted in the creation of an independent Polish province of the Church with an archbishop in Gniezno. The Congress of Gniezno took place in the year 1000, when the young emperor Otto III came as a pilgrim to visit St. Adalbert's grave and lent his support to Bolesław. The Gniezno archdiocese and several subordinate dioceses were established on this occasion. The Polish ecclesiastical province effectively served as an essential anchor and an institution to fall back on for the Piast state, helping it survive in the troubled centuries ahead. Otto died in 1002 and Bolesław's relationship with his successor Henry II turned out to be much more difficult, resulting in a series of wars in the coming years (1002-1005, 1007-1013, 1015-1018). In 1003-1004 Bolesław intervened militarily in Czech dynastic conflicts. After his forces were removed from Bohemia, Bolesław retained Moravia. Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 33, Krzysztof Stopka In 1013 the marriage between Bolesław's son Mieszko and Richeza of Lotharingia, the niece of Emperor Otto III and future mother of Casimir I the Restorer took place. The conflicts with Germany ended in 1018 with the Peace of Bautzen accord, on favorable for Bolesław terms. In the context of the 1018 Kiev expedition Bolesław took over the western part of Red Ruthenia. In 1025, shortly before his death, Bolesław I the Brave finally succeeded in obtaining the papal permission to crown himself, and became the first king of Poland. Mieszko II; collapse of the reign After Bolesław's death his son, King Mieszko II Lambert (990-1034), tried to continue his father's politics, having his kingdom act as an interventionist great power. This reinforced much of the old resentment and hostility on the part of Poland's neighbors, which Mieszko's two dispossessed brothers took advantage of, arranging for Rus' and German invasions in 1031. Mieszko was defeated and had to leave the country. Although later Mieszko's brothers Bezprym and Otto were killed and Mieszko partially recovered, with Mieszko's death in 1034 the first Piast monarchy collapsed. Deprived of a government, Poland was ravaged by an anti-feudal and pagan rebellion, and in 1039 by the forces of Bretislaus I of Bohemia. The country suffered territorial losses, and the functioning of the Gniezno archdiocese had been disrupted. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 93-96 Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), p. 182-187, Andrzej Pleszczyński Restoration under Casimir I Mieszko II shown symbolically with Duchess Mathilda von Schwaben The nation made a recovery under Mieszko's son, Duke Casimir I (1016-1058), properly known as the Restorer. After returning from exile in 1039 Casimir rebuilt the Polish monarchy and through several military campaigns (in 1047 Masovia was taken back from Miecław, and in 1050 Silesia form the Czechs) the country's territorial integrity. He was aided in this endeavor by the recent adversaries of Poland, the Holy Roman Empire and Kievan Rus', who didn't find the chaos in Poland to be to their liking either. Casimir introduced a more mature form of feudalism, by settling his warriors on feudal estates and turning them into landed gentry, thus relieving the burden of financing large army units from the duke's treasury. Faced with the widespread destruction of Greater Poland after the Czech expedition, Casimir moved his court to Kraków, which replaced the old Piast capitals (Poznań and Gniezno) and functioned afterwards as the nation's capital for several centuries. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 96-98 Bolesław II; conflict with Bishop Stanisław Casimir's son Bolesław II the Bold, also known as the Generous (ruled 1058-1079), developed Polish military strength further, waging several foreign campaigns between 1058 and 1077. As an active supporter of the papal side in its feud with the German emperors, with the blessing of Pope Gregory VII Bolesław crowned himself king in 1076. In 1079 there was an anti-Bolesław conspiracy or conflict that involved the Bishop of Kraków. Bolesław had Bishop Stanisław executed; subsequently Bolesław was forced to abdicate the Polish throne because of the pressure from the Catholic Church and the pro-imperial faction of the nobility. St. Stanislaus was to become the second martyr and patron saint of Poland. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 98-100 Władysław I Herman St. Leonard's Crypt is what's left of the second Romanesque Wawel Cathedral of Władysław Herman After Bolesław's exile the country found itself under the unstable rule of Władysław I Herman (ruled 1079-1102), who was strongly dependent on Palatine Sieciech. When Władysław's two sons Zbigniew and Bolesław finally forced Władysław to remove his hated protégé, Poland from 1098 was divided among the three of them, and after the father's death from 1102 to 1106 between the two brothers. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 100-101 Bolesław III After a power struggle, Bolesław III the Wrymouth (ruled 1102-1138) became the Duke of Poland by defeating his half-brother in 1106-1107. Zbigniew had to leave the country, but received support from Emperor Henry V, who attacked Bolesław's Poland in 1109. Bolesław was able to defend his country because of his military abilities, determination and alliances, and also because of a national mobilization across the social spectrum (see Battle of Głogów); Zbigniew who later returned was eliminated. Bolesław's other major achievement was the conquest of Pomerania (of which the remaining eastern part was lost by Poland after the death of Mieszko II), a task begun by his father and completed by Bolesław around 1123. At that time also the Christianization of the region was initiated in earnest, an effort crowned by the establishment of the Pomeranian Wolin Diocese after Bolesław's death in 1140. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 101-104 Fragmentation of the realm Before he died, Bolesław Krzywousty divided the country among four of his sons; a complex arrangement intended to preserve the country's unity, in practice ushered in a long period of fragmentation. For two centuries the Piasts were to spar with each other, the clergy, and the nobility for the control over the divided kingdom. The stability of the system was supposedly assured by the institution of the senior or high duke of Poland, based in Kraków and assigned to the special Seniorate Province that was not to be subdivided. This principle broke down already within the generation of Bolesław III's sons, when Władysław II the Exile, Bolesław IV the Curly, Mieszko III the Old and Casimir II the Just fought for power and territory in Poland, and in particular over the Kraków throne. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 104-111 Culture in the 10th-12th century St. Andrew's Church in Kraków (built in the 11th century) Early Medieval Poland was developing culturally as a part of the European Christendom. Intellectual and artistic activity was concentrated around the institutions of the Church (written annals beginning in the late 10th century), the courts of the kings and dukes (already Mieszko II and Casimir the Restorer were literate and educated), and increasingly around the households of the emergent hereditary elite. Along with the Dagome iudex act, the most important written document and source of the period is the chronicle by a foreign cleric from the court of Bolesław the Wrymouth known as Gallus Anonymus. A number of Pre-Romanesque stone churches were built beginning in the 10th century, often accompanied by "palatium" ruler residencies; Romanesque buildings proper followed. The earliest coins were minted by Bolesław I around 995. The Gniezno Doors of Gniezno Cathedral (bronze relief) are the finest example of Romanesque sculpture. Bruno of Querfurt was one of the pioneering Western clergymen spreading Church literacy; some of his prominent writings had been produced in eremitic monasteries in Poland. Among the preeminent early monastic religious orders were the Benedictines (the abbey in Tyniec founded in 1044) Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 37, Krzysztof Stopka and the Cistercians. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 111-115 Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038) (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), p. 196-209 State and society in the 13th century The 13th century brought fundamental changes in the structure of the Polish society and political system. Because of the fragmentation and constant internal conflicts, the Piast dukes were unable to stabilize Poland's external borders of the early Piast rulers. In mid 13th century Bolesław II the Bald granted Lubusz Land to the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which made possible the creation of the Neumark and had far reaching negative consequences for the integrity of the western border. Western Farther Pomerania broke its political ties with Poland in the second half of the 12th century and from 1231 became a fief of the Margraviate, which in 1307 extended its Pomeranian possessions even further east. Pomerelia or Gdańsk Pomerania had been independent of the Polish dukes from 1227. In the south-east Leszek the White was unable to preserve Poland's supremacy over the Halych area of Rus', a territory that had changed hands on a number of occasions. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 116-128 St. Mary's Church in Kraków The social status was becoming increasingly based on the size of feudal land possessions. Those included the lands controlled by the Piast princes, their rivals the great lay land owners and church entities, all the way down to the knightly class; the work force ranged from hired "free" people, through serfs attached to the land, to slaves (purchased or war and other prisoners). The upper layer of the feudal lords, first the Church and then others, were able to acquire economic and legal immunity, which made them exempt to a significant degree from court jurisdiction or economical obligations (including taxation), that had previously been imposed by the ruling dukes. The civil strife and foreign invasions, such as the Mongol invasions in 1241, 1259 and 1287, weakened and depopulated the many small Polish principalities, as the country became progressively more split. This, but also increasing in the developing economy demand for labor, caused a massive immigration of West European, mostly German settlers into Poland. The German, Polish and other new rural settlements were a form of feudal tenancy with immunity and German town laws were often utilized as its legal bases. The German immigrants were also important in the rise of the cities and the establishment of the Polish burgher (city dwelling merchants) class; they brought with them West European laws (Magdeburg rights) and customs which the Poles adopted. From that time on the Germans have been one of the minorities in Poland. In 1228, the Acts of Cienia were passed and signed into law by Władyslaw III. The titular Duke of Poland promised to provide a "just and noble law according to the council of bishops and barons." Such legal guarantees and privileges included also the lower level land owners - knights, who were evolving into the lower and middle nobility class known later as "szlachta". The fragmentation period weakened the rulers and established a permanent trend in Polish history, whereby the rights and role of the nobility were being expanded at the monarch's expense. Teutonic Knights In 1226 Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to help him fight the Prussian people, who lived in a territory adjacent to his lands; substantial border warfare was taking place and Konrad's province had suffered from Prussian invasions. On the other hand, the Old Prussians themselves were at that time being subjected to increasingly forced (including papacy-sponsored crusades), but largely ineffective Christianization efforts. The Teutonic Order quickly overstepped the authority and moved beyond the area granted them by Konrad. In the following decades they conquered large areas along the Baltic Sea coast and established their monastic state. When virtually all of the Western Baltic pagans became converted or exterminated (the Prussian conquests had been completed by 1283), the Knights turned their attention to Poland and Lithuania, then the last major pagan state in Europe. Teutonic expansionist policy and wars with Poland and Lithuania continued for most of the 14th and 15th centuries. The Teutonic state in Prussia, populated by German settlers beginning in the 13th century, had been claimed as a fief and protected by the popes and Holy Roman Emperors. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 128-129 A Traveller's History of Poland, by John Radzilowski, p. 39-41; Northampton, Mass.: Interlink Books, 2007, ISBN 1-56656-655-X Reunification attempts; Przemysł II, Wenceslaus II As the disadvantages of national division were becoming increasingly apparent in various segments of the society, some of the Piast dukes had begun making serious efforts aimed at the reunification of the Polish state. Important among the earlier attempts were the activities of the Silesian dukes Henry I the Bearded, his son Henry II the Pious, who was killed in 1241 while fighting the Mongols at the Battle of Legnica, and Henry IV Probus. In 1295 Przemysł II of Greater Poland became the first, since Bolesław II, Piast duke crowned as King of Poland, but he ruled over only a part of the territory of Poland (including from 1294 Gdańsk Pomerania) and was assassinated soon after his coronation. A more extensive unification of Polish lands was accomplished by a foreign ruler, Wenceslaus II of Bohemia of the Přemyslid dynasty, who married Przemysł's daughter and became King of Poland in 1300. Wenceslaus' heavy-handed policies soon caused him to lose whatever support he had earlier in his reign; he died in 1305. An important factor in the unification process was the Polish Church, which remained a single ecclesiastical province throughout the fragmentation period. Archbishop Jakub Świnka of Gniezno was an ardent proponent of Poland's reunification; he performed the crowning ceremonies for both Przemysł II and Wenceslaus II. Świnka supported Władysław Łokietek at various stages of the duke's career. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 129-141, 154-155 Culture in the 13th century Władysław I the Elbow-high, a fragment of his sandstone sarcophagus Sarcophagus of Kazimierz the Great at Wawel Cathedral Culturally the 13th century brought a socially much broader impact of the Church, as a network of parishes was established and cathedral-type schools became more common. The leading monastic orders were now the Dominicans and the Franciscans, who interacted closely with the general population. Characteristic of the period was a proliferation of narrative annals, as well as other written records, laws and documents. More of the clergy were of local origin, others were expected to know the Polish language. Their most recognized representative in the intellectual sphere, where there was considerable achievement, is Wincenty Kadłubek, the author of an influential chronicle. A treatise on optics by Witelo, a Silesian monk, was one of the finest achievements of Medieval science. Gothic architecture became the predominant style of churches and castles constructed beginning in the 13th century, and in art forms native elements were increasingly important. Significant advances took place in agriculture, manufacturing and crafts. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 141-144 Reunited kingdom of the last Piast rulers The 14th century unified Kingdom of Poland of the last two rulers of the Piast dynasty, Władysław the Elbow-high and his son Casimir the Great, wasn't quite a return of the Polish state from before the fragmentation. The regional Piast princes remained strong and for economic reasons some of them gravitated toward Poland's neighbors. The Kingdom lost Pomerania and Silesia, the most highly developed or economically important of the ethnically Polish lands, which left half of the Polish population outside the Kingdom's borders. The western losses had to do with the German expansion, and the lower Vistula was controlled by the Teutonic Order. Masovia was not to be fully incorporated into the Polish state anytime soon. Casimir stabilized the western and northern borders, tried to regain some of the lost territories, and partially compensated the losses by his new eastern expansion, which placed within his kingdom regions that were ethnically non-Polish. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 145-154 Despite the territorial truncation, 14th century Poland experienced a period of accelerated economic development and increasing prosperity. This included further expansion and modernization of agricultural settlements, the development of towns and their increasing role in briskly growing trade, mining and metallurgy. A great monetary reform was implemented during the reign of Casimir III. Władysław I the Elbow-high Władysław Łokietek (ruled 1305-1333) fought a lifelong uphill battle with powerful adversaries and left the Kingdom in a precarious situation, with limited area under its control and many unresolved issues, but he may have saved Poland's existence as a state. Supported by his Hungarian allies Władysław returned from exile and challenged Wenceslaus II, and after his death Wenceslaus III in 1304-1306. Wenceslaus III soon being murdered, Władysław Łokietek took over Lesser Poland and the lands north of there, through Kuyavia all the way to Gdańsk Pomerania. In 1308 Pomerania was conquered by the Brandenburg state. In a recovery effort Łokietek agreed to ask for help the Teutonic Knights; the Knights brutally took over Gdańsk Pomerania and kept it for themselves. In 1311-1312 a rebellion in Kraków instigated by the city's patrician leadership, seeking a rule by the House of Luxembourg, was put down. In 1313-1314 Władysław conquered Greater Poland. In 1320 Władysław I Łokietek became the first King of Poland crowned in the Wawel Cathedral. The coronation was agreed to by Pope John XXII, despite the opposition from John of Bohemia, who also claimed the Polish crown. John undertook in 1327 an expedition aimed at Kraków, which he was compelled to abort, and a crusade against Lithuania in 1328, during which he formalized an alliance with the Teutonic Order. The Order was in a state of war with Poland from 1327 to 1332 (see Battle of Płowce); the Knights captured Dobrzyń Land and Kujawy. Władysław was helped by his alliances with Hungary and Lithuania (1325 pact against the Teutonic State), Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 74-75, Krzysztof Stopka and from 1329 by a peace agreement with Brandenburg. A lasting achievement of John of Luxembourg (and Poland's greatest loss) was forcing most of the Piast Silesian principalities into allegiance. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 155-160 Casimir III the Great Poland at the end of the rule of Casimir III (1370) within the dark purple border; Silesia (yellow) is lost and the Kingdom is expanding to the east After Łokietek's death the old monarch's son, King Casimir III, later to be known as Kazimierz the Great (ruled 1333-1370), was a 23 year old, who had no inclination for military life hardships, and by his contemporaries was not given much of a chance for overcoming the country's mounting difficulties or succeeding as a leader. But from the beginning Casimir acted prudently, purchasing in 1335 John's claims to the Polish throne, and after a couple of high-level arbitrations settling in 1343 the disputes with the Teutonic Order by a territorial compromise. Dobrzyń Land and Kuyavia were recovered by Casimir. At that time Poland started to expand to the east and through a series of military campaigns between 1340 and 1366 Casimir had annexed the Halych-Volodymyr area of Rus'. Supported by Hungary, the Polish king in 1338 promised the Hungarian ruling house the Polish throne in the event he dies without male heirs. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 160-171 Casimir unsuccessfully tried to recover Silesia by conducting military activities against the Luxembourgs between 1343 and 1348, but then blocked the attempted separation of Silesia from the Gniezno Archdiocese by Charles IV. Later until his death he pursued the Polish claim to Silesia legally by petitioning the pope; his successors had not continued his efforts. Allied with Denmark and Western Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania was granted to the Order as an "eternal charity") Casimir was able to impose some corrections on the western border. In 1365 Drezdenko and Santok became Poland's fiefs, while Wałcz district was in 1368 taken outright, severing the land connection between Brandenburg and the Teutonic state and connecting Poland with Farther Pomerania. Kazimierz the Great considerably strengthened the country's position in both foreign and domestic affairs. Domestically, he integrated the reunited Polish state and helped develop what was considered the "Crown of the Polish Kingdom", the state within its actual, as well as past or potential (legal from the Polish point of view) boundaries. Casimir established or strengthened kingdom-wide institutions (such as the powerful state treasury) independent of the regional, class, or royal court related interests. Internationally, the Polish king was very active diplomatically, cultivated close contacts with other European rulers and was a staunch defender of the Polish national interest. In 1364 he sponsored the Congress of Kraków, in which a number of monarchs participated, and which was concerned with the promotion of peaceful cooperation and political balance in Central Europe. Louis I of Hungary and Jadwiga (the Angevin dynasty) Jadwiga Immediately after Casimir's death in 1370, the heirless king's nephew, Louis of Hungary of the Angevin dynasty assumed the Polish throne. As Casimir's actual commitment to the Angevin succession seemed problematic from the beginning (in 1368 the Polish king adopted his grandson, Casimir of Słupsk), Louis engaged in succession negotiations with Polish knights and nobility starting already in 1351. They supported him, exacting in return further guarantees and privileges for themselves; the formal act was negotiated in Buda in 1355. Right after the coronation Louis left his mother and Casimir's sister Elizabeth in Poland as a regent, himself returning to Hungary. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 169-173 With the death of Casimir the Great the period of hereditary (Piast) monarchy in Poland ended. The land owners and nobles did not want a strong monarchy; a constitutional monarchy was established between 1370 and 1493 (beginnings of the bicameral General Sejm). During the reign of Louis I Poland formed a union with Hungary. In the pact of 1374 known as the Privilege of Koszyce the Polish nobility, granted very extensive concessions, agreed to extend the Angevin succession to Louis' daughters, as Louis also had no sons. Louis' neglect of Polish affairs resulted in the loss of Casimir's territorial gains, including Halych Rus' (recovered by Jadwiga in 1387). This Hungarian-Polish union lasted for twelve years and ended in war. After Louis' death in 1382 and a power struggle that ensued, the Polish nobility decided that Louis' youngest daughter Jadwiga should become the next "King of Poland". Upon their demands Jadwiga arrived in 1384 and was crowned at the age of eleven. The failure of the union of Poland and Hungary paved the way for the union of Lithuania and Poland. Culture in the 14th century Many large scale brick building projects were undertaken in the 14th century, in particular during Casimir's reign. These included Gothic churches, castles, urban fortifications and homes of wealthy city residents. Most notable are the many magnificent churches representing the Polish Gothic style. Medieval sculpture, painting and ornamental smithery are well represented, especially as the furnishings of churches and liturgical items. The Polish law was codified 1346-1347 and after 1357 and for conflict resolution legal proceedings were being commonly used domestically, while bilateral or multilateral negotiations and treaties were increasingly important in international relations. The network of cathedral and parish schools had become well developed. In 1364 Casimir the Great, based on a papal concession, established the University of Kraków, the second oldest in central Europe. While many still traveled for university studies to southern and western Europe, the Polish language, along with the predominant Latin, is increasingly present in written documents. The Holy Cross Sermons ( probably early 14th century) constitute possibly the oldest extant Polish prose manuscript. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 173-177 Jagiellon Era Jagiellon monarchy Jogaila In 1385 the Union of Krewo was signed between Queen Jadwiga and Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania (later known as Władysław II Jagiełło). The act arranged for their marriage and constituted the beginning of the Polish-Lithuanian Union. The Union strengthened both nations in their shared opposition to the Teutonic Knights and the growing threat of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Vast expanses of Rus' lands were at that time under Lithuanian control. The Union's intention was to create a common state under King Jagiełło, but the idea turned out to be premature at that time. There were going to be territorial disputes and warfare between Poland and Lithuania or Lithuanian factions; the Lithuanians at times had even found it expedient to conspire with the Teutonic Knights against the Poles. A Traveller's History of Poland, by John Radzilowski, p. 63-65 Geographic consequences of the personal union and the preferences of the Jagiellon kings accelerated the process of reorientation of Polish territorial priorities to the east. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 178-180 Between 1386 and 1572 Poland and Lithuania were ruled by a succession of constitutional monarchs of the Jagiellon dynasty. The political influence of the Jagiellon kings was diminishing during this period, which was accompanied by the ever increasing role in central government and national affairs of landed nobility. The royal dynasty however had a stabilizing effect on Poland's politics. The Jagiellon Era is often regarded as a period of maximum political power, great prosperity, and in its later stage, the Golden Age of Polish culture. Social and economic developments The 13th and 14th century feudal rent system, under which each estate had well defined rights and obligations, degenerated around the 15th century, as the nobility tightened their control of the production, trade and other economic activities, created many directly owned agricultural enterprises known as folwarks, limited the rights of the cities and pushed most of the peasants into serfdom. Such practices were increasingly sanctioned by the law. For example the Piotrków Privilege of 1496, granted by King Jan Olbracht, banned rural land purchases by townspeople and severely limited the ability of peasant farmers to leave their villages. Polish towns, lacking national representation protecting their class interests, preserved some degree of self-government (city councils and jury courts), and the trades were able to organize and form guilds. The nobility soon excused themselves from their principal duty - mandatory military service in case of war (pospolite ruszenie). The nobility's split into two main layers was institutionalized in the Nihil novi "constitution" of 1505, which required the king to consult the sejm, that is the senate (highest level officials), as well as the lower chamber of (regional) deputies, before enacting any changes. The masses of ordinary szlachta competed or tried to compete against the uppermost rank of their class, the magnates, for the duration of Poland's independent existence. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 180-190 Poland and Lithuania in personal union under Jogaila Battle of Grunwald The first king of the new dynasty was the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jogaila, or Ladislaus II as the King of Poland. He was elected a King of Poland in 1386, after becoming a Christian and marrying Jadwiga of Anjou, daughter of Louis I, who was Queen of Poland in her own right. Christianization of Lithuania followed. Jogaila's rivalry in Lithuania with his cousin Vytautas was settled in 1401 in the Union of Vilnius and Radom. Vytautas became the Grand Duke of Lithuania for life under Jogaila's nominal supremacy, but the agreement made possible close cooperation between the two nations, necessary to succeed in the upcoming struggle with the Teutonic Order. The Union of Horodło (1413) specified the relationship further and had granted privileges to the Roman Catholic (as opposed to Eastern Orthodox) portion of Lithuanian nobility. Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 91, Krzysztof Stopka Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 190-195 Struggle with the Teutonic Knights The Great War of 1409-1411, precipitated by the Lithuanian uprising in the Order controlled Samogitia, included the Battle of Grunwald, where the Polish and Lithuanian-Rus' armies completely defeated the Teutonic Knights. The offensive that followed lost its impact with the ineffective siege of Malbork. The failure to take the fortress and eliminate the Teutonic (later Prussian) state had for Poland dire historic consequences in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. The Peace of Thorn (1411) had given Poland and Lithuania rather modest territorial adjustments, including Samogitia. Afterwards there were negotiations and peace deals that didn't hold, more military campaigns and arbitrations. One attempted, unresolved arbitration took place at the Council of Constance. There in 1415 Paulus Vladimiri, rector of the Kraków Academy, presented his Treatise on the Power of the Pope and the Emperor in respect to Infidels, where he advocated tolerance, criticized the violent conversion methods of the Teutonic Knights, and postulated that pagans have the right to peaceful coexistence with Christians and political independence. This stage of the Polish-Lithuanian conflict with the Teutonic Order ended with the Treaty of Melno in 1422. Another war (see Battle of Pabaiskas) was concluded in the Peace of Brześć Kujawski in 1435. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 195-198, 201-203 Hussite movement; Polish-Hungarian union Poland (red) and Lithuania (blue) under Jogaila or King Władysław Jagiełło after 1411 During the Hussite Wars (1420-1434) Jagiełło, Vytautas and Sigismund Korybut were invoved in political and military maneuvering concerning the Czech crown, offered by the Hussites first to Jagiełło in 1420. Zbigniew Oleśnicki became known as the leading opponent of a union with the Hussite Czech state. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 198-206 The Jagiellon dynasty was not entitled to automatic hereditary succession, as each new king had to be approved by nobility consensus. Władysław Jagiełło had two sons late in his life, from his last marriage. In 1430 the nobility agreed to the succession of the future Władysław III, only after the King gave in and guaranteed the satisfaction of their new demands. In 1434 the old monarch died and his minor son Władysław was crowned; the Royal Council led by Bishop Oleśnicki undertook the regency duties. In 1438 the Czech anti-Habsburg opposition, mainly Hussite factions, offered the Czech crown to Jagiełło's younger son Casimir. The idea, accepted in Poland over Oleśnicki's objections, resulted in two unsuccessful Polish military expeditions to Bohemia. After Vytautas' death in 1430 Lithuania became embroiled in internal wars and conflicts with Poland. Casimir sent as a boy by King Władysław on a mission there in 1440, was surprisingly proclaimed a Grand Duke of Lithuania, and stayed in Lithuania. Oleśnicki gained the upper hand again and pursued his long-term objective of Poland's union with Hungary. At that time Turkey embarked on a new round of European conquests and threatened Hungary, which needed the powerful Polish-Lithuanian ally. Władysław III in 1440 assumed also the Hungarian throne. Influenced by Julian Cesarini, the young king led the Hungarian army against the Ottoman Empire in 1443 and again in 1444. Like his mentor, Władysław Warneńczyk was killed at the Battle of Varna. Beginning toward the end of Jagiełło's life, Poland was practically governed by a magnate oligarchy led by Oleśnicki. The rule of the dignitaries was actively opposed by various szlachta groups. Their leader Spytek of Melsztyn was killed during an armed confrontation in 1439, which allowed Oleśnicki to purge Poland of the remaining Hussite sympathizers and pursue his other objectives without significant opposition. Casimir IV Jagiellon King Casimir IV Jagiellon In 1445 Casimir, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, was asked to assume the Polish throne vacated by the death of his brother Władysław. Casimir was a tough negotiator and did not accept the Polish nobility's conditions for his election. He finally arrived in Poland and was crowned in 1447 on his terms. Becoming a King of Poland Casimir also freed himself from the control the Lithuanian oligarchy had imposed on him; in the Vilnius Privilege of 1447 he declared the Lithuanian nobility having equal rights with Polish szlachta. In time Kazimierz Jagiellończyk was able to remove from power Cardinal Oleśnicki and his group, basing his own power on the younger middle nobility camp instead. A conflict with the pope and the local Church hierarchy over the right to fill vacant bishop positions Casimir also resolved in his favor. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 206-207 War with the Teutonic Order and its resolution In 1454 the Prussian Confederation, an alliance of Prussian cities opposed to the rule of the Teutonic Knights, asked King Casimir to take over Prussia and stirred up an armed uprising against the Knights. Casimir declared a war on the Order and a formal incorporation of Prussia into the Polish Crown; those events led to the Thirteen Years War. The weakness of pospolite ruszenie (the szlachta wouldn't cooperate without new across-the-board concessions from Casimir) prevented a takeover of all of Prussia, but in the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) the Knights had to surrender the western half of their territory to the Polish crown (the areas known afterwards as Royal Prussia), and to accept Polish-Lithuanian suzerainty over the remainder (the later Ducal Prussia). Poland regained Gdańsk Pomerania and with it the all-important access to the Baltic Sea, as well as Warmia. In addition to land warfare, naval battles had taken place, where ships provided by the City of Gdańsk successfully fought Danish and Teutonic fleets. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 207-213 Other 15th century Polish territorial gains, or rather revindications, included the Duchy of Oświęcim and Duchy of Zator on Silesia's border with Lesser Poland, and there was notable progress regarding the incorporation of the Piast Masovian duchies into the Crown. The influence of the Jagiellon dynasty in Central Europe had been on the rise. In 1471 Casimir's son Władysław became a king od Bohemia, and in 1490 also of Hungary. Turkish and Tatar wars Poland, Poland's fiefs (striped) and Lithuania in 1466 The southern and eastern outskirts of Poland and Lithuania became threatened by Turkish invasions beginning in the late 15th century. Moldavia's involvement with Poland goes back to 1387, when Petru I, Hospodar of Moldavia, seeking protection against the Hungarians, paid Jagiełło homage in Lviv, which gave Poland access to the Black Sea ports. Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 86, Krzysztof Stopka In 1485 King Casimir undertook an expedition into Moldavia, after its seaports were overtaken by the Ottoman Turks. The Turkish controlled Crimean Tatars raided the eastern territories in 1482 and 1487, until they were confronted by King Jan Olbracht, Casimir's son and successor. Poland was attacked in 1487-1491 by remnants of the Golden Horde. They had invaded into Poland as far as Lublin before being beaten at Zaslavl. Russian Interaction with Foreign Lands King John Albert in 1497 made an attempt to resolve the Turkish problem militarily, but his efforts were unsuccessful as he was unable to secure effective participation in the war by his brothers, King Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Alexander, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and because of the resistance on the part of Stephen the Great, the ruler of Moldavia. More Ottoman Empire instigated destructive Tatar raids took place in 1498, 1499 and 1500. List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars John Albert's diplomatic peace efforts that followed were finalized after the king's death in 1503, resulting in a territorial compromise and an unstable truce. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 213-215 Crimean Khanate invasions in Poland and Lithuania continued also during the reign of King Alexander in 1502 and 1506; in 1506 the Tatars were defeated at the Battle of Kleck by Michael Glinski. Krzysztof Baczkowski - Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370-1506) (History of Late Medieval Poland (1370-1506)), p. 302, Fogra, Kraków 1999, ISBN 83-85719-40-7 Moscow's threat to Lithuania; Sigismund I Lithuania was increasingly threatened by the growing power of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Through the campaigns of 1471, 1492 and 1500 Moscow took over much of Lithuania's eastern possessions. The Grand Duke Alexander was elected King of Poland in 1501 after the death of John Albert. In 1506 he was succeeded by Sigismund I the Old (Zygmunt I Stary) in both Poland and Lithuania, as the political realities were drawing the two states closer together. Prior to that Sigismund had been a Duke of Silesia by the authority of his brother Ladislaus II, but like other Jagiellon rulers before him, he had not pursued the Polish Crown's claim to Silesia. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 215-221 Culture in the Late Middle Ages The University of Kraków - Collegium Maius courtyard The culture of the 15th century Poland was still mostly medieval. Under favorable social and economic conditions the crafts and industries in existence already in the preceding centuries became more highly developed, and their products were much more widespread. Paper production was one of the new industries, and printing developed during the last quarter of the century. Luxury items were in high demand among the increasingly prosperous nobility, and to a lesser degree among the wealthy town merchants. Brick and stone residential buildings became common, but only in cities. The mature Gothic style was represented not only in architecture, but also prominently in sacral wooden sculpture. The altar of Veit Stoss in St. Mary's Church in Kraków is one of the most magnificent in Europe art works of its kind. Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), p. 221-225 The Kraków University, which stopped functioning after the death of Casimir the Great, was renewed and rejuvenated around 1400. Augmented by a theology department, the "academy" was supported and protected by Queen Jadwiga and the Jagiellon dynasty members, which is reflected in its present name. Europe's oldest department of mathematics and astronomy was established in 1405. Among the university's prominent scholars were Stanisław of Skarbimierz, Paulus Vladimiri and Albert of Brudzewo, Copernicus' teacher. The precursors of Polish humanism John of Ludzisko and Gregory of Sanok were professors at the university. Scholarly thought elsewhere is represented by Jan Ostroróg, a political publicist and reformist, and Jan Długosz, a historian, whose Annals is the largest in Europe history work of his time. Agriculture based economic expansion Sigismund I the Old The folwark, a serfdom based large-scale farm and agricultural business, was a dominant feature on Poland's economic landscape beginning in the late 15th century and for the next 300 years. This dependence on nobility-controlled agriculture diverged the ways of central-eastern Europe from those of the western part of the continent, where, in contrast, elements of capitalism and industrialization were developing to a much greater than in the East extent, with the attendant growth of the bourgeoisie class and its political influence. The combination of the 16th century agricultural trade boom in Europe, with the free or cheap peasant labor available, made during that period the folwark economy very profitable. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 24-38, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN), Warszawa 1986, ISBN 83-01-03732-6 The 16th century saw also further development of mining and metallurgy and technical progress took place in various commercial applications. Great quantities of exported agricultural and forest products floated down the rivers and transported by land routes resulted in positive trade balance throughout the 16th century. Imports from the West included industrial and luxury products and fabrics. Most of the grain exported was leaving Poland through Gdańsk, which because of its location at the terminal point of the Vistula and its tributaries waterway and of its Baltic seaport trade role became the wealthiest, most highly developed (by far the largest center of crafts and manufacturing) and most autonomous of the Polish cities. Other towns were negatively affected by Gdańsk's near-monopoly in foreign trade. The largest of them were Kraków, Poznań and Warszawa, and outside of the Crown, Wrocław. Burghers and nobles During the 16th century prosperous patrician families of merchants, bankers, or industrial investors, many of German origin, still conducted large-scale business operations in Europe or lent money to noble interests, including the royal court. Some regions were relatively highly urbanized, for example in Greater Poland and Lesser Poland at the end of the 16th century 30% of the population lived in cities. The townspeople's upper layer was ethnically multinational and tended to be well-educated. Numerous burgher sons studied at the Academy of Kraków and at foreign universities; members of their group are among the finest contributors to the culture of the Polish Renaissance. Unable to form their own nationwide political class, many, despite the legal obstacles, melted into the nobility. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 38-53 The nobility or szlachta in Poland constituted a greater proportion (up to 10%) of the population, than in other European countries. In principle they were all equal and politically empowered, but some had no property and were not allowed to hold offices, or participate in sejms or sejmiks, the legislative bodies. Of the "landed" nobility some possessed a small patch of land which they tended themselves and lived like peasant families (mixed marriages gave some peasants one of the few possible paths to nobility), while the magnates owned dukedom-like networks of estates with several hundred towns and villages and many thousands of subjects. The 16th century Poland was a "republic of nobles", and it was the nobility's "middle class" that formed the leading component during the later Jagiellon period and afterwards, but the magnates held the highest state and church offices. At that time szlachta in Poland and Lithuania was ethnically diversified and belonged to various religious denominations. During this period of tolerance such factors had little bearing on one's economic status or career potential. Jealous of their class privilege ("freedoms"), the Renaissance szlachta developed a sense of public service duties, educated their youth, took keen interest in current trends and affairs and traveled widely. While the Golden Age of Polish Culture adopted the western humanism and Renaissance patterns, the style of the nobles beginning in the second half of the century acquired a distinctly eastern flavor. Visiting foreigners often remarked on the splendor of the residencies and consumption-oriented lifestyle of wealthy Polish nobles. Reformation Wawel Castle Renaissance courtyard In a situation analogous with that of other European countries, the progressive internal decay of the Polish Church created conditions favorable for the dissemination of the Reformation ideas and currents. For example, there was a chasm between the lower clergy and the nobility-based Church hierarchy, which was quite laicized and preoccupied with temporal issues, such as power and wealth, often corrupt. The middle nobility, which had already been exposed to the Hussite reformist persuasion, increasingly looked at the Church's many privileges with envy and hostility. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 53-64 The teachings of Martin Luther were accepted most readily in the regions with strong German connections: Silesia, Greater Poland, Pomerania and Prussia. In Gdańsk in 1525 a lower-class Lutheran social uprising took place, bloodily subdued by Sigismund I; after the reckoning he established a representation for the plebeian interests as a segment of the city government. Königsberg and the Duchy of Prussia under Albrecht Hohenzollern became a strong center of Protestant propaganda dissemination affecting all of northern Poland and Lithuania. Sigismund I quickly reacted against the "religious novelties", issuing his first related edict in 1520, banning any promotion of the Lutheran ideology, or even foreign trips to the Lutheran centers. Such attempted (poorly enforced) prohibitions continued until 1543. Sigismund's son Sigismund II Augustus (Zygmunt II August), a monarch of a much more tolerant attitude, guaranteed the freedom of the Lutheran religion practice in all of Royal Prussia by 1559. Besides Lutheranism, which, within the Polish Crown, ultimately found substantial following mainly in the cities of Royal Prussia and western Greater Poland, the teachings of the persecuted Anabaptists and Unitarians, and in Greater Poland the Czech Brothers, were met, at least among szlachta, with a more sporadic response. Nicolaus Copernicus Calvinism on the other hand, in mid 16th century gained many followers among both szlachta and the magnates, especially in Lesser Poland and Lithuania. The Calvinists proposed the establishment of a Polish national church, under which all Christian denominations would be unified. After 1555 Sigismund II, who accepted their ideas, sent an envoy to the pope, but the papacy rejected the various Calvinist postulates. After 1563-1565 (the abolishment of state enforcement of the Church jurisdiction) full religious tolerance became the norm. The Polish Catholic Church emerged from this critical period weakened, but not badly damaged (the bulk of the Church property was preserved), which facilitated the later success of Counter-Reformation. Among the Calvinists, who also included the lower classes and their leaders, ministers of common background, disagreements soon developed, based on different views in the areas of religious and social doctrines. The official split took place in 1562, when two separate churches were officially established, the mainstream Calvinist, and the smaller, more reformist, known as the Polish Brethren or Arians. The adherents of the radical wing of the Polish Brethren promoted, often by way of personal example, the ideas of social justice. Many Arians (Piotr of Goniądz, Jan Niemojewski) were pacifists opposed to private property, serfdom, state authority and military service; through communal living some had implemented the ideas of shared usage of the land and other property. The notable Sandomierz Agreement of 1570, an act of compromise and cooperation among several Polish Protestant denominations, excluded the Arians, whose more moderate, larger faction toward the end of the century gained the upper hand within the movement. The act of the Warsaw Confederation, which took place during the convocation sejm of 1573, provided guarantees, at least for the nobility, of religious freedom and peace. It gave the Protestant denominations, including the Polish Brethren, formal rights for many decades to come. Uniquely in 16th century Europe, it turned the Commonwealth, in the words of Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius, a Catholic reformer, into a "safe haven for heretics". Culture of Polish Renaissance Mikołaj Rej Jan Kochanowski's tomb effigy The Polish "Golden Age", the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance. As was the case with other European nations, the Renaissance inspiration came in the first place from Italy. Many Poles traveled to Italy to study and to learn its culture. As imitating Italian ways became very trendy (the royal courts of the last two Jagiellon kings provided the leadership and example for everybody else), many Italian artists and thinkers were coming to Poland, some settling and working there for many years. While the pioneering Polish humanists, greatly influenced by Erasmus of Rotterdam, accomplished the preliminary assimilation of the antiquity culture, the generation that followed was able to put greater emphasis on the development of native elements, and because of its social diversity, advanced the process of national integration. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 67-71 Beginning in 1473 in Kraków, the printing business kept growing. By the turn of the 17th century there were about 20 printing houses within the Commonwealth, 8 in Kraków, the rest mostly in Gdańsk, Toruń and Zamość. The Academy of Kraków and Sigismund II possessed well-stocked libraries; smaller collections were increasingly common at the noble courts, schools and townspeople's households. Illiteracy levels were falling, as by the end of the century almost every parish ran a school. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 71-74 The Lubrański Academy, an institution of higher learning, was established in Poznań in 1519. The Reformation resulted in the establishment of a number of gymnasiums, academically oriented secondary schools, some of international renown, as the Protestant denominations wanted to attract supporters by offering high quality education. The Catholic reaction was the creation of Jesuit colleges of comparable quality. The Kraków University in turn responded with humanist program gymnasiums of its own. The university itself experienced a period of prominence at the turn of the 16th century, when especially the mathematics, astronomy and geography faculties attracted numerous students from abroad. Latin, Greek, Hebrew and their literatures were likewise popular. By mid 16th century the institution entered a crisis stage, and by early 17th century regressed into Counter-reformational conformism. The Jesuits took advantage of the infighting and established in 1579 a university college in Vilnius, but their efforts aimed at taking over the Academy of Kraków were unsuccessful. Under the circumstances many elected to pursue their studies abroad. Zygmunt I Stary, who built the presently existing Wawel Renaissance castle, and his son Sigismund II Augustus, supported intellectual and artistic activities and surrounded themselves with the creative elite. Their patronage example was followed by ecclesiastic and lay feudal lords, and by patricians in major towns. The Polish science reached its culmination in the first half of the 16th century. The medieval point of view was criticized, more rational explanations were attempted. Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, published in Nuremberg in 1543, shook up the traditional value system extended into an understanding of the physical universe, setting free the explosion of scientific inquiry. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 74-79 Nicolaus Copernicus, a son of a Toruń trader who moved there from Kraków, exemplifies in his life pursuits Renaissance versatility. His scientific creativity was inspired at the University of Kraków, then at its prime; later he also studied at Italian universities. Copernicus wrote Latin poetry, developed an economic theory, functioned as a cleric-administrator, political activist in Prussian sejmiks, led the defense of Olsztyn against the forces of Albrecht Hohenzollern. He worked on his scientific theory for many years at Frombork, where he died. Sigismund's Chapel of Wawel Cathedral Josephus Struthius became famous as a physician and medical researcher. Maciej Miechowita, a rector at the Cracow Academy, wrote Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis, a treatise on the geography of the East, the area in which Polish investigators provided first-hand expertise for the rest of Europe. Later Jan Brożek, another rector, was a multidisciplinary scholar, who worked on number theory and promoted Copernicus' work, banned from 1616 by the Church; his anti-Jesuit pamphlet was publicly burned. Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski was one of the greatest in Renaissance Europe theorists of political thought. His most famous work, On the Improvement of the Commonwealth, was published in Kraków in 1551. Modrzewski criticized the feudal societal relations and proposed broad realistic reforms. He postulated that all social classes should be subjected to the law to the same degree, and wanted to moderate the existing inequities. Modrzewski, an influential and often translated author, was a passionate proponent of peaceful resolution of international conflicts. Generally the prominent scientists of the period resided in many different regions of the country, and increasingly, the majority were of the urban, rather than noble origin. The modern Polish literature begins in the 16th century. At that time the nationwide Polish language, common to all educated groups, matured and penetrated all areas of public life, including municipal institutions, the legal code, the Church etc., coexisting for a while with Latin. Klemens Janicki, one of the Renaissance Latin language poets, laureate of a papal distinction, was of the peasant origin. Another plebeian author, Biernat of Lublin, wrote in Polish his own version of Aesop's fables, permeated with his socially radical views. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 79-84 The literary Polish language breakthrough came under the influence of Reformation with the writings of Mikołaj Rej. In his Brief Discourse, a satire published in 1543, he defends a serf from a priest and a noble, but in his later works he often celebrates the joys of the peaceful but privileged life of a country gentleman. Rej, whose legacy is his unbashful promotion of the Polish language, left a great variety of literary pieces. Łukasz Górnicki, an author and translator, perfected the Polish prose of the period. His contemporary and friend Jan Kochanowski became one of the greatest Polish poets of all times. Bona Sforza Kochanowski was born in 1530 into a prosperous noble family. In his youth he studied at the universities of Kraków, Königsberg and Padua and traveled extensively in Europe. He worked for a period as a royal secretary, and then settled in the village of Czarnolas, a part of his family inheritance. Kochanowski's multifaceted creative output is remarkable for both the depth of thoughts and feelings that he shares with the reader, and for its beauty and classic perfection of form. Among Kochanowski's best known works are bucolic Frascas (trifles), epic poetry, religious lyrics, drama-tragedy The Dismissal of the Greek Envoys, and the most highly regarded Threnodies or laments, written after the death of his young daughter. The poet Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński, an intellectually refined master of small forms, bridges the late Renaissance and early Baroque artistic periods. Following the European and Italian in particular musical trends, the Renaissance music was developing in Poland, centered around the royal court patronage and branching from there. Sigismund I kept from 1543 a permanent choir at the Wawel castle, while Reformation brought large scale group Polish language church singing during the services. Among the composers, who often permeated their music with national and folk elements, were Wacław of Szamotuły, Mikołaj Gomółka, who wrote music to Kochanowski translated psalms, and Mikołaj Zieliński, who enriched the Polish music by adopting the Venetian School polyphonic style. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 84-85 Sigismund II Augustus, the last Jagiellon king; his actions facilitated the Union of Lublin Likewise under the Italian influence were architecture, sculpture and painting, from the beginning of the 16th century. A number of professionals from Tuscany arrived and worked as royal artists in Kraków. Francesco Florentino worked on the tomb of Jan Olbracht already from 1502, and then together with Bartolommeo Berrecci and Benedykt from Sandomierz rebuilt the royal castle, which was accomplished between 1507 and 1536. Berrecci also built Sigismund's Chapel at Wawel Cathedral. Polish magnates, Silesian Piast princes in Brzeg, and even Kraków merchants (by mid 16th century their class economically gained strength nationwide) built or rebuilt their residencies to make them resemble the Wawel Castle. Kraków's Sukiennice and Poznań City Hall are among numerous buildings rebuilt in the Renaissance manner, but Gothic construction continued alongside for a number of decades. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 85-88 Between 1580 and 1600 Jan Zamoyski commissioned the Venetian architect Bernardo Morando to build the city of Zamość. The town and its fortifications were designed to consistently implement the Renaissance aesthetic paradigms. Tombstone sculpture, often inside churches, is richly represented on graves of clergy and lay dignitaries and other wealthy individuals. Jan Maria Padovano and Jan Michałowicz of Urzędów count among the prominent artists. Stanisław Samostrzelnik, a monk in the Cistercian monastery in Mogiła near Kraków, painted miniatures and polychromed wall frescos. Republic of middle nobility; execution movement During the reign of Sigismund I, szlachta in the lower chamber of the sejm, initially decidedly outnumbered by their more privileged colleagues from the senate, acquired a more numerous and fully elected representation, but Sigismund preferred to rule with the help of the magnates, pushing szlachta into the "opposition". Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 92-105 After the Nihil novi act of 1505, a collection of laws known as Łaski's Statutes was published in 1506 and distributed to Polish courts. The legal pronouncements, intended to facilitate the functioning of a uniform and centralized state, with ordinary szlachta privileges strongly protected, were frequently ignored by the kings, beginning with Sigismund I, and the upper nobility or church interests. This situation became the basis for the formation around 1520 of the szlachta's execution movement, for the complete codification and execution, or enforcement, of the laws. Wawel Hill, the castle and the cathedral In 1518 Sigismund I married Bona Sforza d'Aragona, a young, strong-minded Italian princess. Bona's influence over the king and the magnates, her efforts to strengthen the monarch's political position, financial situation, and especially the measures she took to advance her personal and dynastic interests, including the forced royal election of minor Sigismund Augustus in 1529 and his premature coronation in 1530, increased the discontent among szlachta activists. The opposition middle szlachta movement came up with a constructive reform program during the Kraków sejm of 1538/1539. Sigismund I's unwillingness to move toward the implementation of their goals negatively affected the country's financial and defensive capabilities. The relationship with szlachta had only gotten worse during the early years of the reign of Sigismund II Augustus and remained bad until 1562. Sigismund Augustus' secret marriage with Barbara Radziwiłł in 1547, before his accession to the throne, was strongly opposed by his mother Bona and by the magnates of the Crown. Sigismund, who took over the reign after his father's death in 1548, overcame the resistance and had Barbara crowned in 1550; a few months later the new queen died. Bona, estranged from her son returned to Italy in 1556, where she died soon afterwards. The sejm, until 1573 summoned by the king at his discretion (for example when he needed funds to wage a war), composed of the two chambers presided over by the monarch, became in the course of the 16th century the main organ of the state power. The reform-minded execution movement had its chance to take on the magnates and the church hierarchy (and take steps to restrain their abuse of power and wealth) when Sigismund Augustus switched sides and lent them his support at the sejm of 1562. During this and several more sessions of the parliament, within the next decade or so, the Reformation inspired szlachta was able to push through a variety of reforms, which resulted in a fiscally more sound, better governed, more centralized and territorially unified Polish state. Some of the changes were too modest, other had never become completely implemented, but nevertheless for the time being the middle szlachta movement was victorious. Mikołaj Sienicki, a Protestant activist, was a parliamentary leader of the execution movement and one of the organizers of the Warsaw Confederation. Resources and strategic objectives Royal Prussia shown in light pink, Ducal Prussia striped Despite the favorable economic development, the military potential of 16th century Poland was modest in relation to the challenges and threats coming from several directions, which included the Ottoman Empire, the Teutonic state, the Habsburgs, and Muscovy. Given the declining military value and willingness of pospolite ruszenie, the bulk of the forces available consisted of professional and mercenary soldiers. Their number and provision depended on szlachta-approved funding (self-imposed taxation and other sources) and tended to be insufficient for any combination of adversaries. The quality of the forces and their command was good, as demonstrated by victories against a seemingly overwhelming enemy. The attainment of strategic objectives was supported by a well-developed service of knowledgeable diplomats and emissaries. Because of the limited resources at the state's disposal, the Jagiellon Poland had to concentrate on the area most crucial for its security and economic interests, which was the strengthening of Poland's position along the Baltic coast. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 116-118 Prussia; struggle for Baltic area domination The Peace of Thorn of 1466 reduced the Teutonic Knights, but brought no lasting solution to the problem they presented for Poland. The chronically difficult relations had gotten worse after the 1511 election of Albrecht as Grand Master of the Order. Faced with Albrecht's rearmament and hostile alliances, Poland waged a war in 1519; the war ended in 1521, when mediation by Charles V resulted in a truce. As a compromise move Albrecht, persuaded by Martin Luther, initiated a process of secularization of the Order and the establishment of a lay duchy of Prussia, as Poland's dependency, ruled by Albrecht and afterwards by his descendants. The terms of the proposed pact immediately improved Poland's Baltic region situation, and at that time also appeared to protect the country's long-term interests. The treaty was concluded in 1525 in Kraków; the remaining state of the Teutonic Knights was converted into the Protestant Duchy of Prussia under the King of Poland and the homage act of the new Prussian duke in Kraków followed. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 119-121 In reality the House of Hohenzollern of which Albrecht was a member, the ruling family of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, had been actively expanding its territorial influence, for example already in the 16th century in Farther Pomerania and Silesia. Motivated by a current political expediency, Sigismund Augustus in 1563 allowed the elector branch of the Hohenzollerns, excluded under the 1525 agreement, Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 109, Jakub Basista to inherit the Prussian fief rule. The decision, confirmed by the 1569 sejm, made the future union of Prussia with Brandenburg possible. Sigismind II, unlike his successors, was however careful to assert his supremacy. The Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, ruled after 1572 by elective kings, was even less able to counteract the growing importance of the dynastically active Hohenzollerns. In 1568 Sigismund Augustus, who had already embarked on a war fleet enlargement program, established the Maritime Commission. A conflict with the City of Gdańsk, which felt that its monopolistic trade position was threatened, ensued. In 1569 Royal Prussia had its legal autonomy largely taken away, and in 1570 Poland's supremacy over Gdańsk and the Polish King's authority over the Baltic shipping trade were regulated and received statutory recognition. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 104-105 Wars with Moscow Battle of Orsha 1514 In the 16th century the Grand Duchy of Moscow continued activities aimed at unifying the old Rus' lands still under Lithuanian rule. Under Vasili III Moscow fought a war with Lithuania and Poland between 1512 and 1522, during which in 1514 the Russians took Smolensk. The same year the Polish-Lithuanian rescue expedition (see Battle of Orsha) stopped their further advances, and an armistice took effect in 1522. Another round of fighting took place during 1534-1537, followed by over two decades of peace. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 121-122 The Jagiellons and the Habsburgs; Ottoman Empire expansion In 1515, during a congress in Vienna, a dynastic succession arrangement was agreed to between Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and the Jagiellon brothers, Vladislas II of Bohemia and Hungary and Sigismund I of Poland and Lithuania. It was supposed to end the Emperor's support for Poland's enemies, the Teutonic and Russian states, but after the election of Charles V, Maximilian's successor in 1519, the relations with Sigismund had worsened. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 122-125 The Jagiellon rivalry with the House of Habsburg in central Europe was ultimately resolved to the Habsburgs' advantage. The decisive factor that damaged or weakened the monarchies of the last Jagiellons was the Ottoman Empire's Turkish expansion. Hungary's vulnerability greatly increased after Suleiman the Magnificent took the Belgrade fortress in 1521. To prevent Poland from extending military aid to Hungary, Suleiman had a Tatar-Turkish force raid southeastern Poland-Lithuania in 1524. The Hungarian army was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács, where young Louis II Jagiellon, the son of Vladislas II, was killed. The 1526 death of Janusz III of Masovia, the last of the Masovian Piast dukes line (a remnant of the fragmentation period divisions), enabled Sigismund I to finalize the incorporation of Masovia into the Crown in 1529. Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 109-110, Jakub Basista From the early 16th century the Pokuttya border region was contested by Poland and Moldavia (see Battle of Obertyn). A peace with Moldavia took effect in 1538 and Pokuttya remained Polish. An "eternal peace" with the Ottoman Empire was negotiated by Poland in 1533 to secure frontier areas. Moldavia had fallen under Turkish domination. Livonia; struggle for Baltic area domination Livonia on a map published in 1573 Because of its desire to control Livonian Baltic seaports, especially Riga, and other economic reasons, in the 16th century the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was becoming increasingly interested in extending its territorial rule to Livonia, a country ruled by the Brothers of the Sword knightly order. This put Poland and Lithuania on a collision course with Moscow and other powers, which had also attempted expansion in that area. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 125-130 Soon after the 1525 Kraków treaty, Albrech Hohenzollern, seeking a dominant position for his brother Wilhelm, the Archbishop of Riga, planned a Polish-Lithuanian fief in Livonia. What happened instead was the establishment of a Livonian pro-Polish-Lithuanian party or faction. Internal fighting in Livonia took place when the Grand Master of the Brothers concluded in 1554 a treaty with Moscow, declaring his state's neutrality regarding the Russian-Lithuanian conflict. Supported by Albrecht and the magnates Sigismund II declared a war on the Order. Grand Master Wilhelm von Fürstenberg accepted the Polish-Lithuanian conditions without a fight, and according to the 1557 Poswol treaty, a military alliance obliged the Livonian state to support Lithuania against Moscow. Other powers aspiring to the Livonian Baltic access responded with partitioning of the Livonian state, which triggered the lengthy Livonian War, fought between 1558 and 1583. Ivan IV of Russia took Dorpat and Narva in 1558, and soon the Danes and Swedes had occupied other parts of the country. To protect the integrity of their country, the Livonians now sought a union with the Polish-Lithuanian state. Gotthard Kettler, the new Grand Master, met in Vilnius with Sigismund Augustus in 1561 and declared Livonia a vassal state under the Polish King. The agreement of November 28 called for secularization of the Brothers of the Sword Order and incorporation of the newly established Duchy of Livonia into the "Republic" as an autonomous entity. Under the Union of Vilnius the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was also created as a separate fief, to be ruled by Kettler. Sigismund II obliged himself to recover the parts of Livonia lost to Moscow and the Baltic powers, which had led to grueling wars with Russia (1558-1570 and 1577-1582) and heavy struggles having to do also with the fundamental issues of control of the Baltic trade and freedom of navigation. The Baltic region policies of the last Jagiellon king and his advisors were the most mature of the 16th century Poland's strategic programs. The outcome of the efforts in that area was to a considerable extent successful for the Commonwealth. The conclusion of the above wars took place during the reign of King Stefan Batory. Poland and Lithuania in real union under Sigismund II Lublin's Old Town Sigismund II's childlessness added urgency to the idea of turning the personal union between Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a more permanent and tighter relationship; it was also a priority for the execution movement. Lithuania's laws were codified and reforms enacted in 1529, 1557, 1565-1566 and 1588, gradually making its social, legal and economic system similar to that of Poland, with the expanding role of the middle and lower nobility. Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 115,117, Jakub Basista Fighting wars with Moscow under Ivan IV and the threat perceived from that direction provided additional motivation for the real union for both Poland and Lithuania. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 105-109 The process of negotiating the actual arrangements turned out to be difficult and lasted from 1563 to 1569, with the Lithuanian magnates, worried about losing their dominant position, being at times uncooperative. It took Sigismunt II's unilateral declaration of the incorporation into the Polish Crown of substantial disputed border regions, including much of Ukraine, to make the Lithuanian magnates rejoin the process, and participate in the swearing of the act of the Union of Lublin on July 1, 1569. Lithuania for the near future was becoming more secure on the eastern front. It's increasingly Polonized nobility made in the coming centuries great contributions to the Commonwealth's culture, but at the cost of Lithuanian national development. The Commonwealth: Multicultural, magnate dominated Rzeczpospolita in 1569; the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, having lost lands to the Russian state and to Lithuania's partner Poland, is much smaller than a hundred years earlier By the Union of Lublin a unified Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Rzeczpospolita) was created, stretching from the Baltic Sea and the Carpathian mountains to present-day Belarus and western and central Ukraine (which earlier had been Kievan Rus' principalities). Within the new federation some degree of formal separateness was retained, but the union became a multinational entity, in which only the nobility enjoyed full citizenship rights. Moreover, the nobility's uppermost stratum was about to assume the dominant role in the Commonwealth, as the magnate factions were acquiring the ability to manipulate and control the rest of szlachta to their clique's private advantage. This trend was becoming apparent at the time of, or soon after the 1572 death of Sigismund Augustus, the last monarch of the Jagiellon dynasty. One of the most salient characteristics of the newly-established Commonwealth was its multiethnicity, and accordingly diversity of religious faiths and denominations. Among the peoples represented were Poles (about 50% or less of the total population), Lithuanians, Latvians, Rus' people (corresponding to today's Belarusians, Ukrainians, Russians or their East Slavic ancestors), Germans, Estonians, Jews, Armenians, Tatars and Czechs, among others, for example smaller West European groups. As for the main social segments in the early 17th century, nearly 70% of the Commonwealth's population were peasants, over 20% residents of towns, and less than 10% nobles and clergy combined. The total population, estimated at 8-10 millions, kept growing dynamically until the middle of the century. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 38-39 The Slavic populations of the eastern lands, Rus' or Ruthenia, were solidly, except for the Polish colonizing nobility (and polonized elements of local nobility), Eastern Orthodox, which portended future trouble for the Commonwealth. Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich, Monarchia Jagiellonów (1399-1586) (Jagiellon monarchy (1399-1586)), p. 160-161, Krzysztof Mikulski. Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, Wrocław 2003, ISBN 83-7384-018-4. Ilustrowane dzieje Polski (Illustrated History of Poland) by Dariusz Banaszak, Tomasz Biber, Maciej Leszczyński, p. 40. 1996 Podsiedlik-Raniowski i Spółka, ISBN 83-7212-020-X. Poland had become the home to Europe's largest Jewish population, as royal edicts guaranteeing Jewish safety and religious freedom, issued during the 13th century (Bolesław the Pious, Statute of Kalisz of 1264), contrasted with bouts of persecution in Western Europe. A Traveller's History of Poland, by John Radzilowski, p. 44-45 This persecution intensified following the Black Death of 1348–1349, when some in the West blamed the outbreak of the plague on the Jews. Much of Poland was spared from this disease, and Jewish immigration brought their valuable contributions and abilities to the rising state. The number of Jews in Poland kept increasing throughout the Middle Ages; the population had reached about 30,000 toward the end of the 15th century, Krzysztof Baczkowski - Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370-1506) (History of Late Medieval Poland (1370-1506)), p. 274-276 and, as refugees escaping further persecution elsewhere streamed in, 150,000 in the 16th century. Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), p. 46 A royal privilege issued in 1532 granted the Jews freedom to trade anywhere within the kingdom. By the mid-16th century 80% of the world's Jews lived in Poland. European Jewish Congress - Poland Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Elective monarchy px 200|Stephen Báthory was one of the foreigners elected as kings During the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the 16th century, Poland became an elective monarchy, in which the king was elected by the hereditary nobility. This king would serve as the monarch until he died, at which time the country would have another election. In 1572, the Polish King Sigismund II Augustus died without any heirs. The political system was not prepared for this eventuality, as there was no method of choosing a new king. After much debate it was determined that the entire nobility of Poland would decide who the king was to be. The nobility were to gather near Warsaw and vote in a “free election”. The first such Polish royal election was held in 1573. The four men running for the office were Henri of Valois (Henryk Walezy), who was the brother of the King of France Charles IX, the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible, Archduke Ernest from the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, and the King of Sweden, Johan Vasa III. Henri of Valois was the winner in a very disorderly election. But after serving as Polish king for only four months, he received the news that his brother, the King of France, had died. Henri of Valois then abandoned his Polish post and went back to France, where he claimed the throne as Henry III. The elections of kings lasted until the Partitions of Poland. The elected kings in chronological order were: Henri of Valois, Stefan Batory, Zygmunt III Vasa, Władyslaw IV, Jan Kazimierz, Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki, Jan III Sobieski, Augustus II the Strong, Stanisław Leszczyński, Augustus III and Stanisław August Poniatowski. A few of the elected kings left a lasting mark in the Commonwealth. Stefan Batory was determined to reassert the deteriorated royal prerogative, at the cost of alienating the powerful noble families. Sigismund III, Władysław IV and John Casimir were all of the Swedish House of Vasa; preoccupation with foreign and dynastic affairs prevented them from making a major contribution to the stability of Poland-Lithuania. John III Sobieski commanded the allied Relief of Vienna operation in 1683, which turned out to be the last great victory of the "Republic of Both Nations". Stanisław August Poniatowski, the last of the Polish kings, was a controversial figure. On the one hand he was a driving force behind the substantial and constructive reforms belatedly undertaken by the Commonwealth. On the other, by his weakness and lack of resolve, especially in dealing with imperial Russia, he doomed the reforms together with the country they were supposed to help. Election of King Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki on Wola fields in 1669 The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, following the Union of Lublin, became a counterpoint to the absolute monarchies gaining power in Europe. Its quasi-democratic political system of Golden Liberty, albeit limited to nobility, was mostly unprecedented in the history of Europe. In itself, it constituted a fundamental precedent for the later development of European constitutional monarchies. However the series of power struggles between the lesser nobility (szlachta), the higher nobility (magnates), and elected kings, undermined citizenship values and gradually eroded the government's ability to function and its authority. The infamous liberum veto procedure was used to paralyze parliamentary proceedings beginning in the second half of the 17th century. After the series of devastating wars in the middle of the 17th century (most notably the Chmielnicki Uprising and The Deluge), Poland-Lithuania stopped being an influential player in the politics of Europe. During the wars the Commonwealth lost an estimated 1/3 of its population (relatively higher losses than during World War II). Its economy and growth were further damaged by the nobility's reliance on agriculture and serfdom, which delayed the industrialization of the country. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous European states, was little more than a pawn of its neighbours (the Russian Empire, Prussia and Austria), who interfered in its domestic politics almost at will. Economic and social developments The agricultural trade boom in Eastern Europe showed the first signs of the approaching crisis in the 1580s, when food prices stopped increasing. It was followed by a gradual decline in agricultural products prices, a price depression, initially present in Western Europe. The negative consequences of this process on folwark economies of the East had reached its culmination in the second half of the 17th century. Further economic aggravation resulted from Europe-wide devaluation of the currency around 1620, caused by the influx of silver from the Western Hemisphere. At that time however massive amounts of Polish grain were still exported through Gdańsk. The Commonwealth nobility took a variety of steps to combat the crisis and keep up high production levels, burdening in particular the serfs with further heavy obligations. The nobles were also forcefully buying or taking over properties of the more affluent thus far peasant categories, a phenomenon especially pronounced from the mid 17th century. Capital and energy of urban enterprisers affected the development of mining and metallurgy during the earlier Commonwealth period. There were several hundred hammersmith shops at the turn of the 17th century. Great ironworks furnaces were built in the first half of that century. Mining and metallurgy of silver, copper and lead had also been developed. Expansion of salt production was taking place in Wieliczka, Bochnia and elsewhere. After about 1700 some of the industrial enterprises were increasingly being taken over by land owners who used serf labor, which led to their neglect and decline in the second half of the 17th century. Gdańsk had remained practically autonomous and adamant about protecting its status and foreign trade monopoly. The Karnkowski Statutes of 1570 gave Polish kings the control over maritime commerce, but not even Stephen Báthory, who resorted to an armed intervention against the city, was able to enforce them. Other Polish cities held relatively steady and prosperous through the first half of the 17th century. War disasters in the middle of that century devastated the urban classes. A rigid social separation legal system, intended to prevent any inter-class mobility, matured around the first half of the 17th century. But the nobility's goal of becoming self-contained and impermeable to newcomers had never been fully realized, as in practice even peasants on occasions acquired the noble status. Later numerous Polish szlachta clans had had such "illegitimate" beginnings. Szlachta found justification for their self-appointed dominant role in a peculiar set of attitudes, known as sarmatism, that they had adopted. Western and Eastern Christianity: Counter-Reformation, Union of Brest The increasingly uniform and polonized (in case of ethnic minorities) szlachta of the Commonwealth for the most part returned to the Roman Catholic religion, or if already Catholic remained Catholic, in the course of the 17th century. Already the Sandomierz Agreement of 1570, which was an early expression of Protestant irenicism later prominent in Europe and Poland, had a self-defensive character, because of the intensification of Counter-Reformation pressure at that time. The agreement strengthened the Protestant position and made the Warsaw Confederation religious freedom guarantees in 1573 possible. At the heyday of Reformation in the Commonwealth, at the end of the 16th century, there were about one thousand Protestant congregations, nearly half of them Calvinist. A half century later only 50% of them had survived, with the burgher Lutheranism suffering lesser losses, the szlachta dominated Calvinism and Arianism the greatest. This happened somewhat mysteriously in a country, where there were no religious wars and the state had not cooperated with the Catholic Church in eradicating or limiting competing denominations. Among the factors responsible, the low Protestant involvement among the masses, especially of peasantry, the pro-Catholic position of the kings, the low level of involvement of the nobility once the religious emancipation had been accomplished, the internal divisions of the Protestant movement, and the rising intensity of the Catholic Church propaganda, have been listed. The ideological war between the Protestant and Catholic camps at first enriched the intellectual life of the Commonwealth. The Catholic Church responded to the challenges with internal reform, following the directions of the Council of Trent, officially accepted by the Polish Church in 1577, but implemented not until after 1589 and throughout the 17th century. There were earlier efforts of reform, originating from the lower clergy, and from about 1551 by Bishop Stanisław Hozjusz of Warmia, a lone at that time among the Church hierarchy, but ardent reformer. At the turn of the 17th century a number of Rome educated bishops took over the Church administration at the diocese level, clergy discipline was implemented and rapid intensification of Counter-Reformation activities took place. Hozjusz brought to Poland the Jesuits and founded for them a college in Braniewo in 1564. Numerous Jesuit educational institutions and residencies were established in the following decades, most often in the vicinity of centers of Protestant activity. Jesuit priests were carefully selected, well educated, of both noble and urban origins. They had soon become highly influential with the royal court, while working hard within all segments of the society. The Jesuit educational programs and Counter-Reformation propaganda utilized many innovative media techniques, often custom-tailored for a particular audience on hand, as well as time-tried methods of humanist instruction. Preacher Piotr Skarga and Bible translator Jakub Wujek count among prominent Jesuit personalities. Catholic efforts to win the population countered the Protestant idea of a national church with Polonization, or nationalization of the Catholic Church in the Commonwealth, introducing a variety of native elements to make it more accessible and attractive to the masses. The Church hierarchy went along with the notion. The changes that took place during the 17the century defined the character of Polish Catholicism for centuries to come. The apex of the Counter-Reformation activity had fallen on the turn of the 17th century, the earlier years of the reign of Sigismund III Vasa (Zygmunt III Waza), who in cooperation with the Jesuits and some other Church circles attempted to strengthen the power of his monarchy. The King tried to limit access to higher offices to Catholics. Anti-Protestant riots took place in some cities. During the Sandomierz Rebellion of 1606 the Protestants supported the anti-King opposition in large numbers. Nevertheless the massive wave of szlachta's return to Catholicism could not have been stopped. The failure of the Protestant movement to form an alliance with the Eastern Orthodox Christians, the inhabitants of the eastern portion of the Commonwealth, contributed to the Protestants' downfall. The Polish Catholic establishment would not miss the opportunity to form a union, although their goal was rather the subjugation of the Eastern Rite Christians to the pope (the papacy solicited help in bringing the "schism" under control) and the Commonwealth's Catholic centers of power. The Orthodox establishment was perceived as a security threat, because of the Eastern Rite bishops dependence on the Patriarchate of Constantinople at the time of an aggravating conflict with the Ottoman Empire, and because of the recent development, the establishment in 1589 of the Moscow Patriarchate. The union idea had the support of King Sigismund III and the Polish nobility in the East; opinions were divided among the church and lay leaders of the Eastern Orthodox faith. The Union of Brest act was negotiated and solemnly concluded in 1595-1596. It had not merged the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox denominations, but led to the establishment of the Uniate Church, which was to become an Eastern Catholic Church, one of the Greek Catholic Churches. The new church, of the Byzantine Rite, accepted papal supremacy, while it retained in most respects its Eastern Rite character. The compromise union was flawed from the beginning, as the Greek-Catholic bishops were not, like their Roman-Catholic counterparts, seated in the Senate, and to their disappointment the Eastern Rite participants of the union had not been granted full equality in general. Union of Brest increased antagonisms among the Belarusian and Ukrainian communities of the Commonwealth, within which the Orthodox Church had remained the most potent religious force. It added to the already prominent ethnic and class fragmentation and became one more reason for internal infighting that was to impair the Republic. The Eastern Orthodox nobility, branded "Disuniates" and deprived of legal standing, led by Konstanty Ostrogski commenced a fight for their rights. A a result, parliamentary statutes of 1607, 1609 and 1635 recognized the Orthodox religion again, as one of the two equal Eastern churches. The restoration of Orthodox hierarchy and administrative structure proved difficult (most bishops had become Uniates) and was done during the reign of Władysław IV, by which time many of the Orthodox nobles had become Catholics, and the Orthodox leadership fell into the hands of townspeople organized into church brotherhoods, and the new power in the East, the Cossack warrior class. Metropolitan Peter Mogila of Kiev contributed greatly to the rebuilding and reform of the Orthodox Church. Culture of Early Baroque The Baroque style dominated the Polish culture from the 1580s, building on the achievements of the Renaissance and for a while coexisting with it, to the mid 18th century. Initially Baroque artists and intellectuals, torn between the two competing views of the world, enjoyed wide latitude and freedom of expression. Soon however the Counter-Reformation instituted a binding point of view that invoked the medieval tradition, imposed censorship in education and elsewhere (the index of prohibited books in Poland from 1617), and straightened out their convoluted ways. By the middle of the 17th century the doctrine had been firmly reestablished, sarmatism and religious zealotry had become the norm. In contrast with the integrative tendencies of the previous period, the burgher and nobility cultural spheres went their separate ways. Renaissance publicist Stanisław Orzechowski had already provided the foundations for Baroque szlachta's political thinking. At that time there were about forty Jesuit colleges scattered throughout the Commonwealth. They were educating mostly szlachta, burgher sons to a lesser degree. Jan Zamoyski, Chancellor of the Crown, who built the town of Zamość, established an academy there in 1594; it had functioned as a gymnasium only after Zamoyski's death. The first two Vasa kings were well known for patronizing both the arts and sciences. After that the Commonwealth's science experienced general decline, which paralleled the wartime decline of the burgher class. The early Baroque period produced a number of noted poets. Sebastian Grabowiecki wrote metaphysical and mystical religious poetry representing the passive current of Quietism. Another szlachta poet Samuel Twardowski participated in military and other historic events; among the genres he pursued was epic poetry. Urban poetry was quite vital until the middle of the 17th century; the plebeian poets criticized the existing social order and continued within the ambiance of elements of the Renaissance style. The creations of John of Kijany contained a hearty dose of social radicalism. The moralist Sebastian Klonowic wrote a symbolic poem Flis using the setting of Vistula raft floating work. Szymon Szymonowic in his Pastorals portrayed, without embellishments, the hardships of serf life. Maciej Sarbiewski, a Jesuit, was highly appreciated throughout Europe for the Latin poetry he wrote. The preeminent prose of the period was written by Piotr Skarga, the preacher-orator. In his Sejm Sermons Skarga severely criticized the nobility and the state, while expressing his support for a system based on strong monarchy. Writing of memoirs had become most highly developed in the 17th century. Peregrination to the Holy Land by Mikołaj Radziwiłł and Beginning and Progress of the Muscovy War written by Stanisław Żółkiewski, one of the greatest Polish military commanders, are the best known examples. One form of art particularly apt for Baroque purposes was the theater. Various theatrical shows were most often staged in conjunction with religious occasions and moralizing, and commonly utilized folk stylization. School theaters had become common among both the Protestant and Catholic secondary schools. A permanent court theater with an orchestra was established by Władysław IV at the Royal Castle in Warsaw in 1637; the actor troupe, dominated by Italians, performed primarily Italian opera and ballet repertoire. Music, both sacral and secular, kept developing during the Baroque period. High quality church pipe organs were built in churches from the 17th century; a fine specimen has been preserved in Leżajsk. Sigismund III supported an internationally renowned ensemble of sixty musicians. Working with that orchestra were Adam Jarzębski and his contemporary Marcin Mielczewski, chief composers of the courts of Sigismund III and Władysław IV. Jan Aleksander Gorczyn, a royal secretary, published in 1647 a popular music tutorial for beginners. Martin Kober, a court painter from Wrocław, worked for Stephen Báthory and Sigismund III; he produced a number of well-known royal portraits. Stanisław Antoni Szczuka, a Polish nobleman The period in art history during which the late Renaissance coexisted with the early Baroque, in Poland the last quarter of the 16th century and the first quarter of the 17th century, is sometimes referred to as Mannerism. Polish art remained influenced by the Italian centers, increasingly Rome, and increasingly by the art of the Netherlands. As a fusion of imported and local elements, it evolved into an original Polish form of the Baroque. The Baroque art was developing to a great extent under the patronage of the Catholic Church, which utilized the art to facilitate religious influence, allocating for this purpose its enormous financial resources. The most important in this context art form was architecture, accompanied by more and more elaborate and lavish interior design concepts. From the 16th century the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth suffered a series of Tatar invasions. The borderland area to the south-east was in a state of semi-permanent warfare until the 18th century. Some researchers estimate that altogether more than 3 million people were captured and enslaved during the time of the Crimean Khanate. In 1593, 1626, 1637-1638 and 1648-1654 several Cossack uprisings took place. The last one led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky lasted for six years. As a result of several requests from the Ukrainian hetman Ukraine was taken under the protection of Russia. The agreement was made in January of 1654 in the city of Pereiaslav (Ukraine). This development led to a new Russian-Polish war that lasted from 1654 to 1667. In the end, the parties signed an agreement in the village of Andrusovo near Smolensk, according to which eastern Ukraine now belonged to Russia (with a high degree of local autonomy and an internal army). The Lipka Tatars were a noble military caste of the Commonwealth. In the year 1672, the Tatar subjects rose up in open rebellion against the Commonwealth. This was the widely remembered Lipka Rebellion. The Bar Confederation of 1768-1772 was the first in a series of uprisings and wars aimed at preserving Poland's independence, but it was directed not only against Russia, but also against King Stanisław August and his reform camp. The Bar Confederation was quelled and the country was punished with the First Partition of Poland, in which Russia, Prussia and Austria took big chunks of the Commonwealth's territory. In 1791 the "Great" or Four-Year Sejm adopted the May 3 Constitution at Warsaw's Royal Castle With the coming of the Polish Enlightenment in the second half of the 18th century, the movement for reform and revitalization of the country made important gains, culminating in the adoption of the Constitution of May 3, the first modern codified constitution on the European continent. However the reforms, which transformed the Commonwealth into a constitutional monarchy, were viewed as dangerous by Poland's neighbours, who didn't want the rebirth of the strong Commonwealth. Before the Commonwealth could fully implement and benefit from its reforms, it was invaded in 1792 by Russia aided by the local anti-reform alliance of conservative nobility known as the Targowica Confederation. The ensuing war was not lost, as the Polish army conducted a mostly defensive campaign, but the King surrendered and the pro-Russian Targowica took over. The Empire responded with the Second Partition nevertheless, in which only Russia and Prussia participated. In the wake of the 1792 war and the Second Partition a new conspiracy came into being. Among its leaders were both the civilian personalities of the reform movement and military officers of the previous war. The Kościuszko Rising erupted in March of 1794. When it too became extinguished, the three partitioning powers executed the final, or Third Partition, and the Commonwealth ceased to exist. Partitioned Poland The Partitions of Poland of 1772, 1793, and 1795 Polish independence ended in a series of Partitions (1772, 1793 and 1795) undertaken by Russia, Prussia and Austria. Russia gained most of the Commonwealth's territory including nearly all of the former Lithuania (except Podlasie and lands west of the Niemen River), Volhynia and Ukraine. Austria gained the populous southern region henceforth named Galicia–Lodomeria, after the Duchy of Halicz and Volodymyr. In 1795 Austria also gained the land between Kraków and Warsaw, between the Vistula and Pilica rivers. Prussia acquired the western lands from the Baltic through Greater Poland to Kraków, as well as Warsaw and Lithuanian territories to the north-east and Podlasie. Following the French emperor Napoleon I's defeat of Prussia, a small Polish state was set up in 1807 under French tutelage as the Duchy of Warsaw. When Austria was defeated in 1809, Galicia was added, giving the new state a population of some 3.75 million, a quarter of that of the former Commonwealth. Polish nationalists were to remain among the staunchest allies of the French as the tide of war turned against the French, inaugurating a relationship that continues into the present. With Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 converted most of the Duchy of Warsaw into the so-called Kingdom of Poland, ruled by the Russian tsar, until the Russian dynasty was deposed from the throne by the Kingdom's Parliament during the November Rising of 1830/31. After the January Rising of 1863 the Kingdom was fully integrated into Russia proper. The national uprisings were bloodily subdued by the partitioning powers, which did not extinguish the striving of Polish patriots to regain their independence. The opportunity for freedom appeared only after World War I, when the oppressing states were defeated or weakened by war and revolution. Second Republic Józef Piłsudski World War I and the political turbulence that was sweeping Europe in 1914 offered the Polish nation hopes for regaining independence. By the end of World War I Poland had seen the defeat or retreat of all three occupying powers. On the outbreak of war the Poles found themselves conscripted into the armies of Germany, Austria and Russia, and forced to fight each other in a war that was not theirs. Although many Poles sympathized with France and Britain, they found it hard to fight for their ally, Russia. They also had little sympathy for the Germans. Polish independence was eventually proclaimed on November 3, 1918 and later confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The same treaty also gave Poland some territories annexed by the Germans and Austrians during the partitions (see Polish Corridor). The post-war eastern borders of Poland were determined by Polish victory in the Polish-Soviet War. According to the British historian A.J.P. Taylor, the Polish-Soviet War "largely determined the course of European history for the next twenty years or more. […] Unavowedly and almost unconsciously, Soviet leaders abandoned the cause of international revolution." It would be twenty years before the Bolsheviks sent their armies abroad to "make revolution". From the mid 1920s to mid 1930s the Polish government was under the control of Józef Piłsudski, the politically-moderate war hero who had engineered the defeat of the Soviet forces. Polish independence had boosted the development of culture, but Poland was hit hard by the Great Depression. The new Polish state had had only 20 years of relative stability and uneasy peace before Poland's neighbours attacked. In 1939, under constant threat from Germany, Poland entered into a full military alliance with Britain and France. In August, Germany and Russia signed a secret agreement concerning the future of Poland, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. World War II German battleship Schleswig-Holstein shelling Westerplatte on September 1, 1939 On August 23, 1939 Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Ribbentrop–Molotov non-aggression pact, which secretly provided for the dismemberment of Poland into Nazi and Soviet-controlled zones. On September 1, 1939 Hitler ordered his troops into Poland. Poland had signed a pact with Britain and France and the two western powers soon declared a war on Germany, but remained rather inactive and extended no aid to the attacked country. On September 17 the Soviet troops moved in and took control of most of the areas of eastern Poland having significant Ukrainian and Belarusian populations under the terms of the German-Soviet agreement. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Poland was completely occupied by German troops. The Poles formed an underground resistance movement and a Polish government in exile, first in Paris and later in London, which was recognized by the Soviet Union. During World War II 400,000 Poles fought under the Soviet command, and 200,000 went into combat on western fronts in units loyal to the Polish government in exile. Many Polish refugee camps were set up, including one in Valdivadé, near Kolhapur in India. The camp numbered about 5000 refugees, and the Polish embassy of the government in exile had its office in Bombay. The camp existed from 1943 to 1948. In April 1943 the Soviet Union broke relations with the Polish government in exile after the German military announced that they had discovered mass graves of murdered Polish army officers at Katyń, in the USSR. The Soviets claimed that the Poles had insulted them by requesting that the Red Cross investigate these reports. In July 1944 the Soviet Red Army and the Peoples' Army of Poland controlled by the Soviets entered Poland, defeated the Germans (losing 600,000 of their soldiers), and established a communist-controlled "Polish Committee of National Liberation" in Lublin. Jewish prisoners liberated by Polish soldiers in the beginning of Warsaw Uprising There was powerful hatred of the Nazis in Warsaw, and there was often resistance, of which the most famous instance was the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. The uprising, in which most of the Warsaw population participated, was largely instigated by the underground Armia Krajowa, the Home Army. The uprising was planned with the expectation that the Soviet forces, who had arrived in the course of their offensive and were waiting on the other side of the Vistula River in full force, would help in battle over Warsaw. However the Soviets betrayed the Poles, stopping their advance at the Vistula and branding them as criminals on radio broadcasts. For the next two months the Soviets calmly watched as the Nazis brutally suppressed the forces of the pro-western, loyal to the government in exile Polish underground. Historian Norman Davies has said that to comprehend the numbers killed, one would have to imagine the Twin Towers 9/11 disaster every day for 63 days, and it still wouldn't be enough. After a hopeless surrender on the part of the Poles, the Germans carried out Hitler's order that "there not be two bricks standing" in Warsaw, systematically levelling the city. They retreated only in January 1945 when the Soviets resumed their offensive. During the war about 6 million Polish citizens were killed by the Germans, and 2.5 million were deported to Germany for forced labour or to extermination camps such as Oświęcim-Auschwitz. In 1941-1943 Ukrainian nationalists (OUN and Ukrainian Insurgent Army) massacred more than 100,000 Poles in Galicia and Volhynia. During 1939-1941 1.45 million people inhabiting Eastern Poland (Kresy) were deported by the Soviet regime, of whom 63.1% were Poles and 7.4% were Jews. Previously it was believed that about one million Polish citizens died at the hands of the Soviets, however recently Polish historians, based mostly on queries in Soviet archives, estimated the number of deaths at about 350,000. The Soviet government retained most of the territories captured as a result of the Nazi-Soviet pact in 1939 (now western Ukraine, western Belarus and the area around Vilnius), compensating Poland with parts of Silesia, Pomerania and southern East Prussia, along with Gdańsk ("Regained Territories"), which were granted to Poland. Most of the German population there was expelled to Germany. Warsaw destroyed, January 1945 During World War II over half a million fighting men and women and 6 million civilians (22% of the total population) died. About 50% of these were Polish Christians and other non-Jews and 50% were Polish Jews. Approximately 5,384,000, or 89.9% of Polish war losses (Jews and Gentiles) were the victims of prisons, death camps, raids, executions, annihilation of ghettos, epidemics, starvation, excessive work and ill treatment. So many Poles were sent to concentration camps that virtually every family had someone close to them who had been tortured or murdered there. There were one million war orphans and over half a million war disabled. The country lost 38% of its national assets (Britain lost 0.8%, France lost 1.5%). Half the prewar Poland was expropriated by the Soviet Union, including the two great cultural centres of Lwów and Wilno. Many Poles could not return to the country for which they had fought because they belonged to the "wrong" political group, or came from prewar eastern Poland incorporated into the Soviet Union (see Repatriation of Poles (1944–1946)), or having fought in the West were warned not to return because of the high risk of persecution. Others were arrested, tortured and imprisoned by the Soviet authorities for belonging to the Home Army (see Cursed soldiers), or persecuted because of having fought on the western front. Although technically "victors", they were not allowed to partake in victory celebrations. With the Nazis' defeat, as recreated Poland was shifted west to the area between the Oder Neisse and Curzon lines, the Germans who had not fled were expelled. Of those who remained, many chose to emigrate to post-war Germany. Ukrainians remaining in Poland were forcibly moved to Soviet Ukraine (see Repatriation of Ukrainians from Poland to the Soviet Union), and to new territories in northern and western Poland under Operation Wisła. People's Republic of Poland At the end of World War II, the gray territories were transferred from Poland to the Soviet Union, and the pink territories from Germany to Poland. The post-war Poland consists of the white and pink portions. In June 1945, following the February Yalta Conference, a Polish Provisional Government of National Unity was formed; the US recognized it the next month. Although the Yalta agreement called for free elections, those held in January 1947 were controlled by the Communist Party. The communists then established a regime entirely under their domination. The Polish government in exile existed until 1990, although its influence was degraded. In October 1956, after the 20th Soviet Party Congress in Moscow ushered in destalinization and riots by workers in Poznań ensued, there was a shakeup in the communist regime. While retaining most traditional communist economic and social aims, the regime of First Secretary Władysław Gomułka began to liberalize internal Polish life. In 1965 the Conference of Polish Bishops issued the Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops. In 1966 the celebrations of the thousandth anniversary of the Baptism of Poland led by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński and other bishops turned into a huge demonstration of the power and popularity of the Polish Catholic Church. In 1968 the liberalizing trend was reversed when student demonstrations were suppressed and an anti-Zionist campaign initially directed against Gomułka supporters within the party eventually led to the emigration of much of Poland's remaining Jewish population. In August 1968 the Polish People's Army took part in the infamous Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. In December 1970, disturbances and strikes in the port cities of Gdańsk, Gdynia, and Szczecin, triggered by a price increase for essential consumer goods, reflected deep dissatisfaction with living and working conditions in the country. Edward Gierek replaced Gomułka as First Secretary. Fueled by large infusions of Western credit, Poland's economic growth rate was one of the world's highest during the first half of the 1970s. But much of the borrowed capital was misspent, and the centrally planned economy was unable to use the new resources effectively. The growing debt burden became insupportable in the late 1970s, and economic growth had become negative by 1979. In October 1978, the Archbishop of Kraków, Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła, became Pope John Paul II, head of the Roman Catholic Church. Polish Catholics rejoiced at the elevation of a Pole to the papacy and greeted his June 1979 visit to Poland with an outpouring of emotion. 1980 strike at Gdańsk Shipyard, birthplace of Solidarity On July 1, 1980, with the Polish foreign debt at more than $20 billion, the government made another attempt to increase meat prices. A chain reaction of strikes virtually paralyzed the Baltic coast by the end of August and, for the first time, closed most coal mines in Silesia. Poland was entering into an extended crisis that would change the course of its future development. On August 31, 1980, workers at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk, led by an electrician named Lech Wałęsa, signed a 21-point agreement with the government that ended their strike. Similar agreements were signed at Szczecin and in Silesia. The key provision of these agreements was the guarantee of the workers’ right to form independent trade unions and the right to strike. After the Gdańsk agreement was signed, a new national union movement "Solidarity" swept Poland. The discontent underlying the strikes was intensified by revelations of widespread corruption and mismanagement within the Polish state and party leadership. In September 1980, Gierek was replaced by Stanisław Kania as First Secretary. Alarmed by the rapid deterioration of the PZPR's authority following the Gdańsk agreement, the Soviet Union proceeded with a massive military buildup along Poland's border in December 1980. In February 1981, Defense Minister Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski assumed the position of Prime Minister, and in October 1981, was named First Secretary of the Communist Party. At the first Solidarity national congress in September–October 1981, Lech Wałęsa was elected national chairman of the union. Wojciech Jaruzelski declared martial law on December 13, 1981 On December 12–13, the regime declared martial law, under which the army and ZOMO riot police were used to crush the union. Virtually all Solidarity leaders and many affiliated intellectuals were arrested or detained. The United States and other Western countries responded to martial law by imposing economic sanctions against the Polish regime and against the Soviet Union. Unrest in Poland continued for several years thereafter. In a series of slow, uneven steps, the Polish regime rescinded martial law. In December 1982, martial law was suspended, and a small number of political prisoners were released. Although martial law formally ended in July 1983 and a general amnesty was enacted, several hundred political prisoners remained in jail. In July 1984, another general amnesty was declared, and two years later, the government had released nearly all political prisoners. The authorities continued, however, to harass dissidents and Solidarity activists. Solidarity remained proscribed and its publications banned. Independent publications were censored. In late 1980s the government was forced to negotiate with Solidarity in the Polish Roundtable Negotiations. The Polish legislative elections in 1989 became one of the important events marking the fall of communism in Poland. Third Republic Round-table negotiations 1989 The government's inability to forestall Poland's economic decline led to waves of strikes across the country in April, May and August 1988. The "round-table" talks with the opposition began in February 1989. These talks produced an agreement in April for partly-open National Assembly elections. The failure of the communists at the polls produced a political crisis. The round-table agreement called for a communist president, and on July 19, the National Assembly, with the support of a number of Solidarity deputies, elected General Wojciech Jaruzelski to that office. However, two attempts by the communists to form governments failed. On August 19, President Jaruzelski asked journalist/Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to form a government; on September 12, the Sejm voted approval of Prime Minister Mazowiecki and his cabinet. For the first time in more than 40 years, Poland had a government led by noncommunists. In December 1989, the Sejm approved the government's reform program to transform the Polish economy rapidly from centrally planned to free-market, amended the constitution to eliminate references to the "leading role" of the Communist Party, and renamed the country the "Republic of Poland." The Polish United Workers' (Communist) Party dissolved itself in January 1990, creating in its place a new party, Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland. In October 1990, the constitution was amended to curtail the term of President Jaruzelski. In the early 1990s, Poland made great progress towards achieving a fully democratic government and a market economy. In November 1990, Lech Wałęsa was elected President for a 5-year term. In December Wałęsa became the first popularly elected President of Poland. Poland's first free parliamentary elections were held in 1991. More than 100 parties participated, and no single party received more than 13% of the total vote. In 1993 parliamentary elections the Alliance of the Democratic Left (SLD) received the largest share of votes. In 1993 the Soviet Northern Group of Forces finally left Poland. In November 1995, Poland held its second post-war free presidential elections. SLD leader Aleksander Kwaśniewski defeated Wałęsa by a narrow margin—51.7% to 48.3%. In 1997 parliamentary elections two parties with roots in the Solidarity movement — Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS) and the Freedom Union (UW) — won 261 of the 460 seats in the Sejm and formed a coalition government. In April 1997, the first post-communist Constitution of Poland was finalized, and in July put into effect. Poland joined NATO in 1999. In the presidential election of 2000, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, the incumbent former leader of the post-communist SLD, was re-elected in the first round of voting. After September 2001 parliamentary elections SLD (a successor of the communist party ) formed a coalition with the agrarian PSL and leftist UP. Castle Square in Warsaw's rebuilt Old Town Poland joined the EU in May 2004. Both President Kwaśniewski and the government were vocal in their support for this cause. The only party decidedly opposed to EU entry was the populist right-wing League of Polish Families (LPR). In the autumn of 2005 Poles voted in both parliamentary and presidential elections. September's parliamentary poll was expected to produce a coalition of two centre-right parties, PiS (Law and Justice) and PO (Civic Platform). During the increasingly bitter campaign however, PiS launched a strong attack on the liberal economic policies of their allies and overtook PO in opinion polls. PiS eventually gained 27% of votes cast and became the largest party in the Sejm ahead of PO with 24%. Presidential elections in October followed a similar script. The early favorite, Donald Tusk, leader of the PO, saw his opinion poll lead slip away and was beaten 54% to 46% in the second round by the PiS candidate Lech Kaczyński (one of the twins, founders of the party). Coalition talks ensued simultaneously with the presidential elections. However, the severity of the campaign attacks had soured the relationship between the two largest parties and made the creation of a stable coalition impossible. The ostensible stumbling blocks were the insistence of PiS that it controls all aspects of law enforcement: the Ministries of Justice and Internal Affairs, and the special forces; as well as the forcing through of a PiS candidate for the head of the Sejm with the help of several smaller populist parties. PO also wanted to control the law enforcement and the situation ended up in the stalemate. The PO decided to go into opposition. PiS then formed a minority government which relied on the support of smaller populist and agrarian parties (Samoobrona, LPR) to govern. This became a formal coalition, but its deteriorating state made early parliamentary elections necessary. After the 2007 parliamentary elections the government of Donald Tusk, the chairman of PO was formed. The current government is made of two parties, PO and the peasants' party, PSL. See also History of Europe History of present-day nations and states Old Polish units of measurement Sources to History of Poland Maps Poland and West-Slavs 800-950 Poland 990-1040 Poland 1040-1090 Poland 1090-1140 Poland 1140-1250 Poland 1250-1290 Poland 1290-1333 Poland 1333-1350 Poland 1350-1370 Poland 1550 Poland 1773 Poland 2004 Poland (flash version) Notes <div class="references-small"> a.This is true especially regarding legislative matters and legal framework. Despite the restrictions the nobility imposed on the monarchs, the Polish kings had never become figureheads. In practice they wielded considerable executive power, up to and including the last king, Stanisław August Poniatowski. Some were at times even accused of absolutist tendencies, and it may be for the lack of sufficiently strong personalities or favorable circumstances, that none of the kings had succeeded in significant and lasting strengthening of the monarchy. References Inline General Jerzy Wyrozumski - Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN), Warszawa 1986, ISBN 83-01-03732-6 Józef Andrzej Gierowski - Historia Polski 1505-1764 (History of Poland 1505-1764), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN), Warszawa 1986, ISBN 83-01-03732-6 Further reading History of Poland books in English History of Poland, by Oskar Halecki, 1942. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1993, ISBN 0-679-51087-7 God's Playground. A History of Poland. Vol. 1: The Origins to 1795, Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present, by Norman Davies, first published in 1979 by Columbia University Press. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-19-925339-0 / ISBN 0-19-925340-4. Revised edition Columbia University Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0-231-12817-9 / ISBN 978-0-231-12819-3 Heart of Europe. A Short History of Poland, by Norman Davies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-19-285152-7. Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present, by Norman Davies. Oxford University Press, USA. New edition 2001, ISBN 0-19-280126-0 The Polish Way: A Thousand-Year History of the Poles and Their Culture, by Adam Zamoyski. London: John Murray, 1987, ISBN 0-531-15069-0; Hippocrene Books, 1994, ISBN 0-7818-0200-8, ISBN 978-0-7818-0200-0 Poland: An Illustrated History, by Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski. New York: Hippocrene Books, 2000, ISBN 0-7818-0757-3 A Concise History of Poland, by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1st edition 2001, 2nd edition 2006, ISBN 0-521-61857-6 A Traveller's History of Poland, by John Radzilowski. Northampton, Mass.: Interlink Books, 2007, ISBN 1-56656-655-X External links A History of East Central Europe by Oscar Halecki History of Poland, in paintings History of Poland on Historycy.org forum Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage | History_of_Poland |@lemmatized settle:8 agricultural:9 people:19 live:8 area:27 poland:308 last:27 year:36 slavic:8 territory:22 history:86 state:70 span:1 well:17 millennium:1 rule:26 shift:4 vary:1 greatly:4 one:36 time:37 late:20 early:33 century:117 polish:211 lithuanian:36 commonwealth:45 huge:2 central:14 eastern:37 europe:39 million:12 square:2 kilometer:1 separate:4 regain:7 independence:10 neighbor:3 border:15 world:13 war:65 ii:51 largely:5 lose:16 traditional:3 multiethnic:1 character:4 communist:16 system:10 impose:8 opportunity:3 arose:1 country:40 become:66 parliamentary:12 democracy:4 follow:23 emergence:1 nation:10 lead:24 series:9 ruler:12 convert:3 pole:21 christianity:5 create:7 strong:13 kingdom:19 integrated:1 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7,031 | History_of_Russia | Millennium of Russia monument, erected 1862, Novgorod The history of Russia begins with that of the East Slavs. The first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus', adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. ISBN 0160612128. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state, finally succumbing to Mongol invaders in the 1230s. During this time a number of regional magnates, in particular Novgorod and Pskov, fought to inherit the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. After the 13th century, Moscow gradually came to dominate the former cultural center. By the 18th century, the Grand Duchy of Moscow had become the huge Russian Empire, stretching from Poland eastward to the Pacific Ocean. Expansion in the western direction sharpened Russia's awareness of its separation from much of the rest of Europe and shattered the isolation in which the initial stages of expansion had occurred. Successive regimes of the 19th century responded to such pressures with a combination of halfhearted reform and repression. Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861, but its abolition was achieved on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to increase revolutionary pressures. Between the abolition of serfdom and the beginning of World War I in 1914, the Stolypin reforms, the constitution of 1906 and State Duma introduced notable changes to the economy and politics of Russia, See Jacob Walkin, The Rise of Democracy in Pre-Revolutionary Russia: Political and Social Institutions under the Last Three Czars, Praeger, 1962. but the tsars were still not willing to relinquish autocratic rule, or share their power. CIAO - Atlas - Russia The Russian Revolution in 1917 was triggered by a combination of economic breakdown, war weariness, and discontent with the autocratic system of government, and it first brought a coalition of liberals and moderate socialists to power, but their failed policies led to seizure of power by the Communist Bolsheviks on October 25. Between 1922 and 1991, the history of Russia is essentially the history of the Soviet Union, effectively an ideologically based state which was roughly conterminous with the Russian Empire before the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The approach to the building of socialism, however, varied over different periods in Soviet history, from the mixed economy and diverse society and culture of the 1920s to the command economy and repressions of the Stalin era to the "era of stagnation" in the 1980s. From its first years, government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves, beginning in March 1918. Revolutions and Civil War, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. ISBN 0160612128. However, by the late 1980s, with the weaknesses of its economic and political structures becoming acute, the Communist leaders embarked on major reforms, which led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. See Donald A. Filzer, Soviet Workers and the Collapse of Perestroika: The Soviet Labour Process and Gorbachev's Reforms, 1985–1991, Cambridge University Press, 1994. ISBN 0521452929. The history of the Russian Federation is brief, dating back only to the collapse of the Soviet Union in late 1991. Since gaining its independence, Russia was recognized as the legal successor to the Soviet Union on the international stage. See, for instance, Country Profile for the Russian Federation, by the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 21 July 2007. However, Russia has lost its superpower status as it faced serious challenges in its efforts to forge a new post-Soviet political and economic system. Scrapping the socialist central planning and state ownership of property of the Soviet era, Russia attempted to build an economy with elements of market capitalism, with often painful results. Even today Russia shares many continuities of political culture and social structure with its tsarist and Soviet past. Early history Kurgan hypothesis: South Russia as the urheimat of Indo-European peoples Pre-Slavic inhabitants During the prehistoric eras the vast steppes of Southern Russia were home to disunited tribes of nomadic pastoralists. In classical antiquity, the Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia. Remnants of these long-gone steppe civilizations were discovered in the course of the 20th century in such places as Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, Dr. Ludmila Koryakova, "Sintashta-Arkaim Culture" The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Retrieved 20 July 2007. and Pazyryk. 1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden" Transcript. In the latter part of the eighth century BC, Greek merchants brought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria. Esther Jacobson, The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World, Brill, 1995, p. 38. ISBN 9004098569. Between the third and sixth centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom, a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greek colonies, Gocha R. Tsetskhladze (ed), The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology, F. Steiner, 1998, p. 48. ISBN 3515073027. was overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions, Peter Turchin, Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall, Princeton University Press, 2003, pp. 185–186. ISBN 0691116695. led by warlike tribes which would often move on to Europe, as was the case with the Huns and Turkish Avars. A Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas through to the 8th century. David Christian, A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Blackwell Publishing, 1998, pp. 286–288. ISBN 0631208143. Noted for their laws, tolerance, and cosmopolitanism, Frank Northen Magill, Magill's Literary Annual, 1977 Salem Press, 1977, p. 818. ISBN 0893560774. the Khazars were the main commercial link between the Baltic and the Muslim Abbasid empire centered in Baghdad. André Wink, Al-Hind, the Making of an Indo-Islamic World, Brill, 2004, p. 35. ISBN 9004092498. They were important allies of the Byzantine Empire, András Róna-Tas, Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History, Central European University Press, 1999, p. 257. ISBN 9639116483. and waged a series of successful wars against the Arab Caliphates. Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman, History of Jewish Philosophy, Routledge, 1997, p. 196. ISBN 0415080649. In the 8th century, the Khazars embraced Judaism. A general map of the cultures in European Russia at the arrival of the Varangians Early East Slavs The ancestors of the Russians were the Slavic tribes, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pripet Marshes. For a discussion of Slavic origins, see Paul M. Barford, The Early Slavs, Cornell University Press, 2001, pp. 15-16. ISBN 0801439779. The Early East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev toward present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk toward Novgorod and Rostov. David Christian, op cit., pp. 6–7. From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native Finno-Ugric tribes, such as the Merya, Henry K Paszkiewicz, The Making of the Russian Nation, Darton, Longman & Todd, 1963, p. 262. the Muromians, Rosamond McKitterick, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 497. ISBN 0521364477. and the Meshchera. Aleksandr Lʹvovich Mongaĭt, Archeology in the U.S.S.R., Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1959, p. 335. Kievan Rus' Kievan Rus' in the 11th century Scandinavian Norsemen, called "Vikings" in Western Europe and "Varangians" See, for instance, Viking (Varangian) Oleg and Viking (Varangian) Rurik at Encyclopaedia Britannica. in the East, combined piracy and trade in their roamings over much of Northern Europe. In the mid-9th century, they began to venture along the waterways from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas. Dimitri Obolensky, Byzantium and the Slavs, St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1994, p. 42. ISBN 088141008X. According to the earliest Russian chronicle, a Varangian named Rurik was elected ruler (konung or knyaz) of Novgorod in about 860, before his successors moved south and extended their authority to Kiev, James Westfall Thompson, and Edgar Nathaniel Johnson, An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300-1500, W. W. Norton & Co., 1937, p. 268. which had been previously dominated by the Khazars. David Christian, Op cit. p. 343. Thus, the first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus', emerged in the 9th century along the Dnieper River valley. A coordinated group of princely states with a common interest in maintaining trade along the river routes, Kievan Rus' controlled the trade route for furs, wax, and slaves between Scandinavia and the Byzantine Empire along the Volkhov and Dnieper Rivers. The name "Russia", together with the Finnish Ruotsi (which means "Sweden") and Estonian Rootsi (which means "Sweden"), are found by some scholars to be related to Roslagen. See Relations Between Ancient Russia and Scandinavia and the Origin of the Russian State, Ayer Publishing, 1964. ISBN 0833735330. The etymology of Rus and its derivatives are debated, and other schools of thought connect the name with Slavic or Iranic roots. Russia the Great. Retrieved 22 July 2007. By the end of the 10th century, the Norse minority had merged with the Slavic population, Particularly among the aristocracy. See World History. Retrieved 22 July 2007. which also absorbed Greek Christian influences in the course of the multiple campaigns to loot Tsargrad, or Constantinople. See Dimitri Obolensky, "Russia's Byzantine Heritage," in Byzantium & the Slavs, St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1994, pp. 75–108. ISBN 088141008X. One such campaign claimed the life of the foremost Slavic druzhina leader, Svyatoslav I, who was renowned for having crushed the power of the Khazars on the Volga. Serhii Plokhy, The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 13. ISBN 0521864038. At the time, the Byzantine Empire was experiencing a major military and cultural revival; despite its later decline, its culture would have a continuous influence on the development of Russia in its formative centuries. Kievan Rus' is important for its introduction of a Slavic variant of the Eastern Orthodox religion, dramatically deepening a synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next thousand years. The region adopted Christianity in 988 by the official act of public baptism of Kiev inhabitants by Prince Vladimir I. See The Christianisation of Russia, an account of Vladimir's baptism, followed by the baptism of the entire population of Kiev, as described in The Russian Primary Chronicle. Some years later the first code of laws, Russkaya Pravda, was introduced. Gordon Bob Smith, Reforming the Russian Legal System, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 2–3. ISBN 052145669X. From the onset the Kievan princes followed the Byzantine example and kept the Church dependent on them, even for its revenues, P. N. Fedosejev, The Comparative Historical Method in Soviet Mediaeval Studies, USSR Academy of Sciences, 1979. p. 90. so that the Russian Church and state were always closely linked. By the 11th century, particularly during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, Kievan Rus' could boast an economy and achievements in architecture and literature superior to those that then existed in the western part of the continent. Russell Bova, Russia and Western Civilization: Cultural and Historical Encounters, M.E. Sharpe, 2003, p. 13. ISBN 0765609762. Compared with the languages of European Christendom, the Russian language was little influenced by the Greek and Latin of early Christian writings. This was due to the fact that Church Slavonic was used directly in liturgy instead. Timothy Ware: The Orthodox Church (Penguin, 1963; 1997 revision) p.74 A nomadic Turkic people, the Kipchaks (also known as the Cumans), replaced the earlier Pechenegs as the dominant force in the south steppe regions neighbouring to Rus' at the end of 11th century and founded a nomadic state in the steppes along the Black Sea (Desht-e-Kipchak). Repelling their regular attacks, especially on Kiev, which was just one day's ride from the steppe, was a heavy burden for the southern areas of Rus'. The nomadic incursions caused a massive influx of Slavs to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as Zalesye. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state because of in-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled it collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, Novgorod in the north, and Halych-Volhynia in the south-west. Conquest by the Mongol Golden Horde in the 13th century was the final blow. Kiev was destroyed. In 1240. See Michael Franklin Hamm, Kiev: A Portrait, 1800-1917, Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 0691025851 Halych-Volhynia would eventually be absorbed into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and independent Novgorod Republic, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, would establish the basis for the modern Russian nation. Mongol invasion Sacking of Suzdal by Batu Khan in February, 1238: a miniature from the sixteenth century chronicle The invading Mongols accelerated the fragmentation of the Rus'. In 1223, the disunited southern princes faced a Mongol raiding party at the Kalka River and were soundly defeated. See David Nicolle, Kalka River 1223: Genghiz Khan's Mongols Invade Russia, Osprey Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1841762334. In 1237-1238 the Mongols burnt down the city of Vladimir (February 4, 1238) Tatyana Shvetsova, The Vladimir Suzdal Principality Retrieved 21 July 2007. and other major cities of northeast Russia, routed the Russians at the Sit' River, Janet Martin, Medieval Russia, 980-1584, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 139. ISBN 052136832. and then moved west into Poland and Hungary. Piero Scaruffi, A Time-line of the Mongols, 1999. Retrieved 21 July 2007. By then they had conquered most of the Russian principalities. The Destruction of Kiev Only the Novgorod Republic escaped occupation and continued to flourish in the orbit of the Hanseatic League. Jennifer Mills, The Hanseatic League in the Eastern Baltic, SCAND 344, May 1998. Retrieved 21 July 2007. The impact of the Mongol invasion on the territories of Kievan Rus' was uneven. The advanced city culture was almost completely destroyed. As older centers such as Kiev and Vladimir never recovered from the devastation of the initial attack, the new cities of Moscow, Muscovy, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. ISBN 0160612128. Tver and Nizhny Novgorod Sigfried J. De Laet, History of Humanity: Scientific and Cultural Development, Taylor & Francis, 2005, p. 196. ISBN 9231028146. began to compete for hegemony in the Mongol-dominated Russia. Although a Russian army defeated the Golden Horde at Kulikovo in 1380, The Battle of Kulikovo (8 September 1380). Retrieved 22 July 2007. Mongol domination of the Russian-inhabited territories, along with demands of tribute from Russian princes, continued until about 1480. Russo-Tatar relations Prince Michael of Chernigov was passed between fires and ordered to prostrate himself before the tablets of Chingis Khan. Batu Khan's Mongols stabbed him to death for his refusal to do obeisance to unliving person in the pagan ritual. Alexander Nevsky in the Horde After the fall of the Khazars in the 10th century, the middle Volga came to be dominated by the mercantile state of Volga Bulgaria, the last vestige of Greater Bulgaria centered at Phanagoria. In the 10th century the Turkic population of Volga Bulgaria converted to Islam, which facilitated its trade with the Middle East and Central Asia. In the wake of the Mongol invasions of the 1230s, Volga Bulgaria was absorbed by the Golden Horde and its population evolved into the modern Chuvashes and Kazan Tatars. The Mongols held Russia and Volga Bulgaria in sway from their western capital at Sarai, one of the largest cities of the medieval world. The princes of southern and eastern Russia had to pay tribute to the Mongols of the Golden Horde, commonly called Tatars; but in return they received charters authorizing them to act as deputies to the khans. In general, the princes were allowed considerable freedom to rule as they wished, while the Russian Orthodox Church even experienced a spiritual revival under the guidance of Metropolitan Alexis and Sergius of Radonezh. To the Orthodox Church and most princes, the fanatical Northern Crusaders seemed a greater threat to the Russian way of life than the Mongols. In the mid-13th century, Alexander Nevsky, elected prince of Novgorod, acquired heroic status as the result of major victories over the Teutonic Knights and the Swedes. Alexander obtained Mongol protection and assistance in fighting invaders from the west who, hoping to profit from the Russian collapse since the Mongol invasions, tried to grab territory and convert the Russians to Roman Catholicism. The Mongols left their impact on the Russians in such areas as military tactics and transportation. Under Mongol occupation, Russia also developed its postal road network, census, fiscal system, and military organization. Eastern influence remained strong well until the 17th century, when Russian rulers made a conscious effort to modernize their country. In popular memory, this period left a very unpleasant impression, and is referred to as the Tataro-Mongol Yoke. Grand Duchy of Moscow The rise of Moscow During the reign of Daniel, Moscow was little more than a small timber fort lost in the forests of Central Russia. Daniil Aleksandrovich, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, founded the principality of Moscow (known as Muscovy), which eventually expelled the Tatars from Russia. Well-situated in the central river system of Russia and surrounded by protective forests and marshes, Moscow was at first only a vassal of Vladimir, but soon it absorbed its parent state. A major factor in the ascendancy of Moscow was the cooperation of its rulers with the Mongol overlords, who granted them the title of Grand Prince of Moscow and made them agents for collecting the Tatar tribute from the Russian principalities. The principality's prestige was further enhanced when it became the center of the Russian Orthodox Church. Its head, the Metropolitan, fled from Kiev to Vladimir in 1299 and a few years later established the permanent headquarters of the Church in Moscow under the original title of Kiev Metropolitan. By the middle of the 14th century, the power of the Mongols was declining, and the Grand Princes felt able to openly oppose the Mongol yoke. In 1380, at Kulikovo on the Don River, the Mongols were defeated, and although this hard-fought victory did not end Tatar rule of Russia, it did bring great fame to the Grand Prince Dmitry Donskoy. Moscow's leadership in Russia was now firmly based and by the middle of the fourteenth century its territory had greatly expanded through purchase, war, and marriage. Ivan III, the Great Ivan III tears off the Khan's missive letter demanding the tribute in front of Khan's mission In the 15th century, the grand princes of Moscow went on gathering Russian lands to increase the population and wealth under their rule. The most successful practitioner of this process was Ivan III who laid the foundations for a Russian national state. Ivan competed with his powerful northwestern rival, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, for control over some of the semi-independent Upper Principalities in the upper Dnieper and Oka River basins. Ivan III, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05. Ivan III, Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007 Through the defections of some princes, border skirmishes, and a long war with the Novgorod Republic, Ivan III was able to annex Novgorod and Tver. Donald Ostrowski in The Cambridge History of Russia, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 234. ISBN 0521812275. As a result, the Grand Duchy of Moscow tripled in size under his rule. During his conflict with Pskov, a monk named Filofei (Philotheus of Pskov) composed a letter to Ivan III, with the prophecy that the latter's kingdom will be the Third Rome. See eg. Easten Orthodoxy, Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. The Fall of Constantinople and the death of the last Greek Orthodox Christian emperor contributed to this new idea of Moscow as 'New Rome' and the seat of Orthodox Christianity. Fall of Novgorod Republic in 1478. On the right stands Marfa Boretskaya. A contemporary of the Tudors and other "new monarchs" in Western Europe, Ivan proclaimed his absolute sovereignty over all Russian princes and nobles. Refusing further tribute to the Tatars, Ivan initiated a series of attacks that opened the way for the complete defeat of the declining Golden Horde, now divided into several Khanates and hordes. Ivan and his successors sought to protect the southern boundaries of their domain against attacks of the Crimean Tatars and other hordes. The Tatar Khanate of Crimea To achieve this aim, they sponsored the construction of the Great Abatis Belt and granted manors to nobles, who were obliged to serve in the military. The manor system provided a basis for an emerging horse army. In this way, internal consolidation accompanied outward expansion of the state. By the 16th century, the rulers of Moscow considered the entire Russian territory their collective property. Various semi-independent princes still claimed specific territories, but Ivan III forced the lesser princes to acknowledge the grand prince of Moscow and his descendants as unquestioned rulers with control over military, judicial, and foreign affairs. Gradually, the Russian ruler emerged as a powerful, autocratic ruler, a tsar. The first Russian ruler to officially crown himself "Tsar" was Ivan IV. Tsardom of Russia Ivan IV Ivan IV, the Terrible The development of the Tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign (1547–1584) of Ivan IV ("Ivan the Terrible"). He strengthened the position of the monarch to an unprecedented degree, as he ruthlessly subordinated the nobles to his will, exiling or executing many on the slightest provocation. Nevertheless, Ivan is often seen a farsighted statesman who reformed Russia as he promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (Zemsky Sobor), curbed the influence of clergy, and introduced the local self-management in rural regions, Skrynnikov R., "Ivan Grosny", p.58, M., AST, 2001 Although his long Livonian War for the control of the Baltic coast and the access to sea trade ultimately proved a costly failure, Ivan managed to annex the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia. Janet Martin, Medieval Russia, 980-1584, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 395. ISBN 052136832. These conquests complicated the migration of the aggressive nomadic hordes from Asia to Europe through Volga and Ural. Through these conquests, Russia acquired a significant Muslim Tatar population and emerged as a multiethnic and multiconfessional state. Also around this period, the mercantile Stroganov family established a firm foothold at the Urals and recruited Russian Cossacks to colonize Siberia. Siberian Chronicles, Строгановская Сибирская Летопись. изд. Спаским, СПб, 1821 In the later part of his reign, Ivan divided his realm in two. In the zone known as the oprichnina, Ivan's followers carried out a series of bloody purges of the feudal aristocracy (which he suspected of treachery after the betrayal of prince Kurbsky), culminating in the Massacre of Novgorod (1570). This combined with the military losses, epidemics, poor harvests so weakened Russia that the Crimean Tatars were able to sack central Russian regions and burn down Moscow (1571). Skrynnikov R. "Ivan Grozny", M, 2001, pp.142-173 In 1572 Ivan abandoned the oprichnina. Robert I. Frost The Northern Wars: 1558-1721 (Longman, 2000) pp.26-27 Moscow - Historical background At the end of Ivan IV's reign the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish armies carried out a powerful intervention in Russia, devastating its northern and northwest regions. Skrynnikov. "Ivan Grozny", M, 2001, pp.222-223 Time of Troubles Kuzma Minin appeals to the people of Nizhny Novgorod to raise a volunteer army against the Poles. Chester S. L. Dunning, "Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty", Penn State Press (2001), ISBN 0271020741, pp. 433-434. The death of Ivan's childless son Feodor was followed by a period of civil wars and foreign intervention known as the "Time of Troubles" (1606–13). Extremely cold summers (1601-1603) wrecked crops, Borisenkov E, Pasetski V. "The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena", ISBN 5-244-00212-0, p.190 which led to the Russian famine of 1601 - 1603 and increased the social disorganization. Boris Godunov's reign ended in chaos, civil war combined with foreign intrusion, devastation of many cities and depopulation of the rural regions. The country rocked by internal chaos also attracted several waves of interventions by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Solovyov. "History of Russia...", v.7, pp.533-535, pp.543-568 The invaders reached Moscow and installed, first, the impostor False Dmitriy I and, later, a Polish prince Władysław IV Vasa on the Russian throne. Moscow revolted but riots there were brutally suppressed and the city was set on fire. George Vernadsky, "A History of Russia", Volume 5, Yale University Press, (1969). Russian translation Mikolaj Marchocki "Historia Wojny Moskiewskiej", ch. "Slaughter in the capital", Russian translation Sergey Solovyov. History of Russia... Vol. 8, p. 847 The crisis provoked a patriotic national uprising against the invasion, and in autumn 1612 a volunteer army, led by the merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky, expelled the foreign forces from the capital. Chester S L Dunning, Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty, p. 434 Penn State Press, 2001, ISBN 0-271-02074-1 Troubles, Time of." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006 Pozharski, Dmitri Mikhailovich, Prince", Columbia Encyclopedia The Russian statehood survived the "Time of Troubles" and the rule of weak or corrupt Tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's legitimacy or the faction controlling the throne. However, the "Time of Troubles" provoked by the dynastic crisis resulted in the loss of much territory to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Russo-Polish war, as well as to the Swedish Empire in the Ingrian War. The accession of Romanovs and early rule 200-x|Election of 16-year old Mikhail Romanov, the first Tsar of the Romanov dynasty In February, 1613, with the chaos ended and the Poles expelled from Moscow, a national assembly, composed of representatives from fifty cities and even some peasants, elected Michael Romanov, the young son of Patriarch Filaret, to the throne. The Romanov dynasty ruled Russia until 1917. The immediate task of the new dynasty was to restore peace. Fortunately for Moscow, its major enemies, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden, were engaged in a bitter conflict with each other, which provided Russia the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in 1617 and to sign a truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1619. Recovery of lost territories started in the mid-17th century, when the Khmelnitsky Uprising in Ukraine against Polish rule brought about the Treaty of Pereyaslav concluded between Russia and the Ukrainian Cossacks. Stenka Razin Sailing in the Caspian According to the treaty, Russia granted protection to the Cossacks state in the Left-bank Ukraine, formerly under Polish control. This triggered a prolonged Russo-Polish War which ended with the Treaty of Andrusovo (1667), where Poland accepted the loss of Left-bank Ukraine, Kiev and Smolensk. Rather than risk their estates in more civil war, the great nobles or boyars cooperated with the first Romanovs, enabling them to finish the work of bureaucratic centralization. Thus, the state required service from both the old and the new nobility, primarily in the military. In return the tsars allowed the boyars to complete the process of enserfing the peasants. Patriarch Nikon's reform of the Church Service caused schism in the Russian Orthodox Church and appearance of Old Believers In the preceding century, the state had gradually curtailed peasants' rights to move from one landlord to another. With the state now fully sanctioning serfdom, runaway peasants became state fugitives, and the power of the landlords over the peasants "attached" to their land have become almost complete. Together the state and the nobles placed the overwhelming burden of taxation on the peasants, whose rate was 100 times greater in the mid-17th century than it had been a century earlier. In addition, middle-class urban tradesmen and craftsmen were assessed taxes, and, like the serfs, they were forbidden to change residence. All segments of the population were subject to military levy and to special taxes. For a discussion of the development of the class structure in Tsarist Russia see Skocpol, Theda. States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge U Press, 1988. Under such circumstances, peasant disorders were endemic; even the citizens of Moscow revolted against the Romanovs during the Salt Riot (1648), Jarmo Kotilaine and Marshall Poe, Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Russia, Routledge, 2004, p. 264. ISBN 0415307511. Copper Riot (1662), and the Moscow Uprising (1682). Moscow Uprising of 1682 in the History of Russia of Sergey Solovyov By far the greatest peasant uprising in 17th century Europe erupted in 1667. As the free settlers of South Russia, the Cossacks, reacted against the growing centralization of the state, serfs escaped from their landlords and joined the rebels. The Cossack leader Stenka Razin led his followers up the Volga River, inciting peasant uprisings and replacing local governments with Cossack rule. The tsar's army finally crushed his forces in 1670; a year later Stenka was captured and beheaded. Yet, less than half a century later, the strains of military expeditions produced another revolt in Astrakhan, ultimately subdued. Imperial Russia Peter the Great Peter I disbanded the old streltzi army; thousands of streltzi were executed after their mutiny. Peter the Great (1672–1725) brought autocracy into Russia and played a major role in bringing his country into the European state system. From its modest beginnings in the 14th century principality of Moscow, Russia had become the largest state in the world by Peter's reign. Three times the size of continental Europe, it spanned the Eurasian landmass from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean. Much of its expansion had taken place in the 17th century, culminating in the first Russian settlement of the Pacific in the mid-17th century, the reconquest of Kiev, and the pacification of the Siberian tribes. However, this vast land had a population of only 14 million. Grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West (that can be partly explained by the heavier climatic conditions, in particular long cold winters and short vegetative period ) compelling almost the entire population to farm. Only a small fraction of the population lived in the towns. Russia remained isolated from the sea trade, its internal trade communications and many manufactures were dependent on the seasonal changes. Milov L.V. «Russian peasant and features of the Russian historical process», the research of Russian economic history of XV-XVIIIth centuries. Peter's first military efforts were directed against the Ottoman Turks. His aim was to establish a Russian foothold on the Black Sea by taking the town of Azov. See Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Perennial, 1979, p. 353. ISBN 0688030939. His attention then turned to the north. Peter still lacked a secure northern seaport except at Archangel on the White Sea, whose harbor was frozen nine months a year. Access to the Baltic was blocked by Sweden, whose territory enclosed it on three sides. Peter's ambitions for a "window to the sea" led him in 1699 to make a secret alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Denmark against Sweden resulting in the Great Northern War. The war ended in 1721 when an exhausted Sweden sued for peace with Russia. Peter acquired four provinces situated south and east of the Gulf of Finland, thus securing his coveted access to the sea. There, in 1703, he had already founded the city that was to become Russia's new capital, Saint Petersburg, as a "window opened upon Europe" to replace Moscow, long Russia's cultural center. Russian intervention in the Commonwealth marked, with the Silent Sejm, the beginning of a 200-year domination of that region by the Russian Empire. In celebration of his conquests, Peter assumed the title of emperor as well as tsar, and Russian Tzardom officially became the Russian Empire in 1721. Peter the Great leading the Russian army in the Battle of Poltava Peter reorganized his government on the latest Western models, molding Russia into an absolutist state. He replaced the old boyar Duma (council of nobles) with a nine-member senate, in effect a supreme council of state. The countryside was also divided into new provinces and districts. Peter told the senate that its mission was to collect tax revenues. In turn tax revenues tripled over the course of his reign. As part of the government reform, the Orthodox Church was partially incorporated into the country's administrative structure, in effect making it a tool of the state. Peter abolished the patriarchate and replaced it with a collective body, the Holy Synod, led by a lay government official. Meanwhile, all vestiges of local self-government were removed, and Peter continued and intensified his predecessors' requirement of state service for all nobles. Peter the Great died in 1725, leaving an unsettled succession and an exhausted realm. His reign raised questions about Russia's backwardness, its relationship to the West, the appropriateness of reform from above, and other fundamental problems that have confronted many of Russia's subsequent rulers. Nevertheless, he had laid the foundations of a modern state in Russia. Ruling the Empire (1725–1825) The monument to Catherine II in Saint Petersberg Nearly forty years were to pass before a comparably ambitious and ruthless ruler appeared on the Russian throne. Catherine II, the Great, was a German princess who married the German heir to the Russian crown. Finding him incompetent, Catherine tacitly consented to his murder. It was announced that he had died of "apoplexy", and in 1762 she became ruler. Catherine contributed to the resurgence of the Russian nobility that began after the death of Peter the Great. Mandatory state service had been abolished, and Catherine delighted the nobles further by turning over most government functions in the provinces to them. Catherine the Great extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with actions including the support of the Targowica Confederation, although the cost of her campaigns, on top of the oppressive social system that required lords' serfs to spend almost all of their time laboring on the lords' land, provoked a major peasant uprising in 1773, after Catherine legalized the selling of serfs separate from land. Inspired by another Cossack named Pugachev, with the emphatic cry of "Hang all the landlords!" the rebels threatened to take Moscow before they were ruthlessly suppressed. Catherine had Pugachev drawn and quartered in Red Square, Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev Biography in the Encyclopedia of World Biography. but the specter of revolution continued to haunt her and her successors. Russian troops under Generalissimo Suvorov crossing the Alps in 1799 Napoleon's retreat from Moscow Catherine successfully waged war against the decaying Ottoman Empire and advanced Russia's southern boundary to the Black Sea. Then, by allying with the rulers of Austria and Prussia, she incorporated the territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, where after a century of Russian rule non-Catholic mainly Orthodox population prevailed According to Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary: 1891 Grodno province - catholics 384,696, total population 1,509,728 ; Curland province - catholics 68,722, total population 555,003; Volyhnia Province - catholics 193,142, total population 2,059,870 ) during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. By the time of her death in 1796, Catherine's expansionist policy had made Russia into a major European power. This continued with Alexander I's wresting of Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812. Napoleon made a major misstep when he declared war on Russia after a dispute with Tsar Alexander I and launched an invasion of Russia in 1812. The campaign was a catastrophe. Unable to decisively engage and defeat the standing Russian armies, Napoleon attempted to force the Tsar to terms by capturing Moscow at the onset of winter. The expectation proved futile. Unprepared for winter warfare in the cold Russian weather, thousands of French troops were ambushed and killed by peasant guerrilla fighters. As Napoleon's forces retreated, Russian troops pursued them into Central and Western Europe and to the gates of Paris. After Russia and its allies defeated Napoleon, Alexander became known as the 'savior of Europe,' and he presided over the redrawing of the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna (1815), which made Alexander the monarch of Congress Poland. Although the Russian Empire would play a leading political role in the next century, secured by its defeat of Napoleonic France, its retention of serfdom precluded economic progress of any significant degree. As West European economic growth accelerated during the Industrial Revolution, sea trade and exploitation of colonies which had begun in the second half of the 18th century, Russia began to lag ever farther behind, creating new problems for the empire as a great power. Imperial Russia following the Decembrist Revolt (1825–1917) Nicholas I and the Decembrist Revolt The Decembrists at the Senate Square. Russia's great power status obscured the inefficiency of its government, the isolation of its people, and its economic backwardness. Riasonovsky A History of Russia (fifth ed.) pp.302-3; Charques A Short History of Russia (Phoenix, second ed. 1962) p.125 Following the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander I was willing to discuss constitutional reforms, and though a few were introduced, no thoroughgoing changes were attempted. Riasonovsky p.302-307 The tsar was succeeded by his younger brother, Nicholas I (1825–1855), who at the onset of his reign was confronted with an uprising. The background of this revolt lay in the Napoleonic Wars, when a number of well-educated Russian officers traveled in Europe in the course of the military campaigns, where their exposure to the liberalism of Western Europe encouraged them to seek change on their return to autocratic Russia. The result was the Decembrist Revolt (December 1825), the work of a small circle of liberal nobles and army officers who wanted to install Nicholas' brother as a constitutional monarch. But the revolt was easily crushed, leading Nicholas to turn away from the Westernization program begun by Peter the Great and champion the maxim "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationality." Riasonovsky p.324 In the early decades of the 19th century, Russia expanded into South Caucasus and the highlands of the North Caucasus. Riasonovsky p.308 In 1831 Nicholas crushed a major uprising in Congress Poland; it would be followed by another large-scale Polish and Lithuanian revolt in 1863. See Norman Davies: God's Playground: A History of Poland (OUP, 1981) vol. 2, pp.315-333; and 352-63 Ideological schisms and reaction Mikhail Bakunin In this setting Michael Bakunin would emerge as the father of anarchism. He left Russia in 1842 to Western Europe, where he became active in the socialist movement. After participating in the May Uprising in Dresden of 1849, he was imprisoned and shipped to Siberia, but eventually escaped and made his way back to Europe. There he practically joined forces with Karl Marx, despite significant ideological and tactical differences. Alternative social doctrines were elaborated by such Russian radicals as Alexander Herzen and Peter Kropotkin. The question of Russia's direction had been gaining steam ever since Peter the Great's program of Westernization. Some favored imitating Europe while others renounced the West and called for a return of the traditions of the past. The latter path was championed by Slavophiles, who heaped scorn on the "decadent" West. The Slavophiles were opponents of bureaucracy, preferred the collectivism of the medieval Russian mir, or village community, to the individualism of the West. Alexander II and the abolition of serfdom The manifesto of the abolition of serfdom is being read to people. Tsar Nicholas died with his philosophy in dispute. One year earlier, Russia had become involved in the Crimean War, a conflict fought primarily in the Crimean peninsula. Since playing a major role in the defeat of Napoleon, Russia had been regarded as militarily invincible, but, once pitted against a coalition of the great powers of Europe, the reverses it suffered on land and sea exposed the decay and weakness of Tsar Nicholas' regime. When Alexander II came to the throne in 1855, desire for reform was widespread. A growing humanitarian movement, which in later years has been likened to that of the abolitionists in the United States before the American Civil War, attacked serfdom. In 1859, there were 23 million serfs (total population of Russia 67.1 Million) Excerpt from "Enserfed population in Russia published at Демоскоп Weekly, No 293 - 294, June 18 July 1, 2007 living under conditions frequently worse than those of the peasants of Western Europe on 16th century manors. Alexander II made up his own mind to abolish serfdom from above rather than wait for it to be abolished from below through revolution. The emancipation of the serfs in 1861 was the single most important event in 19th century Russian history. It was the beginning of the end for the landed aristocracy's monopoly of power. Emancipation brought a supply of free labor to the cities, industry was stimulated, and the middle class grew in number and influence; however, instead of receiving their lands as a gift, the freed peasants had to pay a special tax, called redemption payments, for what amounted to their lifetime to the government, which in turn paid the landlords a generous price for the land that they had lost. In numerous instances the peasants wound up with the poorest land. All the land turned over to the peasants was owned collectively by the mir, the village community, which divided the land among the peasants and supervised the various holdings. Although serfdom was abolished, since its abolition was achieved on terms unfavorable to the peasants, revolutionary tensions were not abated, despite Alexander II's intentions. In the late 1870s Russia and the Ottoman Empire again clashed in the Balkans. The Russo-Turkish War was popular among Russians, who supported the independence of their fellow Orthodox Slavs, the Serbs and the Bulgarians. However, the war increased tension with Austria-Hungary, which also had ambitions in the region. Riasonovsky pp.386-7 During this period Russia expanded its empire into Central Asia, which was rich in raw materials, conquering the khanates of Kokand, Bokhara and Khiva. as well as the Trans-Caspian region. Riasonovsky p.349 Nihilism In the 1860s a movement known as Nihilism developed in Russia. A term originally coined by Ivan Turgenev in his 1862 novel Fathers and Sons, Nihilists favoured the destruction of human institutions and laws, based on the idea that such institutions and laws are artificial and corrupt. At its core, Russian nihilism was characterized by the belief that the world lacks comprehensible meaning, objective truth, or value. For some time many Russian liberals had been dissatisfied by what they regarded as the empty discussions of the intelligentsia. The Nihilists questioned all old values and shocked the Russian establishment. Riasonovsky pp.381-2, 447-8 They moved beyond being purely philosophical to becoming major political forces after becoming involved in the cause of reform. Their path was facilitated by the previous actions of the Decembrists, who revolted in 1825, and the financial and political hardship caused by the Crimean War, which caused large amounts of Russian peoples to lose faith in political institutes. The Nihilists first attempted to convert the aristocracy to the cause of reform. Failing there, they turned to the peasants. Their campaign, which targeted the people instead of the aristocracy or the landed gentry, became known as the Narodnik movement. It was based upon the belief that the common people, known as the Narod, possessed the wisdom and peaceful ability to lead the nation.. Transformation of Russia in the Nineteenth Century, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. ISBN 0160612128. While the Narodnik movement was gaining momentum, the government quickly moved to extirpate it. In response to the growing reaction of the government, a radical branch of the Narodniks advocated and practiced terrorism. One after another, prominent officials were shot or killed by bombs. This represented the ascendancy of anarchism in Russia as a powerful revolutionary force. Finally, after several attempts, Alexander II was assassinated by anarchists in 1881, on the very day he had approved a proposal to call a representative assembly to consider new reforms in addition to the abolition of serfdom designed to ameliorate revolutionary demands. Autocracy and reaction under Alexander III Unlike his father, the new tsar Alexander III (1881–1894) was throughout his reign a staunch reactionary who revived the maxim of "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and National Character". Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality, Encyclopædia Britannica A committed Slavophile, Alexander III believed that Russia could be saved from chaos only by shutting itself off from the subversive influences of Western Europe. In his reign Russia concluded the union with republican France to contain the growing power of Germany, completed the conquest of Central Asia, and exacted important territorial and commercial concessions from China. Retreat of the Russian Army after the Battle of Mukden The tsar's most influential adviser was Konstantin Pobedonostsev, tutor to Alexander III and his son Nicholas, and procurator of the Holy Synod from 1880 to 1895. He taught his royal pupils to fear freedom of speech and press and to hate democracy, constitutions, and the parliamentary system. Hugo S. Cunninggam, Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev (1827-1907): Reactionary Views on Democracy, General Education. Retrieved 21 July 2007. Under Pobedonostsev, revolutionaries were hunted down Robert F. Byrnes, "Pobedonostsev: His Life and Thought" in Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 85, No. 3 (September, 1970), pp. 528–530. and a policy of Russification was carried out throughout the empire. Arthur E. Adams, "Pobedonostsev's Religious Politics" in Church History, Vol. 22, No. 4 (December, 1953), pp. 314–326. Nicholas II and a new revolutionary movement Bloody Sunday massacre in Saint Petersburg. Alexander was succeeded by his son Nicholas II (1894–1917). The Industrial Revolution, which began to exert a significant influence in Russia, was meanwhile creating forces that would finally overthrow the tsar. Politically, these opposition forces organized into three competing parties: The liberal elements among the industrial capitalists and nobility, who believed in peaceful social reform and a constitutional monarchy, founded the Constitutional Democratic party or Kadets in 1905. Followers of the Narodnik tradition established the Socialist-Revolutionary Party or Esers in 1901, advocating the distribution of land among those who actually worked it—the peasants. A third and more radical group founded the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party or RDSLP in 1898; this party was the primary exponent of Marxism in Russia. Gathering their support from the radical intellectuals and the urban working class, they advocated complete social, economic and political revolution. The October Manifesto granting civil liberties and establishing first parliament. In 1903 the RDSLP split into two wings: the radical Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, and the relatively moderate Mensheviks, led by Lenin's former friend Yuli Martov. The Mensheviks believed that Russian socialism would grow gradually and peacefully and that the tsar’s regime should be succeeded by a democratic republic in which the socialists would cooperate with the liberal bourgeois parties. The Bolsheviks, under Vladimir Lenin, advocated the formation of a small elite of professional revolutionists, subject to strong party discipline, to act as the vanguard of the proletariat in order to seize power by force. For an analysis of the reaction of the elites to the revolutionaries see Manning, Roberta. The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government. Princeton University Press, 1982. The disastrous performance of the Russian armed forces in the Russo-Japanese War was a major blow to the Russian State and increased the potential for unrest. The Last Years of the Autocracy, excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.), Russia: A Country Study, Department of the Army, 1998. ISBN 0160612128. In January 1905, an incident known as "Bloody Sunday" occurred when Father Gapon led an enormous crowd to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present a petition to the tsar. When the procession reached the palace, Cossacks opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. The Russian masses were so aroused over the massacre that a general strike was declared demanding a democratic republic. This marked the beginning of the Russian Revolution of 1905. Soviets (councils of workers) appeared in most cities to direct revolutionary activity. In October 1905, Nicholas reluctantly issued the famous October Manifesto, which conceded the creation of a national Duma (legislature) to be called without delay. The right to vote was extended, and no law was to go into force without confirmation by the Duma. The moderate groups were satisfied; but the socialists rejected the concessions as insufficient and tried to organize new strikes. By the end of 1905, there was disunity among the reformers, and the tsar's position was strengthened for the time being. Russian Revolution Vladimir Lenin speaking to Red Army troops before their departure to the Polish front Bound by treaty, Tsar Nicholas II and his subjects entered World War I at the defense of Serbia. At the opening of hostilities in August 1914, the Russians took the offensive against both Germany and Austria-Hungary in support of her French ally. Keegan, 139. Later, military failures and bureaucratic ineptitude soon turned large segments of the population against the government. Control of the Baltic Sea by the German fleet, and of the Black Sea by combined German and Ottoman forces prevented Russia from importing supplies and exporting goods. By the middle of 1915 the impact of the war was demoralizing. Food and fuel were in short supply, casualties kept occurring, and inflation was mounting. Strikes increased among low-paid factory workers, and the peasants, who wanted land reforms, were restless. Meanwhile, public distrust of the regime was deepened by reports that a semiliterate mystic, Grigory Rasputin, had great political influence within the government. His assassination in late 1916 ended the scandal but did not restore the autocracy's lost prestige. On March 3, 1917, a strike occurred in a factory in the capital Petrograd (formerly Saint Petersburg). On February 23 (March 8) 1917, International Women's Day, thousands of women textile workers in Petrograd walked out of their factories protesting the lack of food and calling on other workers to join them. Within days, nearly all the workers in the city were idle, and street fighting broke out. When the tsar ordered the Duma to disband, ordered strikers to return to work, and ordered troops to shoot at demonstrators in the streets, his orders triggered the February Revolution, especially when soldiers openly sided with the strikers. On March 2 (15), Nicholas II abdicated. To fill the vacuum of authority, the Duma declared a Provisional Government, headed by Prince Lvov. The Russian Revolution in the History Channel Encyclopedia. Meanwhile, the socialists in Petrograd organized elections among workers and soldiers to form a soviet (council) of workers' and soldiers' deputies, as an organ of popular power that could pressure the "bourgeois" Provisional Government. In July, following a series of crises that undermined their authority with the public, the head of the Provisional Government resigned and was succeeded by Alexander Kerensky, who was more progressive than his predecessor but not radical enough for the Bolsheviks or many Russians discontented with the deepening economic crisis and the continuation of the war. While Kerensky's government marked time, the socialist-led soviet in Petrograd joined with soviets that formed throughout the country to create a national movement. Lenin returned to Russia from exile in Switzerland with the help of Germany, which hoped that widespread strife would cause Russia to withdraw from the war. After many behind-the-scenes maneuvers, the soviets seized control of the government in November 1917, and drove Kerensky and his moderate provisional government into exile, in the events that would become known as the October Revolution. When the national Constituent Assembly, elected in December 1917 and meeting in January 1918, refused to become a rubber-stamp of the Bolsheviks, it was dissolved by Lenin's troops. With the dissolution of the constituent assembly, all vestiges of bourgeois democracy were removed. With the handicap of the moderate opposition removed, Lenin was able to free his regime from the war problem by the harsh Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) with Germany, in which Russia lost the territories of Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, the parts of the territories of Latvia and Belarus (line Riga-Dvinsk-Druia-Drisvyaty-Mikhalishki-Dzevalishki-Dokudova-r.Neman-r.Yelvyanka-Pruzhany-Vidoml), and the territories captured from the Ottoman Empire during World War I. See Articles III-VI of theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk, 3 March 1918. On November, 13, 1918 the Soviet government cancelled the Treaty of Brest . Russian Civil War The Bolshevik grip on power was by no means secure and a lengthy struggle broke out between the new regime and its opponents, who included the Socialist Revolutionaries, right-wing "Whites" and large numbers of peasants. At the same time the Allied powers sent several expeditionary armies to support the anti-Communist forces in an attempt to force Russia to rejoin the world war. The Bolsheviks fought against these forces and against national independence movements in the former Russian Empire. By 1921, they had defeated their internal enemies and brought most of the newly independent states under their control, with the exception of Finland, the Baltic States, the Moldavian Democratic Republic (which joined Romania), and Poland (with whom they had fought the Polish-Soviet War). See Orlando Figes: A People's Tragedy (Pimlico, 1996) passim Finland also annexed the region Pechenga of the Russian Kola peninsula, Romania annexed Northern Bukovina; Soviet Russia and allied Soviet republics conceded the parts of its territory to Estonia (Pechory and the right bank of Narva), Latvia (Pytalovo) and Turkey (Kars). Poland incorporated the contested territories of Western Belarus and Western Ukraine, the former parts of the Russian Empire (except Galicia) east to Curzon Line. Soviet Union Lenin and Stalin Creation of the Soviet Union The history of Russia between 1922 and 1991 is essentially the history of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or Soviet Union. This ideologically-based union, established in December 1922 by the leaders of the Russian Communist Party, "Tsar Killed, USSR Formed," in 20th Century Russia. Retrieved 21 July 2007. was roughly coterminous with Russia before the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. At that time, the new nation included four constituent republics: the Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, Belarusian SSR, and the Transcaucasian SFSR. Soviet Union Information Bureau, Area and Population. Retrieved 21 July 2007. The constitution, adopted in 1924, established a federal system of government based on a succession of soviets set up in villages, factories, and cities in larger regions. This pyramid of soviets in each constituent republic culminated in the All-Union Congress of Soviets. But while it appeared that the congress exercised sovereign power, this body was actually governed by the Communist Party, which in turn was controlled by the Politburo from Moscow, the capital of the Soviet Union, just as it had been under the tsars before Peter the Great. War Communism and the New Economic Policy The period from the consolidation of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 until 1921 is known as the period of war communism. Land, all industry and small businesses were nationalized and the money economy was restricted. Strong opposition soon developed. The peasants wanted cash payments for their products and resented having to surrender their surplus grain to the government as a part of its civil war policies. Confronted with peasant opposition, Lenin began a strategic retreat from war communism known as the New Economic Policy (NEP). The peasants were freed from wholesale levies of grain and allowed to sell their surplus produce in the open market. Commerce was stimulated by permitting private retail trading. The state continued to be responsible for banking, transportation, heavy industry, and public utilities. Although the left opposition among the Communists criticized the rich peasants or kulaks who benefited from the NEP, the program proved highly beneficial and the economy revived. The NEP would later come under increasing opposition from within the party following Lenin's death in early 1924. Changes in Russian society The 1932 Soviet poster symbolizing the reform of "old ways of life" is dedicated to liberation of women from traditional role of the oppressed housekeeper. The text reads: "8th of March is the day of the rebellion of the working women against the kitchen slavery". "Say NO to the oppression and Babbittry of the household work!". While the Russian economy was being transformed, the social life of the people underwent equally drastic changes. From the beginning of the revolution, the government attempted to weaken patriarchal domination of the family. Divorce no longer required court procedure; and to make women completely free of the responsibilities of childbearing, abortion was made legal as early as 1920. Larissa Remennick (1991), "Epidemology and Determinants of Induced Abortion in the USSR," in Soc. Sci. Med. 33(7): 841-848. As a side effect, the emancipation of the women increased the labor market. Girls were encouraged to secure an education and pursue a career in the factory or the office. Communal nurseries were set up for the care of small children and efforts were made to shift the center of people's social life from the home to educational and recreational groups, the soviet clubs. The regime abandoned the tsarist policy of discriminating against national minorities in favor of a policy of incorporating the more than two hundred minority groups into Soviet life. Another feature of the regime was the extension of medical services. Campaigns were carried out against typhus, cholera, and malaria; the number of doctors was increased as rapidly as facilities and training would permit; and infant mortality rates rapidly decreased while life expectancy rapidly increased. The government also promoted atheism and materialism, which formed the basis of Marxist theory. It opposed organized religion, especially in order to break the power of the Russian Orthodox Church, a former pillar of the old tsarist regime and a major barrier to social change. Many religious leaders were sent to internal exile camps. Members of the party were forbidden to attend religious services and the education system was separated from the Church. Religious teaching was prohibited except in the home and atheist instruction was stressed in the schools. Industrialization and collectivization The years from 1929 to 1939 comprised a tumultuous decade in Russian history—a period of massive industrialization and internal struggles as Joseph Stalin established near total control over Russian society, wielding virtually unrestrained power. Following Lenin's death Stalin wrestled to gain control of the Soviet Union with rival factions in the Politburo, especially Leon Trotsky's. By 1928, with the Trotskyists either exiled or rendered powerless, Stalin was ready to put a radical program of industrialization into action. I. Deutscher, Stalin: A Political Biography, Oxford University Press, 1949, pp. 294–344. In 1928 Stalin proposed the First Five-Year Plan. Abolishing the NEP, it was the first of a number of plans aimed at swift accumulation of capital resources through the buildup of heavy industry, the collectivization of agriculture, and the restricted manufacture of consumer goods. For the first time in history a government controlled all economic activity. As a part of the plan, the government took control of agriculture through the state and collective farms (kolkhozes). Conquest, Robert. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0195051807. By a decree of February 1930, about one million individual peasants (kulaks) were forced off their land. Many peasants strongly opposed regimentation by the state, often slaughtering their herds when faced with the loss of their land. In some sections they revolted, and countless peasants deemed "kulaks" by the authorities were executed. Viola, Lynne. Peasant Rebels under Stalin. Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0195131045. The combination of bad weather, deficiencies of the hastily-established collective farms, and massive confiscation of grain precipitated a serious famine, and several million peasants died of starvation, mostly in Ukraine and parts of southwestern Russia. The deteriorating conditions in the countryside drove millions of desperate peasants to the rapidly growing cities, fueling industrialization, and vastly increasing Russia's urban population in the space of just a few years. The plans received remarkable results in areas aside from agriculture. Russia, in many measures the poorest nation in Europe at the time of the Bolshevik Revolution, now industrialized at a phenomenal rate, far surpassing Germany's pace of industrialization in the nineteenth century and Japan's earlier in the twentieth century. While the Five-Year Plans were forging ahead, Stalin was establishing his personal power. The NKVD gathered in tens of thousands of Soviet citizens to face arrest, deportation, or execution. Of the six original members of the 1920 Politburo who survived Lenin, all were purged by Stalin. Old Bolsheviks who had been loyal comrades of Lenin, high officers in the Red Army, and directors of industry were liquidated in the Great Purges. Conquest, Robert. The Great Terror: A Reassessment. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. ISBN 0195071328. Purges in other Soviet republics also helped centralize control in the USSR. Stalin's repressions led to the creation of a vast system of internal exile, of considerably greater dimensions than those set up in the past by the tsars. The Gulag Collection: Paintings of Nikolai Getman Draconian penalties were introduced and many citizens were prosecuted for fictitious crimes of sabotage and espionage. The labor provided by convicts working in the labor camps of the Gulag system became an important component of the industrialization effort, especially in Siberia. Gregory, Paul R. & Valery Lazarev (eds.). The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2003. ISBN 0817939423. Ivanova, Galina M. Labor Camp Socialism: The Gulag in the Soviet Totalitarian System. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2000. ISBN 0765604272. An estimated 18 million people passed through the Gulag system, and perhaps another 15 million had experience of some other form of forced labor. Anne Applebaum -- Inside the Gulag Applebaum, Anne. Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps. London: Penguin Books, 2003. ISBN 0713993227. The Soviet Union on the international stage The Soviet Union viewed the 1933 accession of fervently anti-Communist Hitler's government to power in Germany with the great alarm from the onset, especially since Hitler proclaimed the Drang nach Osten as one of the major objectives in his vision of the German strategy of Lebensraum. See, eg. Mein Kampf The Soviets supported the republicans of Spain who struggled against the fascist German and Italian troops in the Spanish Civil War Payne, Stanley G. The Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union, and Communism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004. ISBN 030010068X. Radosh, Ronald, Mary Habeck & Grigory Sevostianov (eds.). Spain Betrayed: The Soviet Union in the Spanish Civil War. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001. ISBN 0300089813. In 1938-1939, immediately prior to the WWII, the Soviet Union successfully fought against Imperial Japan in the Soviet-Japanese Border Wars in the Russian Far East, which led to the Soviet-Japanese neutrality and the tense border peace that lasted until August 1945. Coox, Alvin D. The Anatomy of a Small War: The Soviet-Japanese Struggle for Changkufeng/Khasan, 1938. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977. ISBN 0837194792. Coox, Alvin D. Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939. 2 vols. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990. ISBN 0804718350. In 1938 Germany annexed Austria and, together with major Western European powers, signed the Munich Agreement following which Germany, Hungary and Poland divided the Czech territory between themselves. German plans for further eastward expansion as well as the lack of resolve from the Western powers to oppose it became more apparent. Despite Soviet Union strongly opposed the Munich deal and repeatedly reaffirmed its readiness to militarily back the Soviet commitments given earlier to Czechoslovakia, the Western Betrayal of Czechoslovakia reached over the Soviet opposition further increased fears in the Soviet Union of a coming German attack, which led the Soviet Union to rush the modernization of Soviet military industry and carry its own diplomatic maneuvers. In 1939 the Soviet Union signed the Non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany dividing spheres of influence between themselves in Eastern Europe. Roberts, Geoffrey (1992). The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany. Soviet Studies 44 (1), 57-78. Following the agreement, the USSR normalized the relations with Nazi Germany and resumed the Soviet-German trade. Ericson, Edward E. Feeding the German Eagle: Soviet Economic Aid to Nazi Germany, 1933-1941. New York: Praeger, 1999. ISBN 0275963373. World War II On September 171939, seventeen days after the start of World War II and victorious German advance deep into the Polish territory, the Red Army invaded eastern portions of Poland stating the protection of Ukrainians and Belarusians as their operation's primary goal and Poland's "seizure to exist" as the justification of the action. Gross, Jan Tomasz. Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002. 2nd ed. ISBN 0691096031. Zaloga, Steven & Victor Madej. The Polish Campaign 1939. 2nd ed. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1991. ISBN 087052013X. As a result, the Belarusian and Ukrainian Soviet republics' western borders were moved westward and the new Soviet western border was drawn close to the original Curzon line. In the meantime the negotiations with Finland about the Soviet-proposed land swap that would redraw the Soviet-Finnish border further away from Leningrad failed; and in December, 1939 the USSR started a campaign against Finland, known as the Winter War (1939–40). The war took a heavy death toll on the Red Army but forced Finland to sign a Moscow Peace Treaty and cede the Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Karelia. Vehviläinen, Olli. Finland in the Second World War: Between Germany and Russia. New York: Palgrave, 2002. ISBN 0-333-80149-0 Van Dyke, Carl. The Soviet Invasion of Finland 1939-1940. London: Frank Cass, 1997. ISBN 0714643149. In summer 1940 the USSR issued an ultimatum to Romania forcing it to cede the territories of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. At the same time, the Soviet Union also occupied the three formerly independent Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). Dima, Nicholas. Bessarabia and Bukovina: The Soviet-Romanian Territorial Dispute. Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1982. ISBN 0880330031. Tarulis, Albert N. Soviet Policy Toward the Baltic States 1918-1940. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959. Misiunas, Romuald J. & Rein Taagepera. The Baltic States: The Years of Dependence, 1940-90. 2nd ed. London: Hurst & Co, 1993. ISBN 1850651574. The peace with Germany was tense, as both sides were preparing for the military conflict, А. В. Десять мифов Второй мировой. — М.: Эксмо, Яуза, 2004, ISBN 5699076344 Mikhail Meltyukhov, Stalin's Missed Chance, М. И. Мельтюхов Упущенный шанс Сталина: Советский Союз и борьба за Европу 1939-1941 гг. : Документы, факты, суждения. Изд. 2-е, испр. , доп. ISBN 5-7838-1196-3 (second edition) and abruptly ended when the Axis forces led by Germany swept across the Soviet border on June 22, 1941. By the autumn the German army had seized Ukraine, laid a siege of Leningrad, and threatened to capture the capital, Moscow, itself. Gilbert, Martin. The Second World War: A Complete History. 2nd ed. New York: Owl Books, 1991. ISBN 0805017887. Thurston, Robert W. & Bernd Bonwetsch (ed.). The People's War: Responses to World War II in the Soviet Union. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000. ISBN 0252026004. Clark, Alan. Barbarossa: The Russian-German Conflict, 1941-1945. New York: Harper Perennial, 1985. ISBN 0688042686. Despite the fact that in December 1941 the Red Army threw off the German forces from Moscow in a successful counterattack, the Germans retained the strategic initiative for approximately another year and held a deep offensive in the south-eastern direction, reaching the Volga and the Caucasus. However, two major German defeats in Stalingrad and Kursk proved decisive and reversed the course of the entire World War as Germans never regained the strength to sustain their offensive operations and the Soviet Union recaptured the initiative for the rest of the conflict. Beevor, Antony. Stalingrad, The Fateful Siege: 1942-1943. New York: Viking, 1998. ISBN 0670870951. By the end of 1943, the Red Army had broken through the German siege of Leningrad and liberated much of Ukraine, much of Western Russia and moved into Belarus. Glantz, David M. & Jonathan M. House. When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998. ISBN 070060717X. By the end of 1944, the front had moved beyond the 1939 Soviet frontiers into eastern Europe. Soviet forces drove into eastern Germany, capturing Berlin in May 1945. Beevor, Antony. Berlin: The Downfall, 1945. 3rd ed. London: Penguin Books, 2004. ISBN 0141017473. The war with Germany thus ended triumphantly for the Soviet Union. As agreed at the Yalta Conference, three months after the Victory Day in Europe the USSR launched the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, defeating the Japanese troops in neighboring Manchuria, the last Soviet battle of World War II. Glantz, David M. The Soviet 1945 Strategic Offensive in Manchuria: ‘August Storm’. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0714652792. Although the Soviet Union was victorious in World War II, the war resulted in around 26–27 million Soviet deaths (estimates vary) This is far higher than the original number of 7 million given by Stalin, and, indeed, the number has increased under various Soviet and Russian Federation leaders. See Mark Harrison, The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison, Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 291 (ISBN 0521785030), for more information. and had devastated the Soviet economy in the struggle. Some 1,710 towns and 70 thousand settlements were destroyed. As evidenced at the post-war Nuremberg Trials. See Ginsburg, George, The Nuremberg Trial and International Law, Martinus Nijhoff, 1990, p. 160. ISBN 0792307984. The occupied territories suffered from the ravages of German occupation and deportations of slave labor in Germany. Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers Thirteen million Soviet citizens became victims of a repressive policy of Germans and their allies on an occupied territory, where died because of mass murders, famine, absence of elementary medical aid and slave labor. Gerlach, C. «Kalkulierte Morde» Hamburger Edition, Hamburg, 1999 Россия и СССР в войнах ХХ века", М. "Олма- Пресс", 2001 год , . The Nazi Genocide of the Jews carried by German Einsatzgruppen, along the local collaborators resulted in almost complete annihilation of the Jewish population over the entire territory temporary occupied by Germany and its allies., ,, . During occupation, Russia's Leningrad, now Saint Petersburg, region lost around a quarter of its population . Soviet Belarus lost from a quarter to a third of its population. 3.6 million Soviet prisoners of war (of 5.5 million) died in German camps. "Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century", Greenhill Books, London, 1997, G. F. Krivosheev Christian Streit: Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die Sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941-1945, Bonn: Dietz (3. Aufl., 1. Aufl. 1978), ISBN 3801250164 Cold War Collaboration among the major Allies had won the war and was supposed to serve as the basis for postwar reconstruction and security. However, the conflict between Soviet and U.S. national interests, known as the Cold War, came to dominate the international stage in the postwar period. The Cold War emerged out of a conflict between Stalin and U.S. President Harry Truman over the future of Eastern Europe during the Potsdam Conference in the summer of 1945. Russia had suffered three devastating Western onslaughts in the previous 150 years during the Napoleonic Wars, the First World War, and the Second World War, and Stalin's goal was to establish a buffer zone of states between Germany and the Soviet Union. Truman charged that Stalin had betrayed the Yalta agreement. With Eastern Europe under Red Army occupation, Stalin was also biding his time, as his own atomic bomb project was steadily and secretly progressing. Cochran, Thomas B., Robert S. Norris & Oleg Bukharin. Making the Russian Bomb: From Stalin to Yeltsin (PDF). Boulder,. CO:. Westview Press, 1995. ISBN 0813323282. Gaddis, John Lewis. We now know. Rethinking Cold War History. Oxford: Clarendon press, 1997. ISBN 0198780710. In April 1949 the United States sponsored the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense pact in which most Western nations pledged to treat an armed attack against one nation as an assault on all. The Soviet Union established an Eastern counterpart to NATO in 1955, dubbed the Warsaw Pact. Mastny, Vojtech, Malcolm Byrne & Magdalena Klotzbach (eds.). Cardboard Castle?: An Inside History Of The Warsaw Pact, 1955-1991. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2005. ISBN 9637326081. Holloway, David & Jane M. O. Sharp. The Warsaw Pact: Alliance in Transition? Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984. ISBN 0801417759. Holden, Gerard. The Warsaw Pact: Soviet Security and Bloc Politics. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989. ISBN 0631167757. The division of Europe into Western and Soviet blocks later took on a more global character, especially after 1949, when the U.S. nuclear monopoly ended with the testing of a Soviet bomb and the Communist takeover in China. The foremost objectives of Soviet foreign policy were the maintenance and enhancement of national security and the maintenance of hegemony over Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union maintained its dominance over the Warsaw Pact through crushing the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, Litvan, Gyorgy, Janos M. Bak & Lyman Howard Legters (eds.). The Hungarian Revolution of 1956: Reform, Revolt and Repression, 1953-1963. London – New York: Longman, 1996. ISBN 0582215048. suppressing the Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia in 1968, and supporting the suppression of the Solidarity movement in Poland in the early 1980s. The Soviet Union opposed the United States in a number of proxy conflicts all over the world, including Korean War and Vietnam War. As the Soviet Union continued to maintain tight control over its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, the Cold War gave way to Détente and a more complicated pattern of international relations in the 1970s in which the world was no longer clearly split into two clearly opposed blocs. Less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence, and the two superpowers were partially able to recognize their common interest in trying to check the further spread and proliferation of nuclear weapons in treaties such as SALT I, SALT II, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. U.S.-Soviet relations deteriorated following the beginning of the nine-year Soviet War in Afghanistan in 1979 and the 1980 election of Ronald Reagan, a staunch anti-communist, but improved as the Soviet bloc started to unravel in the late 1980s. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia lost the superpower status that it had won in the Second World War. The Khrushchev and Brezhnev years In the power struggle that erupted after Stalin's death in 1953, his closest followers lost out. Nikita Khrushchev solidified his position in a speech before the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party in 1956 detailing Stalin's atrocities. In 1964 Khrushchev was impeached by the Communist Party's Central Committee, charging him with a host of errors that included Soviet setbacks such as the Cuban Missile Crisis. After a brief period of collective leadership, a veteran bureaucrat, Leonid Brezhnev, took Khrushchev's place. Brezhnev followed Stalin's emphasis on heavy industry, and also attempted to ease relationships with the United States. In the 1960s the USSR became a leading producer and exporter of petroleum and natural gas. Khruschev and Brezhnev years were time when Soviet science and industry peaked. World's first nuclear power plant was established in 1954 in Obninsk. Baikal Amur Mainline was built. Soviet space program, founded by Sergey Korolev, was especially successful. On October 4, 1957 Soviet Union launched the first space satellite Sputnik. On April 12, 1961 Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel into space in the Soviet spaceship Vostok 1. Other achievements of Russian space program include: the first photo of the far side of the Moon; exploration of Venus; the first spacewalk by Alexey Leonov; first female spaceflight by Valentina Tereshkova. More recently, the Soviet Union produced the world's first space station, Salyut which in 1986 was replaced by Mir, the first consistently inhabited long-term space station, that served from 1986 to 2001. Breakup of the Union Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. After the rapid succession of former KGB Chief Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko, transitional figures with deep roots in Brezhnevite tradition, Mikhail Gorbachev announced perestroika in an attempt to modernize Soviet communism, and made significant changes in the party leadership. However, Gorbachev's social reforms led to unintended consequences. Because of his policy of glasnost, which facilitated public access to information after decades of government repression, social problems received wider public attention, undermining the Communist Party's authority. In the revolutions of 1989 the USSR lost its satellites in Eastern Europe. Glasnost allowed ethnic and nationalist disaffection to reach the surface. Many constituent republics, especially the Baltic republics, Georgian SSR and Moldavian SSR, sought greater autonomy, which Moscow was unwilling to provide. Gorbachev's attempts at economic reform were not sufficient, and the Soviet government left intact most of the fundamental elements of communist economy. Suffering from low pricing of petroleum and natural gas, ongoing war in Afghanistan, outdated industry and pervasive corruption, the Soviet planned economy proved to be ineffective, and by 1990 the Soviet government had lost control over economic conditions. Due to price control, there were shortages of almost all products, reaching their peak in the end of 1991, when people had to stand in long lines and to be lucky enough to buy even the essentials. Control over the constituent republics was also relaxed, and they began to assert their national sovereignty over Moscow. The tension between Soviet Union and Russian SFSR authorities came to be personified in the bitter power struggle between Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin. Squeezed out of Union politics by Gorbachev in 1987, Yeltsin, an old-style party boss with no dissident background or contacts, needed an alternative platform to challenge Gorbachev. He established it by representing himself as a committed democrat. In a remarkable reversal of fortunes, he gained election as chairman of the Russian republic's new Supreme Soviet in May 1990. The following month, he secured legislation giving Russian laws priority over Soviet laws and withholding two-thirds of the budget. In the first Russian presidential election in 1991 Yeltsin became president of the Russian SFSR. At last Gorbachev attempted to restructure the Soviet Union into a less centralized state. However, on August 191991, a coup against Gorbachev, conspired by senior Soviet officials, was attempted. The coup faced wide popular opposition and collapsed in three days, but disintegration of the Union became imminent. The Russian government took over most of the Soviet Union government institutions on its territory. Because of the dominant position of Russians in the Soviet Union, most gave little thought to any distinction between Russia and the Soviet Union before the late 1980s. In the Soviet Union, only Russian SFSR lacked even the paltry instruments of statehood that the other republics possessed, such as its own republic-level Communist Party branch, trade union councils, Academy of Sciences, and the like. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was banned in Russia in 1991-1992, although no lustration has ever taken place, and many of its members became top Russian officials. However, as the Soviet government was still opposed to market reforms, the economic situation continued to deteriorate. By December 1991, the shortages had resulted in the introduction of food rationing in Moscow and Saint Petersburg for the first time since World War II. Russia received humanitarian food aid from abroad. After the Belavezha Accords, the Congress of Soviets of RSFSR withdrew Russia from the Soviet Union on December 12. The Soviet Union officially ended on December 251991, and the Russian Federation (formerly the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ) took power on December 26. The Russian government lifted price control on January 1992. Prices raised dramatically, but shortages disappeared. Russian Federation Although Yeltsin came to power on a wave of optimism, he never recovered his popularity after endorsing Yegor Gaidar's "shock therapy" of ending Soviet-era price controls, drastic cuts in state spending, and an open foreign trade regime in early 1992 (see Russian economic reform in the 1990s). The reforms immediately devastated the living standards of much of the population. In the 1990s Russia suffered an economic downturn that was, in some ways, more severe than the United States or Germany had undergone six decades earlier in the Great Depression. Peter Nolan, China's Rise, Russia's Fall. Macmillan Press, 1995. pp. 17–18. Hyperinflation hit the ruble, due to monetary overhang from the days of the planned economy. Meanwhile, the profusion of small parties and their aversion to coherent alliances left the legislature chaotic. During 1993, Yeltsin's rift with the parliamentary leadership led to the September–October 1993 constitutional crisis. The crisis climaxed on October 3, when Yeltsin chose a radical solution to settle his dispute with parliament: he called up tanks to shell the Russian White House, blasting out his opponents. As Yeltsin was taking the unconstitutional step of dissolving the legislature, Russia came close to a serious civil conflict. Yeltsin was then free to impose the current Russian constitution with strong presidential powers, which was approved by referendum in December 1993. The cohesion of the Russian Federation was also threatened when the republic of Chechnya attempted to break away, leading to two bloody conflicts. Economic reforms also consolidated a semi-criminal oligarchy with roots in the old Soviet system. Advised by Western governments, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund, Russia embarked on the largest and fastest privatization that the world had ever seen in order to reform the fully nationalized Soviet economy. By mid-decade, retail, trade, services, and small industry was in private hands. Most big enterprises were acquired by their old managers, engendering a new rich (Russian tycoons) in league with criminal mafias or Western investors. See Fairbanks, Jr., Charles H. 1999. "The Feudalization of the State". Journal of Democracy 10(2):47–53. By the mid-1990s Russia had a system of multiparty electoral politics. But it was harder to establish a representative government because of two structural problems—the struggle between president and parliament and the anarchic party system. Meanwhile, the central government had lost control of the localities, bureaucracy, and economic fiefdoms; tax revenues had collapsed. Still in deep depression by the mid-1990s, Russia's economy was hit further by the financial crash of 1998. After the 1998 financial crisis, Yeltsin was at the end of his political career. Just hours before the first day of 2000, Yeltsin made a surprise announcement of his resignation, leaving the government in the hands of the little-known Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, a former KGB official and head of the KGB's post-Soviet successor agency FSB. CNN Apologetic Yeltsin resigns; Putin becomes acting president. Written by Jim Morris. Published December 31, 1999. In 2000, the new acting president defeated his opponents in the presidential election on March 26, and won a landslide 4 years later. International observers were alarmed by late 2004 moves to further tighten the presidency's control over parliament, civil society, and regional officeholders. In 2008 Dmitri Medvedev, a former Gazprom chairman and Putin's head of staff, was elected new President of Russia. Nevertheless, reversion to a socialist command economy seemed almost impossible, meeting widespread relief in the West. Russia ended 2006 with its eighth straight year of growth, averaging 6.7% annually since the financial crisis of 1998. Although high oil prices and a relatively cheap ruble initially drove this growth, since 2003 consumer demand and, more recently, investment have played a significant role. CIA World Fact Book - Russia Russia is well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry. Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last? businessweek.com See also Timeline of Russian history Timeline of the Tataro-Mongol Yoke in Russia History of Siberia Russian colonization of the Americas Caucasian War History of the administrative division of Russia Military history of the Soviet Union World War II casualties References Sergey Solovyov. History of Russia from the Earliest Times, ISBN 5-17-002142-9 Nikolay Karamzin. History of the Russian State, ISBN 5-02-009550-8 Full Collection of Russian Annals, Moscow,2001, ISBN 5-94457-011-3. Further reading Overall histories The Cambridge History of Russia. 3 volumes. Cambridge, Eng: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Freeze, Gregory L. (ed.). Russia: A History. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0198605110. McKenzie, David & Michael W. Curran. A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0534586988. Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. and Mark D. Steinberg. A History of Russia. 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, 800 pages. ISBN 0195153944 Pre-revolutionary Russia Christian, David. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Vol. 1: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1998. ISBN 0631208143. Russia : a country study / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress; edited by Glenn E. Curtis. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress,1998. DK510.23 .R883 1998 Hobsbawm, Eric. The Age of Revolution, 1789–1848 Vintage, 1996, 368 pages. ISBN 0679772537 Manning, Roberta. The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government. Princeton University Press, 1982. Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia. Vol. 1: To 1917. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2002. Skocpol, Theda. States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge U Press, 1988, 448 pages ISBN 0521294991 Soviet era Cohen, Stephen F. Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Fitzpatrick, Sheila. The Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982, 208 pages. ISBN 0192802046 Gregory, Paul R. and Robert C. Stuart, Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure, Addison-Wesley, Seventh Edition, 2001/ Lewin, Moshe. Russian Peasants and Soviet Power. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968. McCauley, Martin. The Soviet Union 1917–1991. 2d ed. London: Longman, 1993, 440 pages. ISBN 0582013232 Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia. Vol. 2: Since 1855. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2005. Nove, Alec. An Economic History of the USSR, 1917-1991. 3rd ed. London: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0140157743. Remington, Thomas. Building Socialism in Bolshevik Russia. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984. Service, Robert. A History of Twentieth-Century Russia. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999. ISBN 0674403487. Regelson, Lev. Tragedy of Russian Church. 1917-1953. www.apocalyptism.ru/TRCcont.htm Post-Soviet era Cohen, Stephen. Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post-Communist Russia. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000, 320 pages. ISBN 0393322262 Paul R. Gregory and Robert C. Stuart, Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure, Addison-Wesley, Seventh Edition, 2001. Medvedev, Roy. Post-Soviet Russia A Journey Through the Yeltsin Era, Columbia University Press, 2002, 394 pages. ISBN 0231106076 Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia. Vol. 2: Since 1855. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2005. Chapter 22. | History_of_Russia |@lemmatized millennium:2 russia:154 monument:2 erected:1 novgorod:14 history:50 begin:12 east:13 slav:9 first:32 slavic:12 state:56 kievan:13 ru:16 adopt:3 christianity:3 byzantine:8 empire:22 synthesis:2 culture:12 define:2 russian:129 next:3 mongol:29 period:12 excerpt:6 glenn:6 e:12 curtis:6 ed:26 country:14 study:9 department:5 army:26 isbn:83 ultimately:4 disintegrate:2 finally:4 succumb:1 invader:3 time:26 number:9 regional:2 magnate:1 particular:2 pskov:3 fight:6 inherit:1 cultural:6 political:16 legacy:1 century:50 moscow:39 gradually:5 come:8 dominate:7 former:9 center:8 grand:9 duchy:4 become:26 huge:1 stretch:1 poland:15 eastward:2 pacific:3 ocean:2 expansion:5 western:29 direction:3 sharpen:1 awareness:1 separation:1 much:7 rest:2 europe:33 shatter:1 isolation:2 initial:2 stage:4 occur:4 successive:2 regime:10 respond:1 pressure:3 combination:3 halfhearted:1 reform:27 repression:5 serfdom:10 abolish:7 abolition:6 achieve:3 term:5 unfavorable:2 peasant:35 serve:5 increase:12 revolutionary:12 beginning:7 world:32 war:78 stolypin:1 constitution:4 duma:6 introduce:5 notable:1 change:10 economy:15 politics:6 see:26 jacob:1 walkin:1 rise:5 democracy:5 pre:3 social:16 institution:5 last:8 three:8 czar:1 praeger:2 tsar:25 still:5 willing:2 relinquish:1 autocratic:5 rule:15 share:2 power:32 ciao:1 atlas:1 revolution:23 trigger:3 economic:25 breakdown:1 weariness:1 discontent:2 system:18 government:43 bring:8 coalition:2 liberal:5 moderate:5 socialist:12 failed:1 policy:12 lead:22 seizure:2 communist:17 bolshevik:11 october:8 essentially:2 soviet:140 union:54 effectively:1 ideologically:2 base:7 roughly:2 conterminous:1 treaty:12 brest:5 litovsk:4 approach:1 building:2 socialism:4 however:12 vary:2 different:1 mixed:1 diverse:1 society:4 command:2 stalin:21 era:7 stagnation:1 year:25 one:11 party:22 call:9 march:7 civil:15 late:10 weakness:2 structure:7 acute:1 leader:6 embark:2 major:19 collapse:7 donald:2 filzer:1 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7,032 | Foreign_relations_of_Kuwait | Since its independence in 1961, Kuwait maintained strong international relations with most countries, especially nations within the Arab world. Its vast oil reserves gives it a prominent voice in global economic forums and organizations like the OPEC. Overview Kuwait's troubled relationship with neighboring Iraq formed the core of its foreign policy from late 1980s onwards. Its first major foreign policy problem arose when Iraq claimed Kuwaiti territory. Iraq threatened invasion, but was dissuaded by the United Kingdom's ready response to the Amir's request for assistance. Kuwait presented its case before the United Nations and successfully preserved its sovereignty. UK forces were later withdrawn and replaced by troops from Arab League nations, which were withdrawn in 1963 at Kuwait's request. On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded and occupied Kuwait. Largely through the efforts of the late King Fahd bin Abdul Aziz of Saudi Arabia who was instrumental in obtaining the help of the U.S., a multinational coalition was assembled, and, under UN auspices, initiated military action against Iraq to liberate Kuwait. Arab states, especially the other five members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates), Egypt, and Syria, supported Kuwait by sending troops to fight with the coalition. Many European and East Asian states sent troops, equipment, and/or financial support. After its liberation, Kuwait largely directed its diplomatic and cooperative efforts toward states that had participated in the multinational coalition. Notably, many of these states were given key roles in the reconstruction of Kuwait. Conversely, Kuwait's relations with nations that had supported Iraq, among them Jordan, Sudan, Yemen, and Cuba, have proved to be either strained or nonexistent. Since the conclusion of the Gulf War, Kuwait has made efforts to secure allies throughout the world, particularly United Nations Security Council members. In addition to the United States, defense arrangements have been concluded with the United Kingdom, Russia, and France. Close ties to other key Arab members of the Gulf War coalition — Egypt and Syria — also have been sustained. Kuwait's foreign policy has been dominated for some time by its economic dependence on oil and natural gas. As a developing nation, its various economies are insufficient to independently support it. As a result, Kuwait has directed considerable attention toward oil or natural gas related issues. With the outbreak of the War on Iraq, Kuwait has taken a strongly pro-U.S. stance, having been the nation from which the war was actually launched. It supported the Coalition Provisional Authority, with particular stress upon strict border controls and adequate U.S. troop presence. Kuwait is a member of the UN and some of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank (IBRD), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO), General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); African Development Bank (AFDB), Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (AFESD), Arab League, Arab Monetary Fund (AMF), Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), Group of 77 (G-77), Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), INMARSAT, International Development Association (IDA), International Finance Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Labour Organization (ILO), International Marine Organization, Interpol, IOC, Islamic Development Bank (IDB), League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (LORCS), Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). International disputes In November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1993), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands; ownership of Qaruh and Umm al Maradim islands disputed by Saudi Arabia. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia continue negotiating a joint maritime boundary with Iran; no maritime boundary exists with Iraq in the Persian Gulf. Middle East Relations with Iraq Iraq's Debt Kuwaiti lawmaker Al-Ameeri opposes forgiving Iraq's debt. The debt, estimated at $16 billion, represents loans Kuwait made to Baghdad in the Saddam Hussein era, mostly during the 1980-1988 Iraq-Iran war. Al-Ameeri argues that, "The debt owed by Iraq to Kuwait is the right of the Kuwaiti people and no one has the right to negotiate over them." Al-Ameeri believes that the Kuwaiti voices calling to forgive the debt and compensation "should not be heeded and they do not represent the Kuwaiti people." He further opposes the debt forgiveness because Iraq has considerable oil wealth and because the, "Kuwaiti people shed their blood" during the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. "The issue is a red line for Kuwait and no Kuwaiti will ever concede these loans," Al-Ameeri has been quoted as saying. On November 8, 2008, Kuwaiti lawmaker Al-Mulla proposed that Kuwait allow Iraq to back pay its debt to Kuwait in natural gas. The Arab Times quoted Al- Mulla as saying, “In this manner, Kuwait can take the loans back from Iraq and put an end to the shortage of fuel in its power stations." Baghdad Embassy On April 25, 2007, Kuwaiti lawmaker Saleh Ashour called in a statement for reopening Kuwait's embassy in Baghdad and for strongly supporting the government in Baghdad. But Al-Ghanim said he believes that it was too early to reopen the Kuwaiti embassy in Baghdad and that this issue should wait until security situations improve. Relations with Iran On July 13, 2008, Kuwaiti lawmaker Jassem Al-Kharafi publicly accused the West of "provoking" Iran on the nuclear issue. In his interview with state-owned Kuwait TV, Al-Kharafi said, "What is happening is that there are provocative Western statements, and Iran responds in the same way... I believe that a matter this sensitive needs dialogue not escalation, and it shouldn't be dealt with as if Iran were one of America's states." Relations with Israel On December 28, 2008, Kuwaiti lawmakers Mikhled Al-Azmi, Musallam Al-Barrak, Marzouq Al-Ghanim, Jaaman Al-Harbash, Ahmad Al-Mulaifi, Mohammad Hayef Al-Mutairi, Ahmad Al-Saadoun, Nasser Al-Sane, and Waleed Al-Tabtabaie protested in front of the National Assembly building against the attacks by Israel on Gaza. Protesters burned Israeli flags, waved banners reading, "No to hunger, no to submission" and chanted "Allahu Akbar." Israel launched air strikes against Hamas in the Gaza Strip on December 26 after Hamas launched rockets into the Israeli town of Sderot following the expiration of a six-month ceasefire on December 18. On January 3, 2009, Nasser Al-Sane, Waleed Al-Tabtabaie, Adnan Abdulsamad, and other MPs protested in front of the National Assembly against the Israeli attacks on Gaza. After Friday prayers on January 8, 2009, Jamaan Al-Harbash and several other MPs again protested in front of the National Assembly urging Arab leaders to take a stronger stand against the Israeli attacks and open Rafah Crossing to end an embargo imposed by Israel on the residents of Gaza. Relations with Saudi Arabia Although Kuwait and Saudi Arabia are strong allies and cooperate within OPEC and the GCC, Riyadh disputes Kuwait's ownership of the Qaruh and Umm al Maradim islands. [www.washingtoninstitute.org/pdf.php?template=C05&CID=2927] Relations with Yemen As a member of the UN Security Council in 1990 and 1991, Yemen abstained on a number of resolutions concerning the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and voted against the "use of force resolution." Kuwait responded by canceling aid programs, cutting diplomatic contact, and expelling thousands of Yemeni workers. Europe Relations with Denmark Denmark Boycott On November 6, 2006, the Kuwaiti parliament voted 22-15 to approve severing diplomatic ties with Denmark over the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy and spending about US$50 (€39.20) million to defend the prophet's image in the West. Both votes were nonbinding, meaning the Cabinet does not have to abide by them. Kuwaiti lawmaker Abdulsamad voted in favor of cutting diplomatic ties, saying, ""We have to cut diplomatic and commercial ties with Denmark...We don't have to eat Danish cheese." In February 2008, MP Abdullah Al-Roumi called for an end to Kuwait's Demark boycott and was quoted as saying, "No Muslim can accept this insult against the Prophet... It is a form of terrorism." Al-Roumi on boycotting Denmark On November 6, 2006, the parliament voted 22-15 to approve severing diplomatic ties with Denmark over the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy and spending about US$50 (€39.20) million to defend the prophet's image in the West. Both votes were nonbinding, meaning the Cabinet does not have to abide by them. Al-Rashid voted against cutting diplomatic ties, arguing that Muslims have to be positive and remember that it were some individuals, not governments, who insulted the Prophet Muhammad. Al-Rashid was quoted as saying, "We here in Kuwait curse Christians in many of our mosques, should those (Christian) countries boycott Kuwait?" Relations with Greece Greece and Kuwait initiated official relations in a 1964. Greece was one of the 34 member countries in the coalition which assisted in the liberation of Kuwait from Iraq in 1991 during the Gulf War. Greece also participated in the UNICOM mission to patrol the demilitarized zone along the Kuwait-Iraq border. Asia Relations with China China and Kuwait initiated diplomatic relations in 1971. In 2007, Kuwait exported $2.3 billion worth of goods to China ($2.1 billion of which was oil) and Kuwait imported $1.3 billion of goods from China. In 2007, Kuwait supplied China with 95,000 barrels of oil per day, accounting for 2.6% of China’s total crude oil imports. Saudi Arabia was China’s top supplier with its shipments jumping 69.8 percent to 3.84 million tons (939,000 bpd), followed by Angola with 2.06 million tons (503,000 bpd), down 27.1 percent. Iran became third, with imports from the country shrinking 35.3 percent to 1.18 million tons (289,000 bpd). China is the world’s second-biggest oil consumer after the US. Abdullatif Al-Houti, Managing Director of International Marketing at state-run Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC), told KUNA in October that Kuwait is on course for its China-bound crude oil export target of 500,000 bpd by 2015, but success will heavily depend on the Sino-Kuwaiti refinery project. The two countries have been in talks for the planned 300,000 bpd refinery in China’s southern Guangdong Province. The complex is expected to be on-stream by 2012, but the joint venture still awaits approval from the National Development and Reform Commission, China’s top economic planning agency. Relations with India Kuwait is India's second largest supplier of crude oil and non-oil bilateral trade was over one billion US dollars in 2008. In light of these close trade relations, the two countries have bound themselves to both a Mutual Promotion and Reciprocal Protection of Investments (BIPA) agreement and a Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA). In June 2006, Emir Al-Sabah visited India, and in April 2007 the two countries inked a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Labor, Employment and Manpower Development. References See also Kuwait Diplomatic missions of Kuwait List of diplomatic missions in Kuwait Iran-Arab Relations (Kuwait) Pakistan-Arab Relations (Kuwait) National Offset Company - Kuwait | Foreign_relations_of_Kuwait |@lemmatized since:2 independence:1 kuwait:50 maintain:1 strong:3 international:10 relation:16 country:9 especially:2 nation:7 within:2 arab:14 world:5 vast:1 oil:11 reserve:1 give:2 prominent:1 voice:2 global:1 economic:6 forum:1 organization:6 like:1 opec:3 overview:1 trouble:1 relationship:1 neighbor:1 iraq:19 form:2 core:1 foreign:3 policy:3 late:2 onwards:1 first:1 major:1 problem:1 arise:1 claim:2 kuwaiti:15 territory:1 threaten:1 invasion:3 dissuade:1 united:6 kingdom:2 ready:1 response:1 amir:1 request:2 assistance:1 present:1 case:1 successfully:1 preserve:1 sovereignty:1 uk:1 force:2 later:1 withdraw:2 replace:1 troop:4 league:3 august:1 invade:1 occupy:1 largely:2 effort:3 king:1 fahd:1 bin:1 abdul:1 aziz:1 saudi:7 arabia:7 instrumental:1 obtain:1 help:1 u:7 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7,033 | Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty | The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty or ABMT) was a treaty between the United States of America and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against missile-delivered nuclear weapons. Signed in 1972, it was in force for the next thirty years until the US unilaterally withdrew from it in 2002. Background Throughout the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the United States had been developing a series of missile systems with the ability to shoot down incoming ICBM warheads. During this period the US maintained a lead in the number and sophistication of their delivery systems, and considered the defense of the US as a part of reducing the overall damage inflicted in a full nuclear exchange. As part of this defense, Canada and the US established the North American Air Defense Command (now called North American Aerospace Defense Command NORAD). By the early 1960s, US research on the Nike Zeus missile system (see Project Nike) had developed to the point where small improvements would allow it to be used as the basis of a "real" ABM system. Work started on a short-range, high-speed counterpart known as the Sprint to provide defense for the ABM sites themselves. By the mid-1960s, both systems showed enough promise to start development of base selection for a limited ABM system dubbed Sentinel. However, due to political debate, Sentinel never expanded beyond defense of missile-bases. An intense debate broke out in public over the merits of such a system. A number of serious concerns about the technical abilities of the system came to light, many of which reached popular magazines such as Scientific American. This was based on lack of intelligence information and reflected the American nuclear warfare theory and military doctrines. The Soviet doctrine called for development of their own ABM system and return to strategic parity with the US. This was achieved with the operational deployment of the A-35 ABM system, which still remains the only operational ABM system to this day. As this debate continued, a new development in ICBM technology essentially rendered the points moot. This was the deployment of the Multiple Independently targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV) system, allowing a single ICBM missile to deliver several warheads at a time. With this system the USSR could simply overwhelm the ABM defense system with numbers, as the same number of missiles could carry ten times more warheads. Upgrading it to counter the additional warheads would cost more than the handful of missiles needed to overwhelm the new system, as the defenders required one rocket per warhead, whereas the attackers could place 10 warheads on a missile with more affordable cost than development of ABM. To further protect against ABM systems, the Soviet MIRV missiles were equipped with electronic countermeasures and heavy decoys, with heavy missiles like R-36 carrying as many as 40 of them. These decoys would appear as warheads to ABM, effectively requiring engagement of 50 times more targets than before and rendering defense ineffective. At about the same time, the USSR reached strategic parity with the US in terms of ICBM forces. A nuclear war would no longer be a favorable exchange for the US, but both countries would be devastated. This led in the West to the concept of mutually assured destruction, MAD, in which any changes to the strategic balance had to be carefully weighed. To the US, ABMs now seemed far too risky – it was better to have no defense than one that might trigger a war. In the East however, the concept of MAD was almost entirely unknown to the public, studied only by those in the Soviet military and Government who analyzed Western military behavior. Soviet military theory fully involved the mass use of nuclear devices, in combination with massive conventional forces. ABM Treaty As relations between the US and USSR warmed in the later years of the 1960s, the US first proposed an ABM treaty in 1967. This proposal was rejected. Following the proposal of the Sentinel and Safeguard decisions on American ABM systems, the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I talks) began in November 1969. By 1972 an agreement had been reached to limiting strategic offensive weapons and strategic defensive systems. Each country was allowed two sites at which it could base a defensive system, one for the capital and one for ICBM silos (Art. III). The treaty was signed in Moscow on May 26, 1972 by the President of the United States, Richard Nixon and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev; and ratified by the US Senate on August 3, 1972. The 1974 Protocol reduced the number of sites to one per party, largely because neither country had developed a second site. The sites were Moscow for the USSR and Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota, since its Safeguard facility was already under construction, for the US. It was seen by many in the West as a key piece in nuclear arms control, being an implicit recognition of the need to protect the nuclear balance by ensuring neither side could hope to reduce the effects of retaliation to acceptable levels. In the East, however, it was seen as a way to avoid having to maintain an anti-missile technology race at the same time as maintaining a missile race. For many years the ABM Treaty was, in the West, considered one of the landmarks in arms limitations. It was perceived as requiring two enemies to agree not to deploy a potentially useful weapon, deliberately to maintain the balance of power and as such, was also taken as confirmation of the Soviet adherence to the MAD doctrine. After the SDI announcement The treaty was undisturbed until Ronald Reagan announced his Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) on March 23, 1983. Reagan stated that SDI was "consistent with... the ABM Treaty" and he viewed it as a defensive system that would help reduce the possibility of mutual assured destruction (MAD) becoming reality; he even suggested that the Soviets would be given access to the SDI technology. The project was a blow to Yuri Andropov's so-called "peace offensive". Andropov said that "It is time they [Washington] stopped... search[ing] for the best ways of unleashing nuclear war... Engaging in this is not just irresponsible. It is insane". Pravda, March 27, 1983 SDI research went ahead, although it did not achieve the hoped result. SDI research was cut back following the end of Reagan's presidency, and in 1995 it was reiterated in a presidential joint statement that "missile defense systems may be deployed... [that] will not pose a realistic threat to the strategic nuclear force of the other side and will not be tested to... [create] that capability." This was reaffirmed in 1997. The competitive pressure of SDI added considerable additional strains to the Soviet economy. The Soviet economy was essentially still a war economy after World War II, with increase of civilian production disproportionally small compared to growth of defense industry. It was already slowly becoming clear that the Soviet economy could not continue as it was, with military spending absorbing 40% of GDP; the additional demands from the military-industrial complex to compete with SDI exacerbated this problem and was part of the longer term situation which led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. US withdrawal After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the status of the treaty became unclear, debated by members of Congress and professors of law, Succession of the ABM Treaty,State Succession and the Legal Status of the ABM Treaty, and Miron-Feith Memorandum. In 1997, a memorandum of understanding ABM Treaty: Memorandum of Understanding between the US and four of the former USSR states was signed and subject to ratification by each signatory, however it was not presented to the US Senate for advice and consent by Bill Clinton. On December 13, 2001, George W. Bush gave Russia notice of the United States' withdrawal from the treaty, in accordance with the clause that requires six months notice before terminating the pact. This was the first time in recent history the United States has withdrawn from a major international arms treaty. This led to the eventual creation of the Missile Defense Agency. "Announcement of Withdrawal from the ABM Treaty", White House press release Supporters of the withdrawal argued that it was a necessity in order to test and build a limited National Missile Defense to protect the United States from nuclear blackmail by a rogue state. The withdrawal had many critics as well as supporters. John Rhinelander, a negotiator of the ABM treaty, predicted that the withdrawal would be a "fatal blow" to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and would lead to a "world without effective legal constraints on nuclear proliferation." The construction of a missile defense system was also feared to enable the US to attack with a nuclear first strike. Reaction to the withdrawal by both the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China was much milder than many had predicted, following months of discussion with both Russia and China aimed at convincing both that development of a National Missile Defense was not directed at them. In the case of Russia, the United States stated that it intended to discuss a bilateral reduction in the numbers of nuclear warheads, which would allow Russia to reduce its spending on missiles without decrease of comparative strength. Discussions led to the signing of the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty in Moscow on May 24, 2002. This treaty mandated the deepest ever cuts in deployed strategic nuclear warheads, without actually mandating cuts to total stockpiled warheads. 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7,034 | Geography_of_Djibouti | Map of Djibouti Djibouti is a country in Eastern Africa, bordering the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, between Eritrea and Somalia. Its coordinates are . Location Djibouti shares of border with Eritrea, with Ethiopia and with Somalia (total ). It also has of coastline. It has a strategic location near the world's busiest shipping lanes and close to Arabian oilfields. Djibouti is also terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia. Climate Its climate is mostly warm, dry desert. Mountains in the center of the country separate a coastal plain and a plateau. The lowest point is Lac Assal (−155 m or −509 ft) and the highest is Moussa Ali (). Natural resources include geothermal energy. There is no arable land, irrigation, permanent crops, and negligible forest cover. (What little forest, is in the Goda Mountains, especially in the Day Forest National Park.) 9% of the country is permanent pastureland (1993 est). Environment Natural hazards include earthquakes, droughts, and occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean, which bring heavy rains and flash floods. Inadequate supplies of potable water and desertification are current issues. It is a party to international agreements on Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution. Area total: land: water: Maritime claims contiguous zone: exclusive economic zone: territorial sea: Topography of Djibouti. | Geography_of_Djibouti |@lemmatized map:1 djibouti:5 country:3 eastern:1 africa:1 border:2 gulf:1 aden:1 red:1 sea:3 eritrea:2 somalia:2 coordinate:1 location:2 share:1 ethiopia:2 total:2 also:2 coastline:1 strategic:1 near:1 world:1 busy:1 shipping:1 lane:1 close:1 arabian:1 oilfield:1 terminus:1 rail:1 traffic:1 climate:3 mostly:1 warm:1 dry:1 desert:1 mountain:1 center:1 separate:1 coastal:1 plain:1 plateau:1 low:1 point:1 lac:1 assal:1 ft:1 high:1 moussa:1 ali:1 natural:2 resource:1 include:2 geothermal:1 energy:1 arable:1 land:2 irrigation:1 permanent:2 crop:1 negligible:1 forest:3 cover:1 little:1 goda:1 mountains:1 especially:1 day:1 national:1 park:1 pastureland:1 est:1 environment:1 hazard:1 earthquake:1 drought:1 occasional:1 cyclonic:1 disturbance:1 indian:1 ocean:1 bring:1 heavy:1 rain:1 flash:1 flood:1 inadequate:1 supply:1 potable:1 water:2 desertification:2 current:1 issue:1 party:1 international:1 agreement:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 endanger:1 specie:1 law:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 ship:1 pollution:1 area:1 maritime:1 claim:1 contiguous:1 zone:2 exclusive:1 economic:1 territorial:1 topography:1 |@bigram gulf_aden:1 eritrea_somalia:1 eritrea_ethiopia:1 ethiopia_somalia:1 shipping_lane:1 coastal_plain:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 supply_potable:1 potable_water:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 ozone_layer:1 contiguous_zone:1 |
7,035 | Jule_Styne | Jule Styne (December 31, 1905 – September 20, 1994) was a British-born American songwriter especially famous for a series of Broadway musicals, which included several very well known and frequently revived shows. Biography Early life Styne was born in London, England as Julius Kerwin Stein of Jewish immigrants from Ukraine. At the age of eight he moved with his family to Chicago, where at an early age he began taking piano lessons. He proved to be a prodigy and performed with the Chicago, St. Louis, and Detroit Symphonies before he was ten years old. Career Styne attended Chicago Musical College, but before then he had already attracted attention of another teenager, Mike Todd, later a successful film producer, who commissioned him to write a song for a musical act that he was creating. It would be the first of over 1,500 published songs Styne would compose in his career. Styne established his own dance band, which brought him to the notice of Hollywood, where he was championed by Frank Sinatra and where he began a collaboration with lyricist Sammy Cahn, with whom he wrote many songs for the movies, including "It's Been a Long, Long Time," "Five Minutes More," and the Oscar-winning "Three Coins in the Fountain." He collaborated on the score for the 1955 musical film My Sister Eileen with Leo Robin. In 1947 Styne wrote his first score for a Broadway musical, High Button Shoes with Cahn, and over the next several decades wrote the scores for many Broadway shows, most notably Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, Peter Pan, Bells Are Ringing, Gypsy, Do Re Mi, Funny Girl, Sugar (with a story based on the movie Some Like It Hot, but all new music), and the Tony-winning Hallelujah, Baby!. His collaborators included Betty Comden and Adolph Green, Stephen Sondheim, and Bob Merrill, and among the songs in those shows composed by Styne are "I Still Get Jealous," "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend," "Just In Time," "The Party's Over," "Make Someone Happy," "Everything's Coming Up Roses," "Let Me Entertain You," and "People." Styne wrote original music for the short-lived, themed amusement park Freedomland U.S.A. which opened on June 19, 1960. Styne was elected to the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1972 and the Theatre Hall of Fame in 1981, and he was a recipient of a Drama Desk Special Award and the Kennedy Center Honors in 1990. Samples Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Saturday Night (Is the Loneliest Night of the Week) sung by Frank Sinatra Shows Ice Capades of 1943 (1942) - Styne contributed one song to this ice show Glad to See You! (1944) - closed in Philadelphia PA during tryout High Button Shoes (1947) Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1949) Michael Todd's Peep Show (1950) - Styne contributed 2 numbers Two on the Aisle (1951) Hazel Flagg (1953) Peter Pan (1954) Bells Are Ringing (1956) Say, Darling (1958) Gypsy (1959) Do Re Mi (1960) Subways Are For Sleeping (1961) Mr. Magoo's Christmas Carol (1962) Arturo Ui (1963) - Styne contributed incidental music to this Bertolt Brecht play Funny Girl (1964) Wonderworld (1964) - lyrics by Styne's son, Stanley Fade Out - Fade In (1964) Something More! (1964) -directed by Styne The Dangerous Christmas of Red Riding Hood (1965) Hallelujah, Baby! (1967) Darling of the Day (1968) Look to the Lilies (1970) The Night the Animals Talked (1970) Prettybelle (1971) - closed in Boston Sugar (1972) Lorelei (1974) - essentially a sequel/revival of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes Hellzapoppin'! (1976) - closed in Baltimore during pre-Broadway tryout Bar Mitzvah Boy (1978) One Night Stand (1980) - closed during preview period Pieces of Eight (1985) The Red Shoes (1993) Footnotes See also Pico and Sepulveda External links Kennedy Center biography Internet Broadway Database listing PBS biography New York Times obituary, September 21, 1994 JuleStyne.com - Official Jule Styne website | Jule_Styne |@lemmatized jule:2 styne:15 december:1 september:2 british:1 born:1 american:1 songwriter:2 especially:1 famous:1 series:1 broadway:5 musical:5 include:3 several:2 well:1 know:1 frequently:1 revive:1 show:6 biography:3 early:2 life:1 bear:1 london:1 england:1 julius:1 kerwin:1 stein:1 jewish:1 immigrant:1 ukraine:1 age:2 eight:2 move:1 family:1 chicago:3 begin:2 take:1 piano:1 lesson:1 prove:1 prodigy:1 perform:1 st:1 louis:1 detroit:1 symphony:1 ten:1 year:1 old:1 career:2 attend:1 college:1 already:1 attract:1 attention:1 another:1 teenager:1 mike:1 todd:2 later:1 successful:1 film:2 producer:1 commission:1 write:5 song:5 act:1 create:1 would:2 first:2 publish:1 compose:2 establish:1 dance:1 band:1 bring:1 notice:1 hollywood:1 champion:1 frank:2 sinatra:2 collaboration:1 lyricist:1 sammy:1 cahn:2 many:2 movie:2 long:2 time:3 five:1 minute:1 oscar:1 winning:1 three:1 coin:1 fountain:1 collaborate:1 score:3 sister:1 eileen:1 leo:1 robin:1 high:2 button:2 shoe:3 next:1 decade:1 notably:1 gentleman:3 prefer:3 blonde:3 peter:2 pan:2 bell:2 ring:2 gypsy:2 mi:2 funny:2 girl:3 sugar:2 story:1 base:1 like:1 hot:1 new:2 music:3 tony:1 win:1 hallelujah:2 baby:2 collaborator:1 betty:1 comden:1 adolph:1 green:1 stephen:1 sondheim:1 bob:1 merrill:1 among:1 still:1 get:1 jealous:1 diamond:1 best:1 friend:1 party:1 make:1 someone:1 happy:1 everything:1 come:1 rose:1 let:4 entertain:1 people:1 original:1 short:1 live:1 theme:1 amusement:1 park:1 freedomland:1 u:1 open:1 june:1 elect:1 hall:2 fame:2 theatre:1 recipient:1 drama:1 desk:1 special:1 award:1 kennedy:2 center:2 honor:1 sample:1 snow:3 saturday:1 night:4 lonely:1 week:1 sung:1 ice:2 capades:1 contribute:3 one:2 glad:1 see:2 close:4 philadelphia:1 pa:1 tryout:2 michael:1 peep:1 number:1 two:1 aisle:1 hazel:1 flagg:1 say:1 darling:2 subway:1 sleep:1 mr:1 magoo:1 christmas:2 carol:1 arturo:1 ui:1 incidental:1 bertolt:1 brecht:1 play:1 wonderworld:1 lyric:1 son:1 stanley:1 fade:2 something:1 direct:1 dangerous:1 red:2 riding:1 hood:1 day:1 look:1 lily:1 animal:1 talk:1 prettybelle:1 boston:1 lorelei:1 essentially:1 sequel:1 revival:1 hellzapoppin:1 baltimore:1 pre:1 bar:1 mitzvah:1 boy:1 stand:1 preview:1 period:1 piece:1 footnote:1 also:1 pico:1 sepulveda:1 external:1 link:1 internet:1 database:1 list:1 pb:1 york:1 obituary:1 julestyne:1 com:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram jule_styne:2 frank_sinatra:2 oscar_winning:1 gentleman_prefer:3 prefer_blonde:3 stephen_sondheim:1 amusement_park:1 hall_fame:2 drama_desk:1 saturday_night:1 philadelphia_pa:1 christmas_carol:1 incidental_music:1 bertolt_brecht:1 broadway_tryout:1 bar_mitzvah:1 external_link:1 |
7,036 | Foreign_relations_of_Malta | For several years after independence in 1964, Malta followed a policy of close co-operation with the United Kingdom and other NATO countries. This relationship changed with the election of the Malta Labour Party government in June 1971, led by Dom Mintoff. The NATO subheadquarters in Malta was closed at the request of the government, and the U.S. Sixth Fleet discontinued recreational visits to the country. After substantially increased financial contributions from several NATO countries (including the United States), British forces remained in Malta until 1979. Following their departure, the Labour government charted a new course of neutrality and became an active member of the Non-Aligned Movement. Malta is an active participant in the United Nations, the Commonwealth, the Council of Europe, OSCE, and various other international organisations. In these forums, Malta has frequently expressed its concern for the peace and economic development of the Mediterranean region. The Nationalist Party (Partit Nazzjonalista) government elected in May 1987 continued a policy of neutrality and non-alignment, but in a Western context. The government desires close relations with the United States and Europe, with an emphasis on increased trade and private direct investment, and withdrew from the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1992, U.S. Navy ships started paying liberty calls again and currently do so on a regular basis. On May 1 2004, Malta became a full member of the European Union, with which it had an associationship agreement since 1971. It was one of ten new members which joined on that date. North Africa Malta has enjoyed cordial relations with Libya ever since its Independence. In 1984, a Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation was signed with Qaddafi's regime by Dom Mintoff. This treaty included a security protocol in which Libyan forces agreed to train and arm their Maltese counterparts. Libya supplied Malta with refined crude oil starting in 1975. Libyan nationals did not require visas to enter Malta until 2004. Malta and Tunisia are discussing the commercial exploitation of the continental shelf between their countries, particularly for oil exploration Moldova Malta is represented in Moldova through a non resident embassy based in Valletta (in the Foreign Affairs Ministry). Moldova is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Morocco Malta has a non-resident embassy for Malta in Morocco. Malta has only an honorary consulate in Marrakech (Daniel Hourès : Hon.Consul, with jurisdiction avec the Kingdom of Morocco). India Malta opened a High Commission in New Delhi in 2007. Malta also has an honourary consulate in Bombay. India is represented in Malta through its embassy in Tripoli, Libya and an honorary consulate in Valletta. Pakistan Malta is represented in Pakistan through its embassy in Beijing, China and an honorary consulate in Karachi. Pakistan is represented in Malta through its embassy in Tripoli, Libya and an honorary consulate in Marsa. Embassies Malta has Foreign embassies with: * Home - Australian High Commission Embassy of Belgium in Valletta Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Malta L’ambassade de France à Malte Deutsche Botschaft Valletta - Start-Seite * Embassy of Italy in La Valletta Ambassade Valletta - Welkom op de Website van de Nederlandse Ambassade te Valletta Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores y de Cooperación | Gobierno de España * UK in Malta Home - U.S. Embassy Malta -* Indicates High Commission Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 1967 see Australia–Malta relations Austria has an embassy in Ta' Xbiex. Malta has an embassy in Vienna and 4 honorary consulates (in Innsbruck, Linz, Salzburg and Vienna). Both countries are full members of the European Union. Austria Ministry of Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties between both countries (in German only) Direction of the Austrian embassy in Valletta Directions of the Maltese representation in Austria 1991 Belarus is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Direction of the Belarussian representation in Malta Malta is represented in Belarus through its embassy in Moscow (Russia). Direction of the Maltese representation in Belarus Both countries established diplomatic relations soon after Malta’s independence. Belgium has an embassy in Valletta. Belgian embassy in Valletta Malta has an embassy in Brussels and an honorary consulate in Antwerp. Directions of the Maltese representation in Belgium Both countries are full members of the European Union. Bulgaria is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Bulgarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Malta has 2 honorary consulates in Bulgaria (in Sofia and Varna). Maltese Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1964 Canada is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade about relations with Malta Malta is represented in Canada through a non resident ambassador in its embassy in Washington (USA). Malta has a General-Consulate in Toronto and 2 honorary consulates (in Quebec and St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador). Maltese representation in Canada A rather large Maltese immigrant community exist in Canada. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. 1992-06-30 The Croatian embassy in Rome (Italy) is also accredited as a non resident embassy to Malta. Malta has an honorary consulate in Zagreb. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Malta Malta Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Croatia See also Foreign relations of Cyprus The two countries share membership of the European Union and Commonwealth of Nations. Cyprus is represented to Malta through its accredited embassy in Rome (Italy). Malta is represented to Cyprus through its accredited embassy in Athens (Greece). The political relations are close due to similarities between the 2 countries (on historical, economical and regional). List of Treaties between the 2 countries by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cyprus The Czech Republic is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome, (Italy) and through an honorary consulate in Valletta. Czech honorary consulate in Valletta Malta is represented in the Czech Republic through a non-resident ambassador based in the Foreign Ministry at Valletta. Directions of the Maltese representation in the Czech Republic Both countries are full members of the European Union. Denmark is is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and through an honorary general consulate in Valletta. Malta has an embassy in Copenhagen and 3 honorary consulates (in Aarhus, Copenhagen and Odense). Directions of the Maltese representation in Denmark Both countries are full members of the European Union. Malta has an embassy in Cairo and 2 honorary consulates in Alexandria and Suez. Egyptian embassy in Valletta Egypt has an embassy in Valletta. Maltese representations in Egypt 1992-01-01 See also Foreign relations of Estonia Malta recognised Estonia on August 26, 1991. Estonia is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Direction of the Estonian representation in Malta Malta is represented in Estonia through a non resident embassy based in Valletta (in the Foreign Affairs Ministry) and through an honorary consulate in Tallinn. Direction of the Maltese representation in Estonia Both countries are full members of the European Union. Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Malta The two countries share membership of the European Union. France has an embassy in Malta. French embassy in Malta The president of France, Nicolas Sarkozy went to Malta on a private trip just after his election in May 2007. French Foreign Ministry about relations with Malta 1993-01-02 See also Foreign relations of Georgia Georgia is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Direction of Georgian representation in Malta Malta is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia). Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of Council of Europe. Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Malta see Germany–Malta relations see Greece–Malta relations see Holy See – Malta relations see Hungary–Malta relations see India–Malta relations Malta opened a High Commission in New Delhi in 2007. Malta also has an honorary consulate in Delhi and Mumbai. Malta is planning to open a Mission in Delhi. Maltese representations in India Consulate of the Republic of Malta New Delhi India is represented in Malta through its embassy in Tripoli (Libya) and an honorary consulate in Valletta. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. see Italy–Malta relations Both countries established official diplomatic relations soon after Malta's independence. Italy has an embassy in Valletta. Italian embassy in Valletta Malta has an embassy in Rome and 18 honorary consulates (in Bari, Bologna, Brescia, Cagliari, Catania, Genova, Livorno, Milan, Naples, Palermo, Perugia, Reggio Calabria, Savona, Siracusa, Torino, Trieste, and Venice). Directions of the Maltese representation in Italy Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Union for the Mediterranean. See also Foreign relations of Kosovo Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia in 17 February 2008 and Malta recognized it in 21 August 2008. see Libya–Malta relations Both countries established diplomatic relations soon after Malta’s independence. Libya has an embassy in Valletta Malta has an embassy in Tripoli. Directions of the Maltese representation in Libya See also Foreign relations of Lithuania Malta is represented in Lithuania through a non resident ambassador based in Valletta (in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Vilnius. Direction of the Maltese representations in Lithuania Lithuania is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and an honorary consulate in Valletta. Lithuania embassy in Rome (also accredited to Malta) Both countries are full members of the European Union. Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Malta (in Lithuanian only) Malta is represented in Modova through a non resident embassy based in Valletta (in the Foreign Affairs Ministry). Direction of the Maltese representation in Moldova Moldova is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Direction of the Moldovan representation in Malta Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration about the relation with Malta see Malta–Netherlands relations see Malta–Pakistan relations see People's Republic of China – Malta relations see Malta–Poland relations Malta has an embassy in Lisbon and 4 honorary consulates (in Algarve, Azores, Lisbon and Porto). List of Maltese reprsentations in Portugal Portugal has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Valletta. Direction of the Portuguese embassy in Valletta Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Union for the Mediterranean. Malta has an honorary consulate in Bucharest. Maltese Foreign Ministry Romania has a non-resident embassy for Malta in Rome (Italy) and an honorary consulate in Valletta. Romanian Foreign Ministry Both countries joined the European Union as full members on the same date: May 1, 2004. Malta has an embassy in Moscow and an honorary consulate in Saint Petersburg. Maltese representations in Russia Russia has an embassy in Valletta. Russian embassy in Valletta Coordination Board of Russian Compatriots in Malta 1960’s Malta has an embassy in Riyadh and an honorary consulate in Jeddah. Direction of the Maltese representation in Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia is represented through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Direction of the Saudi embassy accredited to Malta 1964 Malta is represented in Serbia through a non-resident ambassador based in Valletta (in the Foreign Ministry). Direction of the Maltese representation in Serbia Serbia is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy) ad through an honorary consulate in Valletta. Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Malta see Malta–Slovakia relations Malta is represented in Slovakia through a non resident ambassador based in Valletta (in the Foreign Ministry). Maltese representations in Slovakia Slovakia is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and an honorary consulate in Valletta. Slovakian representations in Malta Slovakian honorary consulate in Valletta Both countries are full members of the European Union. The foreign relations between Malta and Slovakia are not very intensive. Foreign policy of Malta is concentrated rather on cooperation with Algeria, Tunis, Libya and Egypt. There is, however, 41 years lasting cooperation between those two countries. In 2001 Slovak prime minister Mikuláš Dzurinda visited Malta at the invitation of Maltese premier Edward Fenech Adami, and negotiated the integration of both countries into European Union and economic cooperation between Malta and Slovakia. In 2008 Slovakian agency SARIA signed a treaty of reciprocal assistance related to third world countries with Malta Enterprise. Slovak prime minister Robert Fico visited Maltese capital Valletta in 2008. see Malta–Slovenia relations see Malta–Spain relations see Malta–Sweden relations see Malta–Switzerland relations see Malta–Tunisia relations see Maltese–Turkish relations see Malta–Ukraine relations see Malta – United Kingdom relations see Malta – United States relations See also Diplomatic missions of Malta List of diplomatic missions in Malta British-Maltese relations Cyprus-Maltese relations French-Maltese relations Greek-Maltese relations Irish-Maltese relations External links Malta Ministry of Foreign Affairs References | Foreign_relations_of_Malta |@lemmatized several:2 year:2 independence:6 malta:121 follow:2 policy:3 close:4 co:3 operation:3 united:5 kingdom:3 nato:3 country:30 relationship:1 change:1 election:2 labour:2 party:2 government:5 june:1 lead:1 dom:2 mintoff:2 subheadquarters:1 request:1 u:3 sixth:1 fleet:1 discontinue:1 recreational:1 visit:3 substantially:1 increase:1 financial:1 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varna:1 canada:4 canadian:1 ambassador:5 washington:1 usa:1 general:2 toronto:1 quebec:1 st:1 john:1 newfoundland:1 labrador:1 rather:2 large:1 immigrant:1 community:1 exist:1 croatian:2 accredit:3 zagreb:1 croatia:1 cyprus:5 two:3 share:2 membership:2 accredited:2 athens:1 greece:2 political:1 due:1 similarity:1 historical:1 economical:1 regional:1 czech:4 denmark:2 copenhagen:2 aarhus:1 odense:1 cairo:1 alexandria:1 suez:1 egyptian:1 egypt:3 estonia:5 recognise:1 august:2 estonian:2 tallinn:1 french:3 president:1 nicolas:1 sarkozy:1 go:1 trip:1 georgia:3 georgian:2 organization:1 germany:1 holy:1 hungary:1 mumbai:1 plan:1 mission:3 official:1 italian:1 bari:1 bologna:1 brescia:1 cagliari:1 catania:1 genova:1 livorno:1 milan:1 naples:1 palermo:1 perugia:1 reggio:1 calabria:1 savona:1 siracusa:1 torino:1 trieste:1 venice:1 kosovo:2 declare:1 serbia:4 february:1 recognize:1 lithuania:5 vilnius:1 lithuanian:2 modova:1 moldovan:2 integration:2 netherlands:1 poland:1 lisbon:2 algarve:1 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7,037 | Hirohito | , also known as , (29 April 1901 – 7 January 1989) was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order, reigning from 25 December 1926 until his death in 1989. Although better known outside of Japan by his personal name Hirohito, he is now referred to exclusively by his posthumous name Emperor Shōwa in Japan and increasingly by scholars outside Japan. The word Shōwa is the name of the era that corresponded with the Emperor's reign, and was made the Emperor's own name upon his death. In Japanese the reigning Emperor is referred to without a personal name as or . The Shōwa era was the longest reign of any historical Japanese emperor, encompassing a period of tremendous change in Japanese society. At the start of his reign, Japan was still a fairly rural country with a limited industrial base. Japan's militarization in the 1930s eventually led to Japan's involvement in World War II. After the war ended with the unconditional surrender of Japan, the Emperor cooperated with the reorganization of the Japanese state during the occupation of Japan, and lived to see Japan becoming a highly urbanized democracy and one of the industrial and technological powerhouses of the world. Early life Born in the Aoyama Palace in Tokyo, Prince Hirohito was the first son of Crown Prince Yoshihito (the future Emperor Taishō) and Crown Princess Sadako (the future Empress Teimei). Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan, p. 337. His childhood title was . He became heir apparent upon the death of his grandfather, Emperor Meiji, on July 30, 1912. He was formally installed as Crown Prince in November 2, 1916; but an investiture ceremony was not strictly necessary to confirm this status as heir to the throne. Ponsonby-Fane, p. 338. Prince Hirohito attended the boy's department of Gakushuin Peers' School from 1908 to 1914 and then a special institute for the crown prince (Tōgū-gogakumonsho) from 1914 to 1921. In 1921, Prince Hirohito took a six month tour of Europe, including the United Kingdom, France, Italy, the Netherlands and Belgium, becoming the first Japanese crown prince to travel abroad. After his return to Japan, he became Regent of Japan on November 29, 1921, in place of his ailing father who was affected by a mental illness. During Prince Hirohito's regency, a number of important events occurred: In the Four-Power Treaty on Insular Possessions signed on December 13, 1921, Japan, the United States, Britain and France agreed to recognize the status quo in the Pacific, and Japan and Britain agreed to terminate formally the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The Washington Naval Treaty was signed on February 6, 1922. Japan completed withdrawal of troops from the Siberian Intervention on August 28, 1922. The Great Kantō earthquake devastated Tokyo on September 1, 1923. The General Election Law was passed on May 5, 1925, giving all men above age 25 the right to vote. Marriage and issue A younger Hirohito and his wife Nagako Kuni, later Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun Prince Hirohito married his distant cousin Princess Nagako Kuni (the future Empress Kōjun), the eldest daughter of Prince Kuni Kuniyoshi, on January 26, 1924. They had two sons and five daughters: Princess Shigeko, childhood appellation , December 9, 1925–July 23, 1961; m. October 10, 1943 Prince Higashikuni Morihiro (May 6, 1916 — February 1, 1969), the eldest son of Prince Higashikuni Naruhiko and his wife, Princess Toshiko, the eighth daughter of Emperor Meiji; lost status as imperial family members, October 14, 1947; Princess Sachiko, childhood appellation , September 10, 1927–March 8, 1928; Princess Kazuko, childhood appellation , September 30, 1929–May 28, 1989; m. May 5, 1950 Takatsukasa Toshimichi (August 26, 1923 — January 27, 1966), eldest son of Nobusuke [peer]; and adopted a son Naotake. Princess Atsuko, childhood appellation , b. March 7, 1931; m. October 10, 1952 Ikeda Takamasa (b. October 21, 1927), eldest son of former Marquis Nobumasa Ikeda; Crown Prince Akihito, childhood appellation , the present Emperor of Japan, b. December 23, 1933; m. April 10, 1959 Shōda Michiko (the present Empress of Japan, b. October 20, 1934), elder daughter of Shōda Hidesaburo, former president and chairman of Nisshin Flour Milling Company; Prince Masahito, childhood appellation , b. November 28, 1935, titled since October 1, 1964; m. September 30, 1964 Tsugaru Hanako (b. July 19, 1940), fourth daughter of former Count Tsugaru Yoshitaka; Princess Takako, childhood appellation , b. March 3, 1939; m. March 3, 1960 Shimazu Hisanaga, son of former Count Shimazu Hisanori and has a son Yoshihisa. Emperor Shōwa after his enthronement ceremony in 1928, dressed in Sokutai The daughters who lived to adulthood left the imperial family as a result of the American reforms of the Japanese imperial household in October 1947 (in the case of Princess Higashikuni) or under the terms of the Imperial Household Law at the moment of their subsequent marriages (in the cases of Princesses Kazuko, Atsuko, and Takako). Ascension On December 25, 1926, Hirohito assumed the throne upon the death of his father Yoshihito; and the Crown Prince was said to have received the succession (‘‘senso’’). Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley), p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami;] Ponsonby-Fane, p. 350. The Taishō era ceased at once and a new era, the Shōwa era (Enlightened Peace), was proclaimed. The deceased Emperor was posthumously renamed Emperor Taishō a few days later. Following Japanese custom, the new Emperor was never referred to by his given name, but rather was referred to simply as , which may be shortened to . In writing, the emperor was also referred to formally as . In November 1928, the emperor's ascension was confirmed in ceremonies (sokui) which are conventionally identified as "enthronement" and "coronation" (Shōwa no tairei-shiki); but this formal event would have been more accurately described as a public confirmation that his Imperial Majesty possesses the Japanese Imperial Regalia, Ponsonby-Fane, p. 349. also called the Three Sacred Treasures, which have been handed down through centuries. Ponsonby-Fane, pp. 136-137. Early reign Hirohito in his early years as emperor The first part of Hirohito's reign as sovereign took place against a background of financial crisis and increasing military power within the government, through both legal and extralegal means. The Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy had held veto power over the formation of cabinets since 1900, and between 1921 and 1944 there were no fewer than 64 incidents of political violence. Hirohito narrowly missed assassination by a hand grenade thrown by a Korean nationalist in Tokyo on January 9, 1932 in the Sakuradamon Incident. Another notable case was the assassination of moderate Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in 1932, which marked the end of civilian control of the military. This was followed by an attempted military coup in February 1936, the February 26 incident, mounted by junior Army officers of the Kōdōha faction who had the sympathy of many high-ranking officers including Prince Chichibu (Yasuhito), one of the Emperor's brothers. This revolt was occasioned by a loss of ground by the militarist faction in Diet elections. The coup resulted in the murder of a number of high government and Army officials. When Chief Aide-de-camp Shigeru Honjō informed him of the revolt, the Emperor immediately ordered that it be put down and referred to the officers as "rebels" (bōto). Shortly thereafter, he ordered Army Minister Yoshiyuki Kawashima to suppress the rebellion within the hour, and he asked reports from Honjō every thirty minutes. The next day, when told by Honjō that little progress was being made by the high command in quashing the rebels, the emperor told him "I Myself, will lead the Konoe Division and subdue them." The rebellion was suppressed following his orders on February 29. Mikiso Hane, Emperor Hirohito and His Chief Aide-de-camp, The Honjō Diary, 1983; Honjō Nikki, Hara Shobō, 1975 The Sino-Japanese War and World War II The emperor and imperial stallion Shirayuki Entering World War II Prior to World War II, Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and the rest of China in 1937 (the Second Sino-Japanese War). The primary sources reveal that Emperor Shōwa never really had any objection to the invasion of China in 1937 Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (1991). "Emperor Hirohito on Localized Aggression in China". Sino-Japanese Studies 4 (1), pp. 4–27. Retrieved on 2008-02-03. , which was recommended to him by his chiefs of staff and prime minister Fumimaro Konoe. His main concern seems to have been the possibility of an attack by the Soviets in the north. His questions to his chief of staff, Prince Kan'in, and minister of the army, Hajime Sugiyama, were mostly about the time it could take to crush the Chinese resistance. According to Akira Fujiwara, the Emperor personally ratified the proposal by the Japanese Army to remove the constraints of international law on the treatment of Chinese prisoners on August 5. Fujiwara, Nitchū Sensō ni Okeru Horyo Gyakusatsu, Kikan Sensō Sekinin Kenkyū 9, 1995, p.22. Moreover, the works of Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno show that the Emperor authorized, by specific orders (rinsanmei), the use of chemical weapons against the Chinese. Dokugasusen Kankei Shiryō II, Kaisetsu, 1997, pp.25–29. During the invasion of Wuhan, from August to October 1938, the emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions, Yoshimi and Matsuno, ibid. p.28. despite the resolution adopted by the League of Nations on May 14 condemning the use of toxic gas by the Japanese Army. During World War II, ostensibly under Emperor Shōwa's leadership, Japan formed alliances with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, forming the Axis Powers. Some historians believe the Emperor, who was more inclined to ally with the United Kingdom, may have been reluctant to form this alliance. In July 1939, the Emperor quarreled with one of his brothers, Prince Chichibu, who was visiting him three times a week to support the treaty, and reprimanded the army minister Seishiro Itagaki. Terasaki Hidenari, Shōwa tennō dokuhakuroku, Bungei Shūnjusha, 1991, p.106–108, Wetzler, Hirohito and War, pp.25, 231. However, after the success of the Wehrmacht in Europe, the Emperor consented to the alliance. On September 4, 1941, the Japanese Cabinet met to consider war plans prepared by Imperial General Headquarters, and decided that: The "objectives" to be obtained were clearly defined: a free hand to continue with the conquest of China and Southeast Asia, no increase in US or British military forces in the region, and cooperation by the West "in the acquisition of goods needed by our Empire." On September 5, Prime Minister Konoe informally submitted a draft of the decision to the emperor, just one day in advance of the Imperial Conference at which it would be formally implemented. On this evening, Emperor Shōwa had a meeting with the chief of staff of the army, Sugiyama, chief of staff of the navy, Osami Nagano, and Prime Minister Konoe. The emperor questioned Sugiyama about the chances of success of an open war with the Occident. As Sugiyama answered positively, the Emperor scolded him: Chief of Naval General Staff Admiral Nagano, a former Navy Minister and vastly experienced, later told a trusted colleague, "I have never seen the emperor reprimand us in such a manner, his face turning red and raising his voice." Emperor Shōwa riding Shirayuki during an Army inspection in August 1938 According to the traditional view, Emperor Shōwa was deeply concerned by the decision to place "war preparations first and diplomatic negotiations second," and he announced his intention to break with tradition. At the Imperial Conference on the following day, the emperor directly questioned the chiefs of the Army and Navy general staffs, which was quite an unprecedented action. Nevertheless, all speakers at the Imperial Conference were united in favor of war rather than diplomacy. Baron Yoshimichi Hara, President of the Imperial Council and the Emperor's representative, then questioned them closely, producing replies to the effect that war would only be considered as a last resort from some, and silence from others. At this point, the emperor astonished all present by addressing the conference personally, and in breaking the tradition of Imperial silence left his advisors "struck with awe." (Prime Minister Konoe's description of the event.) Emperor Shōwa stressed the need for peaceful resolution of international problems, expressed regret at his ministers' failure to respond to Baron Hara's probings, and recited a poem written by his grandfather, Emperor Meiji which, he said, he had read "over and over again": Recovering from their shock, the ministers hastened to express their profound wish to explore all possible peaceful avenues. The Emperor's presentation was in line with his practical role as leader of the Shinto religion. At this time, Army Imperial Headquarters was continually communicating with the Imperial household in detail about the military situation. On October 8, Sugiyama signed a 47 page report to the emperor (sōjōan) outlining in minute detail plans for the advance in Southeast Asia. During the third week of October, Sugiyama gave the emperor a 51 page document, "Materials in Reply to the Throne," about the operational outlook for the war. Wetzler, Hirohito and War, pp. 52–54. As war preparations continued, Prime Minister Konoe found himself more and more isolated and gave his demission on October 16. He justified himself to his chief cabinet secretary, Kenji Tomita : The army and the navy recommended the candidacy of Prince Higashikuni, one of the emperor's uncles. According to the Shōwa "Monologue," written after the war, the Emperor then said that if the war were to begin while a member of the imperial house was prime minister, the imperial house would have to carry the responsibility and he was opposed to this. Hidenari, ibid., p.118. Instead, the emperor chose the hard-line General Hideki Tōjō, who was known for his devotion to the imperial institution, and asked him to make a policy review of what had been sanctioned by the imperial conferences. On November 2, Tōjō, Sugiyama and Nagano reported to the emperor that the review of eleven points had been in vain. Emperor Shōwa gave his consent to the war and then asked: "Are you going to provide justification for the war?" Bix, ibid p.421; Wetzler, ibid. pp. 47–50. On November 3, Nagano explained in detail the Pearl Harbor attack plan to the emperor. Wetzler, ibid pp. 29, 35. On November 5, Emperor Shōwa approved in imperial conference the operations plan for a war against the Occident and had many meetings with the military and Tōjō until the end of the month. On December 1, an imperial conference sanctioned the "War against the United States, United Kingdom and the Kingdom of the Netherlands." On December 8 (December 7 in Hawaii) 1941, in simultaneous attacks, Japanese forces struck at the US Fleet in Pearl Harbor and began the invasion of Malaysia. With the nation fully committed to the war, Emperor Shōwa took a keen interest in military progress and sought to boost morale. According to Akira Yamada and Akira Fujiwara, the emperor made major interventions in some military operations. For example, he pressed Sugiyama four times, on January 13 and 21 and February 9 and 26, to increase troop strength and launch an attack on Bataan. On February 9, March 19 and May 29, the emperor ordered the Army Chief of staff to examine the possibilities for an attack on Chungking, which led to Operation Gogo. Yamada, Daigensui Shōwa tennō, 1994, pp. 180, 181, 185; Fujiwara, Shōwa tennō no jū-go nen sensō, pp. 135–138. As the tide of war gradually began to turn (around late 1942 and early 1943), some people argue that the flow of information to the palace gradually began to bear less and less relation to reality, while others suggest that the emperor worked closely with Prime Minister Tōjō, continued to be well and accurately briefed by the military, and knew Japan's military position precisely right up to the point of surrender. The chief of staff of the General Affairs section of the Prime Minister's office, Shuichi Inada, remarked to Tōjō's private secretary, Sadao Akamatsu:The Emperor with his wife empress Kōjun and their children in 1941 In the first six months of war, all the major engagements had been victories. As the tide turned in the summer of 1942 with the battle of Midway and the landing of the American forces on Guadalcanal and Tulagi in August, the Emperor recognized the potential danger and pushed the navy and the army for greater efforts. When informed in August 1943 by Sugiyama that the American advance through the Solomon Islands could not be stopped, the emperor asked his chief of staff to consider other places to attack : "When and where on are you ever going to put up a good fight? And when are you ever going to fight a decisive battle?" Bix, ibid. p.466, citing the Sugiyama memo, p.24. On August 24, the emperor reprimanded Nagano for the defeat of Bela Bela and on September 11, he ordered Sugiyama to work with the Navy to implement better military preparation and give adequate supply to soldiers fighting in Rabaul. Yamada, ibid. p. 240–242. Throughout the following years, the sequence of drawn and then decisively lost engagements was reported to the public as a series of great victories. Only gradually did it become apparent to the people in the home islands that the situation was very grim. U.S. air raids on the cities of Japan starting in 1944 made a mockery of the unending tales of victory. Later that year, with the downfall of Hideki Tōjō's government, two other prime ministers were appointed to continue the war effort, Kuniaki Koiso and Kantaro Suzuki— each with the formal approval of the emperor. Both were unsuccessful and Japan was nearing defeat. Last days of the war Emperor Shōwa recording the surrender speech of the Japanese Empire during World War II In early 1945, in the wake of the loss of Leyte, Emperor Shōwa began a series of individual meetings with senior government officials to consider the progress of the war. All but ex-Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe advised continuing the war. Konoe feared a communist revolution even more than defeat in war and urged a negotiated surrender. In February 1945, during the first private audience with the emperor which he had been allowed in three years, Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, Perennial, 2001, p.756 Konoe advised Hirohito to begin negotiations to end World War II. According to Grand Chamberlain Hisanori Fujita, the emperor, still looking for a tennozan (a great victory) in order to provide a stronger bargaining position, firmly rejected Konoe's recommendation. Fujita Hisanori, Jijûchô no kaisô, Chûô Kôronsha, 1987, p.66-67, Bix, ibid., p.489 With each passing week a great victory became less likely. In April the Soviet Union issued notice that it would not renew its neutrality agreement. Japan's ally Germany surrendered in early May 1945. In June, the cabinet reassessed the war strategy, only to decide more firmly than ever on a fight to the last man. This strategy was officially affirmed at a brief Imperial Council meeting, at which the emperor listened in stony-faced silence. The following day, Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido prepared a draft document which summarized the hopeless military situation and proposed a negotiated settlement. According to some commentators, the Emperor privately approved of it and authorized Kido to circulate it discreetly amongst less hawkish cabinet members; others suggest that the Emperor was indecisive, and that the delay cost many tens of thousands of Japanese and Allied lives. Extremists in Japan were also calling for a death-before-dishonor mass suicide, modeled on the "47 Ronin" incident. By mid-June 1945, the cabinet had agreed to approach the Soviet Union to act as a mediator for a negotiated surrender, but not before Japan's bargaining position had been improved by repulse of the anticipated Allied invasion of mainland Japan. On June 22, the Emperor met his ministers, saying "I desire that concrete plans to end the war, unhampered by existing policy, be speedily studied and that efforts be made to implement them." The attempt to negotiate a peace via the Soviet Union came to nothing. There was always the threat that extremists would carry out a coup or foment other violence. On July 26, 1945, the Allies issued the Potsdam Declaration demanding unconditional surrender. The Japanese government council, the Big Six, considered that option and recommended to the emperor that it be accepted only if one to three conditions were agreed, including a guarantee of the emperor's continued position in Japanese society. The emperor decided not to surrender. On August 9, 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet declaration of war, Emperor Shōwa told Kido to "quickly control the situation" because "the Soviet Union has declared war and today began hostilities against us." Kido Kōichi Nikki, p.1223. On August 10, the cabinet drafted an "Imperial Rescript ending the War" following the emperor's indications that the declaration did not compromise any demand which prejudiced the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign Ruler. On August 12, 1945, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles, Prince Asaka, asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai (national polity) could not be preserved. The Emperor simply replied "of course." Terasaki Hidenari, Shōwa tennō dokuhakuroku, 1991, p.129. On August 14, the Suzuki government notified the Allies that it had accepted the Potsdam Declaration. On August 15, a recording of the Emperor's surrender speech was broadcast over the radio (the first time the emperor was heard on the radio by the Japanese people) signifying the unconditional surrender of Japan's military forces (known as Gyokuon-hōsō). Objecting to the surrender, die-hard army fanatics attempted a coup d'état by conducting a full military assault and takeover of the Imperial Palace. The physical recording of the surrender speech was hidden and preserved overnight, and the coup was quickly crushed on the Emperor's order. The surrender speech noted that "the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan's advantage" and ordered the Japanese to "endure the unendurable" in surrender. It was the first time the public had heard the Emperor's voice. He was deliberately vague, because the Emperor of Japan was not regarded merely as a human saying "We surrender to the Allies," but rather was viewed as the sacred symbol, embodiment, and leader of Japan; therefore, he was required to use a vague tone in order to preserve that mystique. Indeed, the formal, stilted Japanese used by the Emperor in the speech was not readily understood by many common Japanese. According to historian Richard Storry in A History of Modern Japan, the Emperor typically used "a form of language familiar only to the well-educated" and to the more traditional samurai families. The issue of the Emperor's responsibility for war crimes Many historians see Emperor Shōwa as responsible for the atrocities committed by the imperial forces in the Second Sino-Japanese War and in World War II and feel that he, some members of the imperial family such as his brother Prince Chichibu, his cousins Prince Takeda and Prince Fushimi, and his uncles Prince Kan'in, Prince Asaka, and Prince Higashikuni, should have been tried for war crimes. . Because of this perception of responsibility for war crimes and lack of accountability, many Asians residing in countries that were subject to Japanese invasion, as well as others in nations that fought Japan, retain a hostile attitude towards the Japanese imperial family. The issue of Hirohito's responsibility for war crimes is a debate regarding how much real control the Emperor had over the Japanese military during the two wars. Officially, the imperial constitution, adopted under Emperor Meiji, gave full power to the Emperor. Article 4 prescribed that, "The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution," while, according to article 6, "The Emperor gives sanction to laws and orders them to be promulgated and executed," and article 11, "The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and the Navy." The Emperor was thus the leader of the Imperial General Headquarters. In 1971, David Bergamini showed how primary sources, such as the "Sugiyama memo" and the diaries of Kido and Konoe, describe in detail the informal meetings Emperor Shōwa had with his chiefs of staff and ministers. Bergamini concluded that the Emperor was kept informed of all main military operations and that he frequently questioned his senior staff and asked for changes. Historians such as Herbert Bix, Akira Fujiwara, Peter Wetzler, and Akira Yamada assert that the post-war view focusing on imperial conferences misses the importance of numerous "behind the chrysanthemum curtain" meetings where the real decisions were made between the emperor, his chiefs of staff, and the cabinet. Historians such as Fujiwara and Wetzler , based on the primary sources and the monumental work of Shirō Hara, Former member of section 20 of War operations of the Army high command, Hara has made a detailed study of the way military decisions were made, including the Emperor's involvement published in five volumes in 1973–74 under the title Daihon'ei senshi; Daitōa Sensō kaisen gaishi; Kaisen ni itaru seisentyaku shidō (Imperial Headquarters war history; General history of beginning hostilities in the Greater East Asia War; Leadership and political strategy with respect to the beginning of hostilities). have produced evidence suggesting that the Emperor worked through intermediaries to exercise a great deal of control over the military and was neither bellicose nor a pacifist, but an opportunist who governed in a pluralistic decision-making process. American historian Herbert Bix argues that Emperor Shōwa might have been the prime mover of most of the events of the two wars. The view promoted by both the Japanese Imperial Palace and the American occupation forces immediately after World War II had Emperor Shōwa as a powerless figurehead behaving strictly according to protocol, while remaining at a distance from the decision-making processes. This view was endorsed by Prime Minister Noboru Takeshita in a speech on the day of Hirohito's death, in which Takeshita asserted that the war had broken out against [Hirohito's] wishes. Takeshita's statement provoked outrage in nations in East Asia and Commonwealth nations such as the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. For Fujiwara, however, "the thesis that the Emperor, as an organ of responsibility, could not reverse cabinet decision, is a myth fabricated after the war." Shōwa tennō no Jū-go nen sensō, Aoki Shoten, 1991, p.122 In Japan, debate over the Emperor's responsibility was taboo while he was still alive. After his death, however, debate began to surface over the extent of his involvement and thus his culpability. In the years immediately after Hirohito's death, the debate in Japan was fierce. Susan Chira reported that, "Scholars who have spoken out against the late Emperor have received threatening phone calls from Japan's extremist right wing." One example of actual violence occurred in 1990 when the mayor of Nagasaki, Hitoshi Motoshima, was shot and critically wounded by a member of the ultranationalist group, Seikijuku; Motoshima managed to recover from the attack. In 1989, Motoshima had broken what was characterized as "one of [Japan's] most sensitive taboos" by asserting that Emperor Hirohito bore some responsibility for World War II. Kentaro Awaya argues that post-war Japanese public opinion supporting protection of the Emperor was influenced by US propaganda promoting the view that the Emperor together with the Japanese people had been fooled by the military. Post-war reign General MacArthur and the Emperor at Allied GHQ in Tokyo. September 17, 1945. As the Emperor chose his uncle Prince Higashikuni as prime minister to assist the occupation, there were attempts by numerous leaders to have him put on trial for alleged war crimes. Many members of the imperial family, such as Princes Chichibu, Takamatsu and Higashikuni, pressured the Emperor to abdicate so that one of the Princes could serve as regent until Crown Prince Akihito came of age. Bix, ibid, pp.571–573. On February 27, 1946, the emperor's youngest brother, Prince Mikasa (Takahito), even stood up in the privy council and indirectly urged the emperor to step down and accept responsibility for Japan's defeat. According to Minister of Welfare Ashida's diary, "Everyone seemed to ponder Mikasa's words. Never have I seen His Majesty's face so pale." Ashida Hitoshi Nikki, Dai Ikkan, Iwanami Shoten, 1986, p.82. U.S. General Douglas MacArthur insisted that Emperor Shōwa retain the throne. MacArthur saw the emperor as a symbol of the continuity and cohesion of the Japanese people. Many historians criticize the decision to exonerate the Emperor and all members of the imperial family who were implicated in the war, such as Prince Chichibu, Prince Asaka, Prince Higashikuni and Prince Hiroyasu Fushimi, from criminal prosecutions John Dower, Embracing defeat, 1999, Bix, ibid. Before the war crimes trials actually convened, the SCAP, the IPS, and Japanese officials worked behind the scenes not only to prevent the Imperial family from being indicted, but also to slant the testimony of the defendants to ensure that no one implicated the emperor. High officials in court circles and the Japanese government collaborated with Allied GHQ in compiling lists of prospective war criminals, while the individuals arrested as Class A suspects and incarcerated in Sugamo prison solemnly vowed to protect their sovereign against any possible taint of war responsibility. Dower, ibid., p.325. Thus, "months before the Tokyo tribunal commenced, MacArthur's highest subordinates were working to attribute ultimate responsibility for Pearl Harbor to Hideki Tōjō" Ibid., p.585. by allowing, "the major criminal suspects to coordinate their stories so that the Emperor would be spared from indictment." Ibid. p.583. According to John Dower, "This successful campaign to absolve the Emperor of war responsibility knew no bounds. Hirohito was not merely presented as being innocent of any formal acts that might make him culpable to indictment as a war criminal. He was turned into an almost saintly figure who did not even bear moral responsibility for the war." Dower, ibid. p. 326. According to Bix, "MacArthur's truly extraordinary measures to save Hirohito from trial as a war criminal had a lasting and profoundly distorting impact on Japanese understanding of the lost war." Bix, ibid. p.545. The Emperor was not put on trial, but he was forced Dower, Embracing defeat, p.308-318 to explicitly reject (in the ) the traditional claim that the Emperor of Japan was an arahitogami, i.e., an incarnate divinity. According to the Japanese constitution of 1889, the Emperor had a divine power over his country, which was derived from the mythology of the Japanese Imperial Family who were said to be the offspring of the creator of Japan, Amaterasu. When Tatsukichi Minobe advocated the theory that sovereignty resides in the states, of which the emperor is just an organ (the tennō kikan setsu), it caused a furor. He was forced to resign from the House of Peers and his post at the Tokyo Imperial University in 1935, his books were banned and an attempt was made on his life.(Large, Stephen S.; Emperor Hirohito and Showa Japan: A Political Biography, p. 60; Routledge, 1992.) Not until 1946 was the tremendous step made to alter the Emperor's title from "imperial sovereign" to "constitutional monarch." There is consensus amongst authors such as Dower and Bix, however, that the emperor never rejected the claim that he was a descendant of Amaterasu. Immediately after the Imperial Rescript usually regarded as a repudiation of divinity, the emperor asked the occupation authorities for permission to worship the Sun Goddess. Some commentators have seen this act by the emperor to be an implicit reaffirmation of the claim to divine status; others have seen it as simply an expression of the emperor's personal religious beliefs, with no political or social implications. In any case, the "renunciation of divinity" was noted more by foreigners than by Japanese, and seems to have been intended for the consumption of the former. Although the Emperor supposedly had repudiated claims to divine status, his public position was deliberately left vague, partly because General MacArthur thought him likely to be a useful partner to get the Japanese to accept the occupation, and partly due to behind-the-scenes maneuverings by Shigeru Yoshida to thwart attempts to cast him as a European-style monarch. While Emperor Shōwa was usually seen abroad as a head of state, there is still a broad dispute about whether he became a common citizen or retained special status related to his religious offices and participations in Shinto and Buddhist calendar rituals. Many scholars claim that today's tennō (usually translated Emperor of Japan in English) is not an emperor. The Empress, Mrs. Ford, the Emperor and President Ford at the White House prior to a state dinner held in honor of the Japanese head of state for the first time. October 2, 1975. For the rest of his life, Emperor Shōwa was an active figure in Japanese life, and performed many of the duties commonly associated with a constitutional head of state. The emperor and his family maintained a strong public presence, often holding public walkabouts, and making public appearances on special events and ceremonies. Emperor Shōwa also played an important role in rebuilding Japan's diplomatic image, traveling abroad to meet with many foreign leaders, including Queen Elizabeth II (1971) and President Gerald Ford (1975). The emperor was deeply interested in and well-informed about marine biology, and the Imperial Palace contained a laboratory from which the emperor published several papers in the field under his personal name "Hirohito." His contributions included the description of several dozen species of jellyfish new to science. Yasukuni Shrine Emperor Shōwa maintained an official boycott of the Yasukuni Shrine after it was revealed to him that class-A war criminals had secretly been enshrined after its post war rededication. This boycott lasted from 1978 until the time of his death. This boycott has been maintained by his son Akihito, who has also refused to attend Yasukuni. On July 20, 2006, Nihon Keizai Shimbun published a front page article about discovery of a memorandum detailing the reason that the Emperor stopped visiting Yasukuni. The memorandum, kept by former chief of Imperial Household Agency Tomohiko Tomita, confirms for the first time that the enshrinement of 14 Class A War Criminals in Yasukuni was the reason for the boycott. Tomita recorded in detail the contents of his conversations with the emperor in his diaries and notebooks. According to the memorandum, in 1988, the emperor expressed his strong displeasure at the decision made by Yasukuni Shrine to include Class A war criminals in the list of war dead honored there by saying, "At some point, Class-A criminals became enshrined, including Matsuoka and Shiratori. I heard Tsukuba acted cautiously." Tsukuba is believed to refer to Fujimaro Tsukuba, the former chief Yasukuni priest at the time, who decided not to enshrine the war criminals despite having received in 1966 the list of war dead compiled by the government. "What's on the mind of Matsudaira's son, who is the current head priest?" "Matsudaira had a strong wish for peace, but the child didn't know the parent's heart. That's why I have not visited the shrine since. This is my heart." Matsudaira is believed to refer to Yoshitami Matsudaira, who was the grand steward of the Imperial Household immediately after the end of World War II. His son, Nagayoshi, succeeded Fujimaro Tsukuba as the chief priest of Yasukuni and decided to enshrine the war criminals in 1978. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20060721a1.html Nagayoshi Matsudaira died in 2006, which some commentators have speculated is the reason for release of the memo. For journalist Masanori Yamaguchi, who analyzed the "memo" and comments made by the emperor in his first-ever press conference in 1975, the emperor's evasive and opaque attitude about his own responsibility for the war and the fact he said that the bombing of Hiroshima "could not be helped", "-Does your majesty feel responsibility for the war itself, including the opening of hostilities ? -I can't answer that kind of question because I haven't thoroughly studied the literature in this field, and so I don't really appreciate the nuances of your words." H. Bix, Hirohito and the making of modern Japan, 2001, p.676 could mean that the emperor was afraid that the enshrinement of the war criminals at Yasukuni would reignite the debate over his own responsibility for the war. Yasukuni and a week that will live in infamy, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fd20060820pb.html Death and state funeral Hirohito's tomb in Hachiōji On September 22, 1987, the Emperor underwent surgery on his pancreas after having digestive problems for several months. The doctors discovered that he had duodenal cancer. The emperor seemed to be recovering well for several months after the surgery. About a year later, however, on September 19, 1988, he collapsed in his palace, and his health worsened over the next several months as he suffered from continuous internal bleeding. On January 7, 1989, at 7:55 AM, the grand steward of Japan's Imperial Household Agency, Shoichi Fujimori, officially announced the Emperor's death, and revealed details about his cancer for the first time. The emperor was succeeded by his son, Akihito. The emperor's death ended the Shōwa era. On the same day a new era began: the Heisei era. From January 7 until January 31, the emperor's formal appellation was "Taikō Tennō ()", which means the departed emperor. His definitive posthumous name, (), was determined on January 13 and formally released on January 31 by Toshiki Kaifu, the prime minister. On February 24, Emperor Shōwa's state funeral was held, and unlike that of his predecessor, it was formal but not conducted in a strictly Shinto manner. A large number of world leaders attended the funeral, including U.S. President George H.W. Bush. Emperor Shōwa is buried in the Imperial mausoleum in Hachiōji, alongside Emperor Taishō, his father. Honours Collar and Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Blossoms Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Olav Knight of the Order of the Garter (KG), conferred in 1929, revoked in 1942, restored in 1971. "Britain wanted limited restoration of royal family's honors," Japan Policy & Politics. January 7, 2002. Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB), conferred in May 1921, London Gazette: Issue No. 32318, p. 3747 (May 9, 1921). revoked in 1942. Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO), conferred in 1921, revoked in 1942. Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece Naval History: Hirohito Showa. Honorary General in the British Army, conferred in May 1921 London Gazette : Issue No. 32324, p. 3917 (May 13, 1921). Honorary Field Marshal in the British Army, conferred in 1930, London Gazette: Issue No. 33691, p. 4028 (June 27, 1930). revoked 1942. Member of British Royal Society Scientific publications (1967) A review of the hydroids of the family Clathrozonidae with description of a new genus and species from Japan. (1969) Some hydroids from the Amakusa Islands. (1971) Additional notes on Clathrozoon wilsoni Spencer. (1974) Some hydrozoans of the Bonin Islands (1977) Five hydroid species from the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea. (1983) Hydroids from Izu Oshima and Nijima. (1984) A new hydroid Hydractinia bayeri n. sp. (family Hydractiniidae) from the Bay of Panama. (1988) The hydroids of Sagami Bay collected by His Majesty the Emperor of Japan. (1995) The hydroids of Sagami Bay II.(posthumous) See also Gyokuon-hōsō Japanese nationalism Imperial Japan The Sun—a biographical film about the Emperor Footnotes References Behr, Edward Hirohito: Behind the Myth, Villard, New York, 1989. - A controversial book that posited that Hirohito had a more active role in WWII than had publicly been portrayed; it contributed to the re-appraisal of his role. Bix, Herbert P. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, HarperCollins, 2000. ISBN 0-06-019314-X, A recent scholarly (and copiously sourced) look at the same issue. Fujiwara, Akira, Shōwa Tennō no Jū-go Nen Sensō (Shōwa Emperor's Fifteen-year War), Aoki Shoten, 1991. ISBN 4-250-91043-1 (Based on the primary sources) Hoyt, Edwin P. Hirohito: The Emperor and the Man, Praeger Publishers, 1992. ISBN 0-275-94069-1 Kawahara, Toshiaki Hirohito and His Times: A Japanese Perspective, Kodansha International, 1997. ISBN 0-87011-979-6 (Japanese official image) Mosley, Leonard Hirohito, Emperor of Japan, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1966. ISBN 1-111-75539-6 ISBN 1-199-99760-9, The first full-length biography, it gives his basic story. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Wetzler, Peter Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan, University of Hawaii Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8248-1925-X Yamada, Akira, Daigensui Shōwa Tennō (Shōwa Emperor as Commander in Chief), Shin-Nihon Shuppansha, 1994. ISBN 4-406-02285-6 (Based on the primary sources) External links Hirohito, Emperor @A Trivial Encyclopedia of Japan (with links in multiple languages) Kunaicho • Emperor Showa Hirohito biography and timeline at the Rotten Library Reflections on emperor Hirohito's death be-x-old:Хірахіта | Hirohito |@lemmatized also:8 know:7 april:3 january:11 emperor:166 japan:55 accord:16 traditional:4 order:20 reign:9 december:8 death:13 although:2 good:4 outside:2 personal:4 name:8 hirohito:39 refer:8 exclusively:1 posthumous:3 shōwa:41 increasingly:1 scholar:3 word:3 era:8 correspond:1 make:16 upon:3 japanese:46 without:1 long:1 historical:1 encompass:1 period:1 tremendous:2 change:2 society:4 start:2 still:4 fairly:1 rural:1 country:3 limited:2 industrial:2 base:4 militarization:1 eventually:1 lead:3 involvement:3 world:13 war:83 ii:14 end:8 unconditional:3 surrender:16 cooperate:1 reorganization:1 state:10 occupation:5 live:3 see:8 become:8 highly:1 urbanized:1 democracy:1 one:11 technological:1 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7,038 | Crane_shot | Crane shot In motion picture terminology, a crane shot is a shot taken by a camera on a crane. The most obvious uses are to view the actors from above or to move up and away from them, a common way of ending a movie. Some filmmakers like to have the camera on a boom arm just to make it easier to move around between ordinary set-ups. Most cranes accommodate both the camera and an operator, but some can be operated by remote control. One example of this technique is the shots taken by remote cranes in the car-chase sequence of To Live and Die in L.A.. The Western High Noon had a famous crane shot. The shot backs up and raises, in order to see Marshal Will Kane totally alone and isolated on the street. The television comedy Second City Television (SCTV) uses the concept of the crane shot as comedic material. After using a crane shot in one of the first NBC-produced episodes, the network complained about the exorbitant cost of renting the crane. SCTV writers responded by making the "crane shot" a ubiquitous symbol of production excess while also lampooning network executives who care nothing about artistic vision and everything for the bottom line. At the end of the second season, an inebriated Johnny LaRue is given his very own crane by Santa Claus, implying he would be able to have a crane shot whenever he wanted it. Jean-Luc Godard, in his film Sympathy for the Devil, used a crane for almost every shot in the movie, giving each scene a 360 degree tour of the tableau Godard presented to the viewer. In the final scene he even shows, on camera, the crane he was able to rent with his budget by including it in the scene somewhat. This was one of his traits as a filmmaker - showing off his budget - as he did with Brigitte Bardot in Le Mepris (Contempt). Director Dennis Dugan frequently uses top-to-bottom crane shots in his comedy films. | Crane_shot |@lemmatized crane:14 shot:12 motion:1 picture:1 terminology:1 take:2 camera:4 obvious:1 us:1 view:1 actor:1 move:2 away:1 common:1 way:1 end:2 movie:2 filmmaker:2 like:1 boom:1 arm:1 make:2 easy:1 around:1 ordinary:1 set:1 ups:1 cranes:1 accommodate:1 operator:1 operate:1 remote:2 control:1 one:3 example:1 technique:1 car:1 chase:1 sequence:1 live:1 die:1 l:1 western:1 high:1 noon:1 famous:1 back:1 raise:1 order:1 see:1 marshal:1 kane:1 totally:1 alone:1 isolate:1 street:1 television:2 comedy:2 second:2 city:1 sctv:2 use:4 concept:1 comedic:1 material:1 first:1 nbc:1 produce:1 episode:1 network:2 complain:1 exorbitant:1 cost:1 rent:2 writer:1 respond:1 ubiquitous:1 symbol:1 production:1 excess:1 also:1 lampoon:1 executive:1 care:1 nothing:1 artistic:1 vision:1 everything:1 bottom:2 line:1 season:1 inebriated:1 johnny:1 larue:1 give:2 santa:1 claus:1 imply:1 would:1 able:2 whenever:1 want:1 jean:1 luc:1 godard:2 film:2 sympathy:1 devil:1 almost:1 every:1 scene:3 degree:1 tour:1 tableau:1 present:1 viewer:1 final:1 even:1 show:2 budget:2 include:1 somewhat:1 trait:1 brigitte:1 bardot:1 le:1 mepris:1 contempt:1 director:1 dennis:1 dugan:1 frequently:1 top:1 |@bigram motion_picture:1 santa_claus:1 jean_luc:1 luc_godard:1 brigitte_bardot:1 |
7,039 | Glossary_of_poker_terms | The following is a glossary of poker terms used in the card game of poker. Besides the terms listed here, there are thousands of common and uncommon poker slang terms. This is not intended to be a formal dictionary; precise usage details and multiple closely related senses are omitted here in favor of concise treatment of the basics. A ace-to-five, ace-to-six Methods of evaluating low hands. See lowball. act To make a play (bet, call, raise, or fold) at the required time. It is Ted's turn to act. Compare to "in turn". action A player's turn to act. The action is on you. A willingness to gamble. I'll give you action or There's plenty of action in this game. A bet, along with all the calls of that bet. For example, if one player makes a $5 bet and three other players call, he is said to have $5 "in action", and to have received $15 worth of action on his bet. Usually this term comes into play when figuring side pots when one or more players is all in. See table stakes. action button A marker similar to a kill button, on which a player places an extra forced bet. In a seven-card stud high-low game, the action button is awarded to the winner of a scoop pot above a certain size, signifying that in the next pot, that player will be required to post an amount representing a completion of the bring-in to a full bet. For example, in a stud game with $2 and $4 betting limits and a $1 bring-in, a player with the action button must post $2; after the cards are dealt, the player with the low card must still pay the $1 bring-in, then when the betting reaches the player who posted the $2, he is required to leave it in as a raise of the bring-in (and has the option to raise further). Players in between the bring-in and the action button can just call the bring-in, but they know ahead of time that they will be raised by the action button. action card In Texas hold 'em or other community card games, a card appearing on the board that causes significant betting action because it helps two or more players. For example, an ace on the flop when two players each hold an ace. action only In many cardrooms, with respect to an all-in bet, only a full (or half) bet can be reraised. Anything less than a full (or half) bet is considered to be action only, that is, other players can call the bet but not raise it. For example, Alice bets $100. Bob calls. Carol goes all in for $119. When the action returns to Alice and Bob, they may only call the extra $19; they cannot raise it. Carol's raise is called action only. Compare to "full bet rule", "half bet rule". active player A player still involved in the pot. If there are side pots, an all-in player may be active in some pots, but not in others. add-on In a live game, to buy more chips before you have busted. In tournament play, a single rebuy for which all players are eligible regardless of their stack size. This is usually allowed only once, at the end of the rebuy period. The add-on often offers more chips per dollar invested than the buyin and rebuys. Compare with "rebuy". advertising To make an obvious play or expose cards in such a way as to deliberately convey an impression to your opponents about your style of play. For example, to make a bad play or bluff to give the impression that you bluff frequently (hoping opponents will then call your legitimate bets) or to show only good hands to give the impression that you rarely bluff (hoping opponents will then fold when you do). aggressive, aggression See aggression. Compare to "loose", "tight", "passive". air In lowball, "giving air" is letting an opponent who might otherwise fold know that you intend to draw one or more cards to induce him to call. Nothing, as in That last bluff was with total air, or I caught air on the river. all in Having bet all of your chips in the current hand. See all in. angle A technically legal, but borderline unethical, play. For example, deliberately miscalling one's own hand to induce a fold, or placing odd amounts of chips in the pot to confuse opponents about whether you mean to call or raise. A player employing such tactics is called an "angle shooter". ante See ante. ante off In tournament play, to force an absent player to continue paying antes, blinds, bring-ins, or other forced bets so that the contest remains fair to the other players. Go ahead and take that phone call. We'll ante you off until you get back. Also "blind off". B backdoor A draw requiring two or more rounds to fill. For example, catching two consecutive cards in two rounds of seven-card stud or Texas hold 'em to fill a straight or flush. A hand made other than the hand the player intended to make. I started with four hearts hoping for a flush, but I backdoored two more kings and my trips won. back in To enter a pot by checking and then calling someone else's open on the first betting round. Usually used in games like Jackpots, meaning to enter without openers. back into To win a pot with a hand that would have folded to any bet. For example, two players enter a pot of draw poker, both drawing to flushes. Both miss, and check after the draw. The player with the ace-high draw "backs into" winning the pot against the player with only a king-high draw. Also to make a backdoor draw, for example, a player who starts a hand with three of a kind, but makes a runner-runner flush, can be said to back into the flush. backraise A reraise from a player that previously limped in the same betting round. I decided to backraise with my pocket eights to isolate the all-in player. Also limp-reraise. bad beat See bad beat. bank Also called the house, the person responsible for distributing chips, keeping track of the buy-ins, and paying winners at the end of the game. bankroll The amount of money that a player has to wager for the duration of his or her poker career. A very chip or money rich player. behind Not (currently) having the best hand. I'm pretty sure my pair of jacks was behind Lou's kings, but I had other outs, so I kept playing. Describing money in play but not visible as chips in front of a player. For example, a player may announce "I've got $100 behind" while handing money to a casino employee, meaning that he intends those chips to be in play as soon as they are brought to him. bet Any money wagered during the play of a hand. More specifically, the opening bet of a betting round. In a fixed limit game, the standard betting amount. There were six bets in the pot when I called. betting structure The complete set of rules regarding forced bets, limits, raise caps, and such for a particular game. See betting. big bet See big bet. big bet game A game played with a no limit or pot limit betting structure. big blind See blind. big blind special See big blind special big full The best possible full house in community card games. I had the big full when the flop came A-A-5 and my hole cards were A-5. A stronger hand than the "underfull". blank A card, frequently a community card, of no apparent value. I suspected Margaret had a good draw, but the river card was a blank, so I bet again. Compare to "rag", "brick", "bomb". blaze A Non-standard poker hand of five face cards that outranks a flush. bleed Consistently losing chips through bad play, possibly resulting from tilt. When a player is consistently losing chips, it is referred to as "bleeding chips". blind A type of forced bet. See blind. In the "dark". blind stud A stud poker game in which all cards are dealt face down. Was popular in California before legal rulings made traditional stud legal there. blind off, blinded To "ante off". To have one's stack reduced by paying ever increasing blinds in tournaments. Ted had to make a move soon or he would be blinded away in three more rounds. blocker In community card poker, refers to holding one of the opponent's outs, typically when the board threatens a straight or straight draw. A blocker is also having a combination of cards that turn your opponents outs into your own, such as having four to a straight flush. The two cards to give you a straight flush are blockers against his high flush draw.The board was A23 but with my pair of fives I held two blockers to the straight. Compare to "dry ace". blocking bet An abnormally small bet made by a player out of position intended to block a larger bet by an opponent. bluff See bluff. board The set of community cards in a community card game. If another spade hits the board, I'll have to fold. The set of face-up cards of a particular player in a stud game. Zack's board didn't look too scary, so I bet into him again. The set of all face-up cards in a stud game. I started with a flush draw, but there were already four other diamonds showing on the board, so I folded. boat Another name for Full house both ways Both halves of a split pot, often declared by a player who thinks he or she will win both low and high. bottom end The lowest of several possible straights, especially in a community card game. For example, in Texas hold 'em with the cards 5-6-7 on the board, a player holding 3-4 has the bottom end straight, while a player holding 4-8 or 8-9 has a higher straight. Also "idiot end". bottom pair, bottom set In a community card game, a pair (or set) made by matching the lowest-ranking board card with one (or two) in one's private hand. Compare second pair, top pair. bounty An aspect of some poker tournaments that rewards players for eliminating other players with a cash prize for each player they eliminate, separate from the tournament payout structure. See bounty box The chip tray in front of a house dealer, and by extension, the house dealer's position at the table. You've been in the box for an hour now; don't you get a break? boxed card A card encountered face-up in the assembled deck during the deal, as opposed to one overturned in the act of dealing. Most house rules treat a boxed card as if it didn't exist; that is, it is placed aside and not used. Different rules cover cards exposed during the deal. break In a draw poker game, to discard cards that make a made hand in the hope of making a much better one. For example, a player with J-J-10-9-8 may wish to break his pair of jacks to draw for the straight, and a lowball player may break his 9-high 9-5-4-2-A to draw for the wheel. In a Jacks-or-better draw game, a player breaking a high pair must keep the discarded card aside, to prove he had openers. To end a session of play. The game broke at about 3:00. During a tournament, an interval where play ceases and the players are free to refresh or relieve themselves. brick A "blank", though more often used in the derogatory sense of a card that is undesirable rather than merely inconsequential, such as a card of high rank or one that makes a pair in a low-hand game. Also known as a bomb. Compare to "rags". brick & mortar A brick & mortar or B&M casino is a term referring to a "real" casino based in a building, as opposed to an online casino. This term is used to refer to many real world locations vs. their Internet counterparts. It is not just a poker term or even a gambling term; it is often used in e-commerce in similar situations. bridge order Poker is neutral about suits. A spade flush and a club flush with all ranks matching is a tie. But in determining the dealer at the start of a game, or in determining the bringin bettor in a stud game, bridge rank rules: Spades beat hearts beat diamonds beat clubs. It's convenient but coincidental that this works out to reverse alphabetical order. bring in To open a betting round. Alice brought it in for $4, and Bob raised to $10. A forced bet in stud games. In the first betting round, the holder of the worst (lowest or highest, depending) upcard must post a bring-in bet. The bring-in bet is typically a quarter to a third of a small bet. The bring-in bettor may look at his cards, and place a full bet if he deems it wise. broadway A 10 through ace straight. brush A casino employee whose job it is to greet players entering the poker room, maintain the list of persons waiting to play, announce open seats, and various other duties (including brushing off tables to prepare them for new games, hence the name). To recruit players into a game. Dave is brushing up some players for tonight's game. bubble The last finishing position in a poker tournament before entering the payout structure. He was very frustrated after getting eliminated on the bubble. Also can be applied to other situations like if six players will make a televised final table the player finishing seventh will go out on the "TV bubble". Also used to describe any situation close to the payout structure. buck See button. bug See bug. Compare to wild card. bully A player who raises frequently to force out more cautious players, especially one with a large stake for the size of the game (a "big stack" bully). Gus Hansen burn card, burn See burn card. busted Not complete, such as four cards to a straight that never gets the fifth card to complete it. Out of chips. To "bust out" is to lose all of one's chips. button See button. Also "buck" or "hat". The most common button indicates the dealer position at the table, but other specialized buttons exist. buy-in The minimum required amount of chips that must be "bought" to become involved in a game (or tournament). For example, a $4-$8 fixed limit game might require a player to buy at least $40 worth of chips. This is typically far less than an average player would expect to play with for any amount of time, but large enough that the player can play a number of hands without buying more, so the game isn't slowed down by constant chip-buying. buy short To buy into a game for an amount smaller than the normal buy-in. Some casinos allow this under certain circumstances, such as after having lost a full buy-in, or if all players agree to allow it. buy the button A rule originating in northern California casinos in games played with blinds, in which a new player sitting down with the button to his right (who would normally be required to sit out a hand as the button passed him, then post to come in) may choose to pay the amount of both blinds for this one hand (the amount of the large blind playing as a live blind, and the amount of the small blind as dead money), play this hand, and then receive the button on the next hand as if he had been playing all along. See public cardroom rules. A tactic most often used by late-position players: a raise to encourage the later and button players to fold, thus giving the raiser last position in subsequent betting rounds. buy the pot Making a bet when no one else is betting so as to force the other players to fold, thus winning the pot uncontested. A specialized version of this is "buying the blinds" by making a large raise in the first round forcing all other players out of the game. C call See call. call the clock A method of discouraging players from taking an excessively long time to act. When someone calls the clock, the player has a set amount of time in which to make up his mind; if he fails to do so, his hand is immediately declared dead. In tournament play, a common rule is that if a player takes too long and no one calls the clock, the dealer or floor personnel will automatically do so. calling station See calling station. cap A limit on the number of raises allowed in a betting round. Typically three or four (in addition the opening bet). In most casinos, the cap is removed if there are only two players remaining either (1) at the beginning of the betting round, or (2) at the time that what would have otherwise been the last raise is made. Also, term for the chip, token, or object placed atop one's cards to show continued involvement with a hand. cap game Similar to "cap" above, but used to describe a no-limit or pot limit game with a cap on the amount that a player can bet during the course of a hand. Once the cap is reached, all players remaining in the hand are considered all-in. For example, a no limit game could have a betting cap of 30 times the big blind. cards speak See cards speak. case card The last available card of a certain description (typically a rank). The only way I can win is to catch the case king., meaning the only king remaining in the deck. cash game See ring game. cash plays An announcement, usually by a dealer, that a player requested to buy chips and can bet the cash he has on the table in lieu of chips until he receives his chips. catch To receive needed cards on a draw. I'm down 300--I can't catch anything today. or Joe caught his flush early, but I caught the boat on seventh street to beat him. Often used with an adjective to further specify, for example "catch perfect", "catch inside", "catch smooth". catch up To successfully complete a draw, thus defeating a player who previously had a better hand. I was sure I had Alice beat, but she caught up when that spade fell. catch perfect To catch the only two possible cards that will complete a hand and win the pot, usually those leading to a straight flush. Usually used in Texas hold 'em. Compare with "runner-runner". center pot The main pot in a table stakes game where one or more players are all in. chase To call a bet to see the next card when holding a drawing hand when the pot odds do not merit it. To continue to play a drawing hand over multiple betting rounds, especially one unlikely to succeed. Bob knew I made three nines on fourth street, but he chased that flush draw all the way to the river. To continue playing with a hand that is not likely the best because one has already invested money in the pot. See sunk cost fallacy. check To bet nothing. See check. A casino chip. check out To fold, in turn, even though there is no bet facing the player. In some games this is considered a breach of etiquette equivalent to folding out of turn. In others it is permitted, but frowned upon. check-raise See check-raise. chip See casino token. chip declare A method of declaring intent to play high or low in a split-pot game with declaration. See declaration. chip dumping A form of collusion that happens during tournaments, especially in the early rounds. Two or more players decide to go all-in early. The winner gets a large amount of chips, which increases the player's chance of cashing. The winnings are then split among the colluders. chip leader The player currently holding the most chips in a tournament (or occasionally a live no limit game). chip race See chip race. chip up To exchange lower-denomination chips for higher-denomination chips. In tournament play, the term means to remove all the small chips from play by rounding up any odd small chips to the nearest large denomination, rather than using a chip race. To steadily accumulate chips in tournament play, typically by winning small pots with minimal risk-taking. chop To split a pot because of a tie, split-pot game, or player agreement. To play a game for a short time and cash out. Also "hit and run". A request made by a player to a dealer after taking a large-denomination chip that he wishes the dealer to make change. To chop blinds. An agreement by all players remaining in a tournament to distribute the remaining money in the prize pool according to an agreed-upon formula instead of playing the tournament to completion. Usually occurs at the final table of a large tournament. chopping the blinds See chopping the blinds. closed See closed. coffee housing Talking in an attempt to mislead other players about the strength of a hand. For example a player holding A-A as their first two cards might say "lets gamble here", implying a much weaker holding. Coffee housing is considered bad etiquette in the UK, but not in the USA. This is also called speech play. cold call To call an amount that represents a sum of bets or raises by more than one player. Alice opened for $10, Bob raised another $20, and Carol cold called the $30. Compare to "flat call", "overcall". cold deck See cold deck. Also "stacked deck", "ice" or "cooler". collusion A form of cheating involving cooperation among two or more players. See cheating in poker. color change, color up To exchange small-denomination chips for larger ones. combo, combination game A casino table at which multiple forms of poker are played in rotation. come bet, on the come A bet or raise made with a drawing hand, building the pot in anticipation of filling the draw. Usually a weak "gambler's" play, but occasionally correct with a very good draw and large pot or as a semi-bluff. community card See community card poker. complete hand See made hand. completion To raise a small bet up to the amount of what would be a normal-sized bet. For example, in a $2/$4 stud game with $1 bring-in, a player after the bring-in may raise it to $2, completing what would otherwise be a sub-minimum bet up to the normal minimum. Also in limit games, if one player raises all in for less than the normally required minimum, a later player might complete the raise to the normal minimum (depending on house rules). See table stakes. connectors Two or more cards of consecutive rank. continuation bet A bet made after the flop by the player who took the lead in betting before the flop (Texas hold 'em and Omaha hold 'em). Compare to "probe bet". cooler See cold deck. countdown The act of counting the cards that remain in the stub after all cards have been dealt, done by a dealer to ensure that a complete deck is being used. counterfeit See counterfeit. Also "duplicate". cow A player with whom one is sharing a buy-in, with the intent to split the result after play. To "go cow" is to make such an arrangement. cripple In some community card games, to cripple the deck means to have a hand that is virtually impossible for anyone else to catch up to. For example, in Texas hold 'em, if a player's hole cards are A-T and the flop is A-A-T the player has "crippled the deck"; though that player's hand is high (probably unbeatable), other players are unlikely to see any possibility for improvement and will probably fold. Such a hand generally doesn't gain much money for the player holding such a hand, however it is possible to win a large amount through #slow play. crying call Calling when a player thinks he does not have the best hand. cut See cut. cut card A distinctive card, usually stiff solid-colored plastic, held against the bottom of the deck during the deal to prevent observation of the bottom card. cutoff The seat immediately to the right of the dealer button. In home games where the player on the button actually shuffles and deals the cards, the player in the cutoff seat cuts the deck (hence the name). D dark Describing an action taken before receiving information to which the player would normally be entitled. I'm drawing three, and I check in the dark. Compare to "blind". dead blind A blind that is not "live", in that the player posting it does not have the option to raise if other players just call. Usually refers to a small blind posted by a player entering, or returning to, a game (in a position other than the big blind) that is posted in addition to a live blind equal to the big blind. dead button See dead button rule. dead hand A player's hand that is not entitled to participate in the deal for some reason, such as having been fouled by touching another player's cards, being found to contain the wrong number of cards, being dealt to a player who did not make the appropriate forced bets, etc. dead man's hand See Dead Man's Hand. dead money See dead money. deal To distribute cards to players in accordance with the rules of the game being played. A single instance of a game of poker, begun by shuffling the cards and ending with the award of a pot. Also called a "hand" (though both terms are ambiguous). An agreement to split tournament prize money differently from the announced payouts. deal twice In a cash game, when two players are involved in a large pot and one is all-in, they might agree to deal the remaining cards twice. If one player wins both times he wins the whole pot, but if both players win one hand they split the pot. Also, "play twice". dealer The person dealing the cards. Give Alice the cards, she's dealing. The person who assumes that role for the purposes of betting order in a game, even though someone else might be physically dealing. Also "button". Compare to "buck". dealer's choice A version of poker in which the deal passes each game and each dealer can choose, or invent, a new poker game each hand or orbit. declare To verbally indicate an action or intention. See declaration. defense See defense. deuce A 2-spot card. Also called a duck, quack, or swan. Any of various related uses of the number two, such as a $2 limit game, a $2 chip, etc. deuce-to-seven A method of evaluating low hands. See Deuce-to-seven low. dirty stack A stack of chips apparently of a single denomination, but with one or more chips of another. Usually the result of inattention while stacking a pot, but may also be an intentional deception. discard To take a previously dealt card out of play. The set of all discards for a deal is called the "muck" or the "deadwood". dominated hand A hand that is extremely unlikely to win against another specific hand, even though it may not be a poor hand in its own right. Most commonly used in Texas hold 'em. A hand like A-Q, for example, is a good hand in general but is dominated by A-K, because whenever the former makes a good hand, the latter is likely to make a better one. A hand like 7-8 is a poor hand in general, but is not dominated by A-K because it makes different kinds of hands. See also domination. door card In a stud game, a player's first face-up card. Patty paired her door card on fifth street and raised, so I put her on trips. In Texas hold 'em, the door card is the first visible card of the flop. In Draw poker, the sometimes visible card at the bottom of a player's hand. Players will often deliberately expose this card, especially at lowball. double-ace flush Under unconventional rules, a flush with one or more wild cards in which they play as aces, even if an ace is already present. double-board, double-flop Any of several community card game variants (usually Texas hold 'em) in which two separate boards of community cards are dealt simultaneously, with the pot split between the winning hands using each board. double-draw Any of several Draw poker games in which the draw phase and subsequent betting round are repeated twice. double raise The minimum raise in a no-limit or pot-limit game, raising by just the amount of the current bet. double suited Used to describe an Omaha hold 'em starting hand where two pairs of suited cards are held. May be abbreviated "ds" in written descriptions. AAJT (ds) is widely considered a premium pot-limit Omaha hold 'em starting hand. double up, double through In a big bet game, to bet all of one's chips on one hand against a single opponent (who has an equal or larger stack) and win, thereby doubling your stack. I was losing a bit, but then I doubled through Sarah to put me in good shape. downcard A card that is dealt facedown. drag light To pull chips away from the pot to indicate that you don't have enough money to cover a bet. If you win, the amount is ignored. If you lose, you must cover the amount from your pocket. This is not allowed at any casino or any but the most casual home games; see table stakes. draw, drawing hand See draw. drawing dead Playing a drawing hand that will lose even if successful (a state of affairs usually only discovered after the fact or in a tournament when two or more players are "all in" and they show their cards). I caught the jack to make my straight, but Rob had a full house all along, so I was drawing dead. drawing live Not drawing dead; that is, drawing to a hand that will win if successful. drawing thin Not drawing completely dead, but chasing a draw in the face of poor odds. Example: a player who will only win by catching 1 or 2 specific cards is said to be drawing thin. drop To fold. Money charged by the casino for providing its services, often dropped through a slot in the table into a strong box. See "rake". To drop ones cards to the felt to indicate that one is in or out of a game. dry ace In Omaha hold 'em or Texas hold 'em, refers to an ace in one's hand without another card of the same suit. Used especially to describe the situation where the board presents a flush possibility, when the player does not in fact have a flush, but holding the ace presents some bluffing or semi-bluffing opportunity. Compare to "blocker". dry pot A side pot with no money created when a player goes all in and is called by more than one opponent, but not raised. duplicate To counterfeit, especially when the counterfeiting card matches one already present in the one's hand. E early position See position. eight or better A common qualifier in High-low split games that use Ace-5 ranking. Only hands where the highest card is an eight or smaller can win the low portion of the pot. equity One's mathematical expected value from the current deal, calculated by multiplying the amount of money in the pot by one's probability of winning. For example, if the pot currently contains $100, and you estimate that you have a one in four chance of winning it, then your equity in the pot is $25. If a split is possible, the equity also includes the probability of winning a split times the size of that split; for example, if the pot has $100, and you have a 1/4 chance of winning and a 1/5 chance of taking a $50 split, your equity is $25 + $10 = $35. expectation, expected value, EV See expected value. Often used in poker to mean "profitability in the long run". exposed card A card whose face has been deliberately or accidentally revealed to players normally not entitled to that information during the play of the game. Various games have different rules about how to handle this irregularity. Compare to "boxed card". F family pot A deal in which every (or almost every) seated player called the first opening bet. fast Aggressive play. I was afraid of too many chasers, so I played my trips fast. Compare to "speeding". feeder In a casino setting, a second or third table playing the same game as a "main" table, and from which players move to the main game as players there leave. Also called a "must-move table." felt The cloth covering of a poker table, whatever the actual material. Metaphorically, the table itself: Doyle and I have played across the felt. Also used to refer to table felt made visible by being uncluttered with chips from a player having lost them all or taken all of an opponent's. I felted Carla when I filled up against her flush. fifth street The last card dealt to the board in community card games. Also "river". The fifth card dealt to each player in stud poker. fill, fill up To successfully draw to a hand that needs one card to complete it, by getting the last card of a straight, flush, or full house. Jerry made his flush when I was betting my kings up, but I filled on seventh street to catch up. final table The last table in a multi-table poker tournament. The final table is set when a sufficient amount of people have been eliminated from the tournament leaving an exact amount of players to occupy one table (typically no more than ten players). five of a kind A hand possible only in games with wild cards, or a game with more than one deck, defeating all other hands, comprising five cards of equal rank. fixed limit, flat limit See fixed limits. flash To show the bottom card of the deck while shuffling. To show one or more downcards from one's hand. After everyone folded, Ted flashed his bluff to the other players. flat call A call, in a situation where one might be expected to raise. Normally I raise with jacks, but with three limpers ahead of me I decided to flat call. Also "smooth call". Compare to "cold call", "overcall". See slow play. float Calling a bet in order to take a pot down later, kind of like a bluff slowplay or a bluff call. e.g. You call suspected continuation bets on the flop in the hopes that the bettor will give up his unimproved AK and check on the turn. You then bet and hopefully take the pot away from the preflop aggressor. We are floating over the other guys flop bet looking for an opportunity to take the pot. floorman, floorperson A casino employee whose duties include adjudicating player disputes, keeping games filled and balanced, and managing dealers and other personnel. Players may shout "floor!" to call for a floorperson to resolve a dispute, to ask for a table or seat change, or to ask for some other casino service. flop See flop flop game A community card game. flush A hand comprising five cards of the same suit. See rank of hands. fold See fold. fold equity The extra value gained by forcing your opponents to fold, rather than seeing the showdown. See also equity. forced bet See forced bets. forced-move In a casino where more than one table is playing the same game with the same betting structure, one of the tables may be designated the "main" table, and will be kept full by requiring a player to move from one of the feeder tables to fill any vacancies. Players will generally be informed that their table is a "forced-move" table to be used in this way before they agree to play there. Also "must-move". forward motion A house rule of some casinos states that if a player in turn picks up chips from his stack and moves his hand toward the pot ("forward motion with chips in hand"), this constitutes a commitment to bet (or call), and the player may not withdraw his hand to check or fold. Such a player still has the choice of whether to call or raise. Compare to "string bet". fouled hand A hand that is ruled unplayable because of an irregularity, such as being found with too many or too few cards, having been mixed with cards of other players or the muck, having fallen off the table, etc. Compare to "dead hand". four-flush Four cards of the same suit. A non-standard poker hand in some games, an incomplete drawing hand in most. four of a kind A hand containing four cards of equal rank. Also "quads". See rank of hands. four-straight Four cards in rank sequence; either an open-ender or one-ender. A non-standard poker hand in some games, an incomplete drawing hand in most. Sometimes "four to a straight". fourth street The fourth card dealt to the board in community card games. Also "turn". The fourth card dealt to each player in stud. free card A card dealt to one's hand (or to the board of community cards) after a betting round in which no player opened. One is thereby being given a chance to improve one's hand without having to pay anything. I wasn't sure my hand was good, but I bet so I wouldn't give a free card to Bill's flush draw. freeroll See freeroll. freezeout The most common form of tournament. There's no rebuy, play continues until one player has all the chips. full house, full boat, full hand, full A hand with three cards of one rank and two of a second rank. Also "boat", "tight". See rank of hands. full bet rule In some casinos, the rule that a player must wager the full amount required in order for his action to constitute a raise. For example, in a game with a $4 fixed limit, a player facing an opening bet of $4 who wagers $7 is deemed to have flat called, because $8 is required to raise. Compare to "half bet rule". See Public cardroom rules and "All in" betting. G gap hand In Texas hold 'em, a gap hand is a starting hand with at least one rank separating the two cards. Usually referred to in context of one-gap and two-gap hands. going south To sneak a portion of your chips from the table while the game is underway. Normally prohibited in public card rooms. Also "ratholing". grinder A player who earns a living by making small profits over a long period of consistent, conservative play. Compare to "rock". guts, guts to open A game with no opening hand requirement; that is, where the only requirement to open the betting is "guts", or courage. Any of several poker variants where pots accumulate over several hands until a single player wins. See guts. gut shot, gutshot See inside straight draw. gypsy To enter the pot cheaply by just calling the blind rather than raising. Also "limp". H half bet rule In some casinos, the rule that placing chips equal to or greater than half the normal bet amount beyond the amount required to call constitutes a commitment to raise the normal amount. For example, in a game with a $4 fixed limit, a player facing a $4 opening bet who places $6 in the pot is deemed to have raised, and must complete his bet to $8. Compare to "full bet rule". See Public cardroom rules and "all in" betting. hand See hand. hand-for-hand See hand-for-hand. hand history The textual representation of a hand (or hands) played in an Internet cardroom. See Poker tools. hanger When the bottom card of the deck sticks out beyond the others, an unwanted tell that the dealer is dealing from the bottom of the deck. heads up Playing against a single opponent. After Lori folded, Frank and I were heads up for the rest of the hand. heater See rush. high hand, high The best hand using traditional poker hand values, as opposed to lowball. Used especially in high-low split games. high card A no pair hand, ranked according to its highest-ranking cards. To defeat another player by virtue of high-ranking cards, especially kickers. To randomly select a player for some purpose by having each draw one card, the highest of which is selected (for example, to decide who deals first). When all the players get here, we'll high card for the button. Often high card by suit is used for this purpose. high-low, high-low split See high-low split. hijack seat The seat to the right of the cutoff seat, or second to the right of the button. hole cards, hole Face-down cards. Also "pocket cards". I think Willy has two more queens in the hole. A seat, often preceded by a number relative to the button. Sara opened from the 2-hole. hole cam a camera that displays a player's face-down cards ("hole cards") to television viewers. Also "pocket cam". home game A game played at a private venue (usually the home of one of the players), as opposed to a casino or public cardroom. horse A player financially backed by someone else. I lost today, but Larry was my horse in the stud game, and he won big. H.O.R.S.E. See H.O.R.S.E.. I ignorant end, idiot end In flop games, a player drawing to, or even flopping, a straight with undercards to the flop has the idiot end of it. A player with 8-9 betting on a flop of A-T-J puts himself at great risk, because many of the cards that complete his straight give credible opponents higher ones. implied pot odds, implied odds See implied pot odds. improve To achieve a better hand than one currently holds by adding or exchanging cards as provided in the rules of the game being played. I didn't think Paula was bluffing, so I decided not to call unless I improved on the draw. inside straight See inside straight draw. Also "belly buster", "gutshot". Compare to outside straight draw. insurance A "business" deal in which players agree to split or reduce a pot (roughly in proportion to the chances of each of them winning) with more cards to come rather than playing out the hand, or else a deal where one player makes a side bet against himself with a third party to hedge against a large loss. in the middle In a game with multiple blinds, an incoming player may sometimes be allowed to post the blinds "in the middle" (that is, out of their normal order) rather than having to wait for them to pass. A player being whipsawed is said to be "in the middle". in the money To place high enough in a poker tournament to get prize money. Also "ITM". in turn A player, or an action, is said to be in turn if that player is expected to act next under the rules. Jerry said "check" while he was in turn, so he's not allowed to raise. irregular declaration An action taken by a player in turn that is not a straightforward declaration of intent, but that is reasonably interpreted as an action by other players, such as pointing a thumb up to signify "raise". House rules or dealer discretion may determine when such actions are meaningful and/or binding. irregularity Any of a number of abnormal conditions in play, such as unexpectedly exposed cards, that may call for corrective action. See Public cardroom rules. isolation See isolation. J jackpot A game of "jackpot poker" or "jackpots", which is a variant of five-card draw with an ante from each player, no blinds, and an opening requirement of a pair of jacks or better. A large pool of money collected by the house and awarded for some rare occurrence, typically a bad beat. joker A 53rd card used mostly in draw games. The joker may usually be used as an Ace, or a card to complete a straight or flush, in high games, and as the lowest card not already present in a hand at low. See bug. A joker may give a player a great many outs. juice Money collected by the house. Also "vig", "vigorish". See rake. K kicker See kicker. kill game, kill pot See kill game. kitty A pool of money built by collecting small amounts from certain pots, often used to buy refreshments, cards, and so on. The home-game equivalent of a rake. L lag A "loose aggressive" style of play in which a player plays a lot of starting hands and makes many small raises in hopes of out-playing his opponents. laydown A tough choice to fold a good hand in anticipation of superior opposition. lead The player who makes the last bet or raise in a round of betting is said to have the lead at the start of the next round. Can also be used as a verb meaning to bet out into the pot, "to lead into the pot." level Used in tournament play to refer to the size of the blinds which are periodically increased. For example, in the first level the small blind / big blind may be $50 / $100, in the second level the blinds may be $100 / $200. leg-up, leg-up button The button used to signify who has won the previous hand in a kill game. Winning a pot in a "2 consecutive pots" kill game with the leg-up button in front of you, results in a kill. light A hand which is not likely to be best. Usually used as an action descriptor; "call light", "3-bet light". See semi-bluff. limit The minimum or maximum amount of a bet. See fixed limit. limp, limp in To enter a pot by simply calling the bet to them instead of raising, called so because a player with a marginal hand may be willing to pay the minimum to see more cards, but would likely fold if the bet increased further. limp-reraise A reraise from a player that previously limped in the same betting round. I decided to limp-reraise with my pocket eights to isolate the all-in player. Also backraise. live bet A bet posted by a player under conditions that give him the option to raise even if no other player raises first; typically because it was posted as a blind or straddle, or to enter a new game. live cards In stud poker games, cards that will improve your hand that have not been seen among anyone's upcards, and are therefore presumably still available. In games such as Texas hold 'em, a player's hand is said to contain "live" cards if matching either of them on the board would give that player the lead over his opponent. Typically used to describe a hand that is weak, but not dominated. live game A game with a lot of action, usually including many unskilled players, especially maniacs. See also live poker, below. live poker A retronym for poker played with at a table with cards, as opposed to video poker or online poker. lock up To "lock up" a seat in a cash game means to place a poker chip, player's card, or other personal effect on the table in front of the seat, to signify that the seat is occupied even though the player may not be present. loose See loose/tight play. Compare to "tight", "aggressive", "passive". low The lowest card by rank. The low half of the pot in a high-low split. M M-ratio A measure of the health of a chip stack as a function of the cost to play each round. See M-ratio. made hand See made hand. Compare to a drawing hand. match the pot To put in an amount equal to all the chips in the pot. micro-limit Internet poker games with stakes so small that real cardrooms couldn't possibly profit from them, are said to be at the "micro-limit" level (e.g. 25¢-50¢). misdeal A deal which is ruined for some reason and must be redealt. missed blind A required bet that is not posted when it is a player's turn to do so, perhaps occurring when a player absents himself from the table. Various rules require the missed bet to be made up upon the player's return. move in In a no-limit game, to "move in" or to "go all in" means to bet one's entire stake on the hand in play. See table stakes. muck To fold. To discard one's hand without revealing the cards. Often done after winning without a showdown or at a showdown when a better hand has already been revealed. The discard pile "There were only a couple of cards in the muck" multi-way pot A pot where several players compete for it. Also known as a family pot. N negative freeroll See negative freeroll. no-limit Rules designating players are allowed to wager any or all of their chips in a single bet. See no-limit. nut hand (the nuts) The nut hand is the best possible hand in a given situation. See nut hand. O offsuit Cards that are not of the same suit. The ace of clubs and the king of spades are called ace-king offsuit one-chip rule A call of a previous bet using a chip of higher denomination than necessary is considered a call unless it is verbally announced as a raise. one-eyed royals See one-eyed royals. one-ended straight draw Four out of five cards needed for a straight that can only be completed with one specific rank of card, in cases where the needed card rank is either higher or lower than the cards already held as part of the sequence; as opposed to an inside straight draw or an open-ended straight draw While A-2-3-4 and A-K-Q-J are the only truly one-ended straight draw possibilities, an open-ended straight draw could be considered one-ended if one of the card ranks needed to complete it would also give an opponent a hand of higher rank than a straight. Example: Player A has 8s-9c in the pocket, Player B has 10d-10c in the pocket. The flop and turn were 7c-6d-Ks-6h. Player B would complete a full house with a 6 or a 10. Player A would complete a straight with a 5 or a 10. While strictly speaking Player A has an open-ended straight draw, it can also be referred to as a one-ended straight draw because one of the ends - the 10 - would not help the hand. The odds of completing a one-ended straight draw are the same as the odds of completing an inside straight draw open To bet first. See open. open-ended straight draw, open-ended An outside straight draw. Also "two-way straight draw". openers The cards held by a player in a game of "jackpots" entitling him to open the pot. "Splitting openers" refers to holding onto one of your openers after discarding it to prove you had the necessary cards to open should you win the pot. open limp Being the first person in the pot preflop, but not raising. option An optional bet or draw, such as getting an extra card facedown for 50 cents or raising on the big blind when checked all the way around. The right to raise possessed by the big blind if there have been no raises. outs See out. outside straight draw See outside straight draw. Also "two-way straight draw". overbet To make a bet that is more than the size of the pot in a no limit game. overcall To call a bet after others have called, esp. big bets. Jim bet, Alice called, then Ted overcalled. Compare to "cold call", "flat call", "smooth call". overcard A community card with a higher rank than a player's pocket pair. A higher card. Ted held two overcards to Jill's pair with two cards to come. overpair In community card games such as Texas hold 'em and Omaha hold 'em, a pocket pair with a higher rank than any community card. overs An option to increase the stakes in limit games. Players may elect to play or not play overs; those who choose to play display some sort of token. If, at the beginning of a betting round after the first, only overs players remain in the hand, bets of twice the present limit are allowed. Most often used in home games as a compromise between aggressive and meek players. P paint Any royal card. Used mostly in lowball games, where royal cards are rarely helpful. pair See one pair passive A style of play characterized by checking and calling. Compare to "aggressive", "loose", "tight". pat Already complete. A hand is a pat hand when, for example, a flush comes on the first five cards dealt in Draw poker. Also see made hand. pay off To call a bet when you are most likely drawing dead because the pot odds justify the call. penny ante Frivolous, low stakes, or "for fun" only; A game where no significant stake is likely to change hands. perfect The best possible cards, in a lowball hand, after those already named. For example, 7-perfect would be 7-4-3-2-A, and 8-6-perfect would be 8-6-3-2-A. pick-up When the house picks up cash from the dealer after a player buys chips. play the board In games such as Texas hold 'em, where 5 community cards are dealt, if your best hand is on the board and you go to the showdown you are said to "play the board". pocket cards See "hole cards". pocket pair In community card poker or stud poker, when two of a player's private cards make a pair. Also "wired pair". poker face A blank expression that does not reveal anything about the cards being held. Often used outside the world of poker. position See position. position bet A bet that is made more due to the strength of the bettor's position than the strength of the bettor's cards. post To make the required small or big blind bet in Texas hold 'em or other games played with blinds rather than antes post dead To post a bet amount equal to the small and the big blind combined (the amount of the large blind playing as a live blind, and the amount of the small blind as dead money). In games played with blinds, a player who steps away from the table and misses his turn for the blinds must either post dead or wait for the big blind to re-enter the game. Compare to "dead blind". post oak bluff See post oak bluff pot See pot. pot-committed More often in the context of a no limit game; the situation where you can no longer fold because the size of the pot is so large compared to the size of your stack. pot-limit See pot limit. pot odds See pot odds. pre-flop On flop games refers to the time when players already have their pocket cards but no flop has been dealt yet. It's also the first round of bets. probe bet A bet after the flop by a player who did not take the lead in betting before the flop (and when the player that did take the lead in betting before the flop declined to act). Compare to "continuation bet". prop, proposition player A player who gets paid an hourly rate to start poker games or to help them stay active. Prop players play with their own money, which distinguishes them from shills, who play with the casino's money. protection, protect See protection. put the clock (on someone) See call the clock. push To bet all in. put on To put someone on a hand is to deduce what hand they have based on their actions and your knowledge of their gameplay. See also tells. Q quads Four of a kind. qualifier, qualifying low A qualifying low hand. High-low split games often require a minimum hand value, such as 8-high, in order to award the low half of the pot. In some home games, there are qualifiers for high hands as well: "Seven stud, trips-eight". quarter To win a quarter of a pot, usually by tying the low or high hand of a high-low split game. Generally, this is an unwanted outcome, as a player is often putting in a third of the pot in the hope of winning a quarter of the pot back. R rabbit hunt After a hand is complete, to reveal cards that would have been dealt later in the hand had it continued. This is usually prohibited in casinos because it slows the game and may reveal information about concealed hands. Also "fox hunt". rack 1. A collection of 100 chips of the same denomination, usually arranged in 5 stacks in a plastic tray. 2. A plastic tray used for storing a rack of chips. rag A low-valued (and presumably worthless) card. I don't like playing ace-rag from that position. Hence "ragged"/"raggy" - having a low value: The flop was pretty ragged, so I figured my queens were good. Though note that if a flop consists of consecutive or same-suited low-value cards then it is not ragged/raggy, as it could be valuable as part of a straight or flush. rail The rail is the sideline at a poker table - the (often imaginary) rail separating spectators from the field of play. Watching from the rail means watching a poker game as a spectator. "Going to the rail" usually means "Losing all one's money". railbird A non-participatory spectator of a poker game rainbow Three or four cards of different suits, especially said of a flop. raise See raise. rake See rake. Also "juice", "vig", "vigorish". rakeback Rebate/repayment to a player of a portion of the rake paid by that player, normally from a non-cardroom, third-party source such as an affiliate. Rakeback is paid in many ways by online poker rooms, affiliates or brick and mortar rooms. Many use direct money payments for online poker play. Brick and Mortar rooms usually use rate cards to track and pay their rakeback. range of hands Term used for the list of holdings that a player considers a opponent might have when trying to deduce their holding. See also "put on". rathole To remove a portion of your chips from the table while the game is underway. Normally prohibited in public card rooms. Also "going south". rebuy An amount of chips purchased after the buy-in. In some tournaments, players are allowed to rebuy chips one or more times for a limited period after the start of the game, providing that their stack is at or under its initial level. Compare with "add-on". redeal To deal a hand again, possibly after a misdeal. redraw To make one hand and have a draw for a better hand. Ted made a straight on the turn with a redraw for a flush on the river.. Second or later draws in a draw game with multiple draws. represent To represent a hand is to play as if you hold it (whether you actually hold it or are bluffing). reraise Raise after one has been raised. Also coming "over the top". ring game See ring game. river See river. rock A very tight player (plays very few hands and only continues with strong hands). A bundle of chips held together with a rubber band, or other token signifying an obligatory live straddle. If the player under the gun has the rock, he must use it to post a live straddle. The winner of the pot collects the rock and is obligated to use it in turn. rolled-up trips In seven-card stud, three of a kind dealt in the first three cards. rounder An expert player who travels around to seek out high-stakes games royal cards Royal card are also known as face cards or picture cards. These cards consist of the Jack, Queen, and King of any suit. runner-runner A hand made by hitting two consecutive cards on the turn and river. Also "backdoor". Compare to "bad beat" and "suck out". rush A prolonged winning streak. A player who has won several big pots recently is said to be on a rush. Also "heater". S sandbag See slow play. satellite A tournament in which the prize is a free entrance to another (larger) tournament. scare card A card dealt face up (either to a player in a game such as stud or to the board in a community card game) that could create a strong hand for someone. The Jack of spades on the turn was a scare card because it put both flush and straight possibilities on the board. scoop In high-low split games, to win both the high and the low half of the pot. second pair In community card poker games, a pair of cards of the second-top rank on the board. Compare bottom pair, top pair. sell In spread limit poker, to sell a hand is to bet less than the maximum with a strong hand, in the hope that more of your opponents will call the bet. semi-bluff When a player bluffs on one round of betting with an inferior or drawing hand that might improve in a later round. See semi-bluff. set Three of a kind, esp. the situation where two of the cards are concealed in the player's hole cards. Compare to "trips". set-up A deck that has been ordered, usually King to Ace by suit (spades, hearts, clubs and diamonds). In casinos, it is customary to use a set-up deck when introducing a new deck to the table. The set-up is spread face up for the players to demonstrate that all of the cards are present before the first shuffle. Also called to "spade the deck". sevens rule A rule in many A-5 lowball games that requires a player with a seven-low or better after the draw to bet, rather than check or check-raise. In some venues a violator loses any future interest in the pot; in others he forfeits his interest entirely. shark A professional player. See also card sharp. shoe A slanted container used to hold the cards yet to be dealt, usually used by casinos or in professional poker tournaments. shill See shill. Compare to "proposition player". shootout A poker tournament format where the last remaining player of a table goes on to play the remaining players of other tables. Each table plays independently of the others; that is, there is no balancing as players are eliminated. This format is particularly common in European televised poker programs, including Late Night Poker. short buy In no-limit poker, to buy in to a game for considerably less money than the stated maximum buyin, or less than other players at the table have in play. short stack A stack of chips that is relatively small for the stakes being played. shorthanded A poker game that is played with around six players or less, as opposed to a full ring game, which is usually nine or ten players. showdown When if more than one player remains after the last betting round, remaining players expose and compare their hands to determine the winner or winners. See showdown. side game A ring game running concurrently with a tournament made up of players who have either been eliminated or opted not to play the tournament. side pot A separate pot created to deal with the situation of one player going "all in". See table stakes. sit and go A poker tournament with no scheduled starting time that starts whenever the necessary players have put up their money. Single-table sit-and-goes, with nine or ten players, are the norm, but multi-table games are common as well. Also called sit n' gos and a variety of other similar spellings. slow play See slow play. slow roll To delay or avoid showing one's hand at showdown, forcing other players to expose their hands first. When done while holding a good hand likely to be the winner, it is considered poor etiquette, because it often gives other players "false hope" that their hands might win before the slow-roller's is exposed. small blind See blinds. smooth call See "flat call". snow To play a worthless hand misleadingly in draw poker in order to bluff. The worthless hand in question. soft-play To intentionally go easy on a player (e.g. not betting or raising against him when you usually would). splash the pot To throw one's chips in the pot in a disorderly fashion. Not typically allowed, because the dealer can't tell how much has been bet. split See split and high-low split. split two pair In community card poker, a two pair hand, with each pair made of one of your hole cards, and one community card. spread The range between a table's minimum and maximum bets. spread-limit A form of limit poker where the bets and raises can be between a minimum and maximum value. The spread may change between rounds. squeeze play A bluff reraise in no limit hold'em with marginal or poor cards, after another player or players have already called the original raise. The goal is to bluff everyone out of the hand and steal the bets. Assuming a standard raise of 3-4BB, a Squeeze bet is about 20BB. stack The total chips and currency that a player has in play at a given moment. A collection of 20 poker chips of the same denomination, usually arranged in an orderly column. stakes The definition of the amount one buys in for and can bet. For example, a "low stakes" game might be a $10 buy-in with a $1 maximum raise. stand pat In draw poker, playing the original hand using no draws, either as a bluff or in the belief it is the best hand. starting hand See starting hand. steal See steal. steam A state of anger, mental confusion, or frustration in which a player adopts a less than optimal strategy, usually resulting in poor play and poor performance. See steam. Compare to 'tilt'. stop and go Stop and go or stop 'n' go is when a player bets into another player who has previously raised or otherwise shown aggression. Example: On the flop, Bill bets into Tom, Tom raises, and Bill just calls. On the turn, Bill bets into Tom again. Bill has just pulled a stop 'n' go play. Another version of the "stop and go" is in tournament poker when a player raises pre-flop with the intention of going all in after the flop regardless of the cards that fall. This is typically done when the blinds are high and every chip becomes vital. straddle bet See straddle bets. straight Poker hand: see straight. When used with an amount, indicates that the speaker is referring to the total bet, versus the amount being raised. Alice bets twenty. Bob raises to fifty straight. Also "altogether" or "all day". straight flush See straight flush. strategy card A wallet sized card that is commonly used to help with poker strategies in online and casino games. string bet A call with one motion and a later raise with another, or a reach for more chips without stating the intended amount. String bets are prohibited in public cardroom rules. Compare to "forward motion". A player can (and should) defend himself against string bet complaints by declaring his intention before moving any chips. Note that the "I call, and raise..." cliche is a string bet. structured A structured betting system is one where the spread of the bets may change from round to round. stud A variant of poker. See stud poker. A card dealt face up in Stud poker. suck out A situation when a hand heavily favored to win loses to an inferior hand after all the cards are dealt. Compare to "bad beat". suited Having the same suit. See card suits. suited connectors See suited connectors. super satellite A multi-table poker tournament in which the prize is a free entrance to a satellite tournament or a tournament in which all the top finishers gain entrance to a larger tournament. T table stakes See table stakes. tag A "tight aggressive" style of play in which a player plays a small number of strong starting hands, but when in pots plays aggressively. tell A tell in poker is a detectable change in a player's behavior or demeanor that gives clues to that player's assessment of his hand. A player gains an advantage if he observes and understands the meaning of another player's tell, particularly if the tell is unconscious and reliable. Sometimes a player may fake a tell, hoping to induce his opponents to make poor judgments in response to the false tell. See tell. third man walking A player who gets up from his seat in a cash game, after two other players are already away from the table, is referred to as the "third man walking". In a casino with a "third man walking rule", this player may be required to return to his seat within 10 minutes, or one rotation of the deal around the table, or else his seat in the game will be forfeited if there is a waiting list for the game. three bet, three betting, 3-bet, 3bet To be the first player to put in a third unit of betting. For example, if Bob opens for $10, and Mary raises to make the bet $20, if Ted also raises to make the bet $30, this is to "three bet". (Before the flop, 3-betting means re-raising the first raiser.) three of a kind See three of a kind. Also "trips", "set". three pair In a seven card game, such as seven-card stud or Texas hold 'em, it is possible for a player to have 3 pairs, although a player can only play two of them as part of a standard 5-card poker hand. This situation may jokingly be referred to as a player having a hand of three pair. Note that in Omaha hold 'em, it is possible to "have" 4 pair in the same manner. tight See loose/tight play. Compare to "loose", "aggressive", "passive". Having a tight is also slang for a "full house". tilt Emotional upset, mental confusion, or frustration in which a player adopts a less than optimal strategy, usually resulting in poor play and poor performance. See tilt. Compare with 'steam'. to go A term used to describe the amount that a player is required to call in order to stay in the hand, "Alice was deciding whether to call now it was $50 to go." toke In a brick and mortar casino, a toke is a "tip" given to the dealer by the winner of the pot. Tokes often represent a large percentage of a dealer's income. top kicker In community card poker games, top kicker is the best possible kicker to some given hand. Usually it would be an Ace, but with an Ace on the board it would be a King or lower. Having "top pair, top kicker" is frequently enough to win a Texas hold 'em hand. top pair In community card poker games, top pair is a pair comprising a pocket card and the highest ranking card on the board. Compare second pair, bottom pair. top two A split two pair, matching the highest-ranking two flop cards. trey A 3-spot card. Casino personnel refer to the 3♣ as the "trey of clubs". trips When one of a player's hole cards in Texas hold 'em connects with two cards on the board to make three of a kind. This differs from a set where three of a kind is made when a pocket pair connects with one card on the flop to make three of a kind. Three of a kind. Compare to "set". turn See turn. … U under the gun The playing position to the direct left of the blinds in Texas hold 'em or Omaha hold 'em. The player who is under the gun must act first on the first round of betting. underdog An underdog or dog is a player with a smaller chance to win than another specified player. Frequently used when the exact odds are expressed. Harry might have been bluffing, but if he really had the king, my hand was a 4-to-1 dog, so I folded. underfull A full house made where the three of a kind has lower ranking cards than the pair. I had the underfull when the flop came A-A-5 and I had pocket 5's in the hole. Can be beaten by the "big full". up When used with a card rank to describe a poker hand, refers to two pair with the named card being the higher pair. For example, a hand of QQ885 might be called "queens up". upcard See upcard. up the ante Increase the stake. Also commonly used outside the context of poker. upstairs See raise. V value bet A bet made by a player who wants it to be called (as opposed to a bluff or protection bet). This is typically because he has a superior hand that he expects to win at showdown, or a very good draw for which he can increase his pot equity by more than the amount of his bet. See value. vigorish, vig The rake. See vigorish. W wake up To "wake up with a hand" means to discover a strong starting hand, often when there has already been action in front of the player. walk A walk is the situation where all players fold to the big blind. wash To mix the deck by spreading the cards face down on the table and mixing them up. A dealer may wash the deck before shuffling. weak ace An ace with a low kicker (e.g. four). Also "small ace," "soft ace," "ace-rag." wheel A 5-high straight (A-2-3-4-5), with the Ace playing low. See wheel. In deuce-to-seven lowball, the nut low hand (2-3-4-5-7). wild card See wild card. Compare to bug. window card An upcard in stud poker. The first window card in stud is called the "door card". In Texas hold'em and Omaha, the window card is the first card shown when the dealer puts out the three cards for the flop. wrap In Omaha hold 'em, an open ended straight draw comprising two board cards and three or four cards from a player's hand. A player holding 345A with the board 67K has a "wrap", as any 3, 4, or 5, or 8 will make a straight. A hand of 4589 would also be a wrap draw, but would often be referred to as a "big wrap" because it has twenty outs rather than thirteen, and is not at the idiot end. Notes References The Official Dictionary of Poker by Michael Wiesenberg Dan Kimberg's Poker Dictionary | Glossary_of_poker_terms |@lemmatized following:1 glossary:1 poker:82 term:13 use:51 card:235 game:154 besides:1 list:4 thousand:1 common:7 uncommon:1 slang:2 intend:5 formal:1 dictionary:3 precise:1 usage:1 detail:1 multiple:5 closely:1 related:2 sens:1 omit:1 favor:2 concise:1 treatment:1 basic:1 ace:27 five:9 six:4 method:4 evaluate:2 low:45 hand:195 see:144 lowball:9 act:9 make:61 play:103 bet:149 call:84 raise:71 fold:26 required:5 time:13 ted:7 turn:23 compare:45 action:29 player:253 willingness:1 gamble:2 give:21 plenty:1 along:3 example:33 one:95 three:26 say:13 receive:5 worth:2 usually:31 come:10 figure:2 side:6 pot:96 table:54 stake:19 button:27 marker:1 similar:4 kill:7 place:9 extra:4 forced:6 seven:10 stud:26 high:51 award:4 winner:8 scoop:2 certain:4 size:10 signify:5 next:5 require:14 post:19 amount:39 represent:5 completion:3 bring:15 full:25 limit:39 must:14 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7,040 | Katyusha_rocket_launcher | Katyusha multiple rocket launchers () are a type of rocket artillery first built and fielded by the Soviet Union in World War II. Compared to other artillery, these multiple rocket launchers deliver a devastating amount of explosives to an area target quickly, but with lower accuracy and requiring a longer time to reload. They are fragile compared to artillery guns, but inexpensive and easy to produce. Katyushas of World War II, the first self-propelled artillery mass-produced by the Soviet Union, Zaloga, p 150. were usually mounted on trucks. This mobility gave Katyushas (and other self-propelled artillery) another advantage: being able to deliver a large blow all at once, and then move before being located and attacked with counter-battery fire. Katyusha weapons of World War II included the BM-13 launcher, light BM-8, and heavy BM-31. Today, the nickname is also applied to newer truck-mounted Soviet multiple rocket launchers—notably the common BM-21—and derivatives. The nickname Initially, the secrecy surrounding the launchers kept their military designation from being known by the soldiers who operated them. They were called by code names such as Kostikov Guns (after the head of the RNII), and finally classed as Guards Mortars. The name BM-13 was only allowed into secret documents in 1942, and remained classified until after the war. Viktor Suvorov (1982), Inside the Soviet Army, p 207. Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-02-615500-1. Because they were marked with the letter K, for Voronezh Komintern Factory, Red Army troops adopted a nickname from Mikhail Isakovsky's popular wartime song, "Katyusha", about a girl longing for her absent beloved, who is away performing military service. Zaloga, p 153. Katyusha is the Russian equivalent of "Katie", an endearing diminutive form of the name Katherine: Yekaterina →Katya →Katyusha. German troops coined the sobriquet Stalin's organ (), after Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and also alluding to the sound of the weapon's rockets. The heavy BM-31 launcher was also referred to as Andryusha (“Andrew”, endearing diminutive). Gordon L. Rottman (2007), FUBAR (F***ed Up Beyond All Recognition): Soldier Slang of World War II, p 279, Osprey, ISBN 1846031753. Katyushas of World War II Katyusha rocket launchers were mounted on many platforms during World War II, including on trucks, artillery tractors, tanks, and armoured trains, as well as on naval and riverine vessels as assault support weapons. The design was relatively simple, consisting of racks of parallel rails on which rockets were mounted, with a folding frame to raise the rails to launch position. Each truck had between 14 and 48 launchers. The 132-mm diameter M-13 rocket of the BM-13 system was 180 centimetres (70.9 in) long, 13.2 centimetres (5.2 in) in diameter and weighed 42 kilograms (92 lb). It was propelled by a solid nitrocellulose-based propellant of tubular shape, arranged in a steel-case rocket engine with a single central nozzle at the bottom end. The rocket was stabilised by cruciform fins of pressed sheet steel. The warhead, either fragmentation, high-explosive or shaped-charge, weighed around 22 kg (48 lb). The range of the rockets was about 5.4 kilometres (3.4 mi). Later, 82-mm diameter M-8 and 310-mm diameter M-31 rockets were also developed. The weapon is less accurate than conventional artillery guns, but is extremely effective in saturation bombardment, and was particularly feared by German soldiers. A battery of four BM-13 launchers could fire a salvo in 7–10 seconds that delivered 4.35 tons of high explosives over a four-hectare (10 acres) impact zone. Zaloga, p 154. With an efficient crew, the launchers could redeploy to a new location immediately after firing, denying the enemy the opportunity for counterbattery fire. Katyusha batteries were often massed in very large numbers to create a shock effect on enemy forces. The weapon's disadvantage was the long time it took to reload a launcher, in contrast to conventional guns which could sustain a continuous low rate of fire. Development BM-31-12 on ZIS-12 at the Museum on Sapun Mountain, Sevastopol, Ukraine In June 1938, the Soviet Jet Propulsion Research Institute (RNII) in Leningrad was authorized by the Main Artillery Directorate (GAU) to develop a multiple rocket launcher for the RS-132 aircraft rocket (RS for , 'rocket-powered shell'). I. Gvay led a design team in Chelyabinsk, Russia, which built several prototype launchers firing the modified 132mm M-132 rockets over the sides of ZiS-5 trucks. These proved unstable, and V.N. Galkovskiy proposed mounting the launch rails longitudinally. In August 1939, the result was the BM-13 (BM stands for Boyevaya Mashina, 'combat vehicle' for M-13 rockets). The first large-scale testing of the rocket launchers took place at the end of 1938, when 233 rounds of various types were used. A salvo of rockets could completely straddle a target at a range of 5,500 metres (3.4 mi). But the artillery branch was not fond of the Katyusha, because it took up to 50 minutes to load and fire 24 rounds, while a conventional howitzer could fire 95 to 150 rounds in the same time. Testing with various rockets was conducted through 1940, and the BM-13-16 with launch rails for sixteen rockets was authorized for production. Only forty launchers were built before Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. After their success in the first month of the war, mass production was ordered and the development of other models proceeded. The Katyushas were inexpensive and could be manufactured in light industrial installations which did not have the heavy equipment to build conventional artillery gun barrels. By the end of 1942, 3,237 Katyusha launchers of all types had been built, and by the end of the war total production reached about 10,000. Zaloga, pp 154–55. Postwar Katyusha on a ZiL-151 truck The truck-mounted Katyushas were installed on ZiS-6 6×4 trucks, as well as the two-axle ZiS-5 and ZiS-5V. In 1941, a small number of BM-13 launchers were mounted on STZ-5 artillery tractors. A few were also tried on KV tank chassis as the KV-1K, but this was a needless waste of heavy armour. Starting in 1942, they were also mounted on various British, Canadian and U.S. Lend-Lease trucks, in which case they were sometimes referred to as BM-13S. The cross-country performance of the Studebaker US6 2-1/2 ton truck was so good that it became the GAU's standard mounting in 1943, designated BM-13N (Normalizovanniy, 'standardized'), and more than 1,800 of this model were manufactured by the end of World War II. Zaloga, pp 153–54. After World War II, BM-13s were based on Soviet-built ZiL-151 trucks. The 82mm BM-8 was approved in August 1941, and deployed as the BM-8-36 on truck beds and BM-8-24 on T-40 and T-60 light tank chassis. Later these were also installed on GAZ-67 jeeps as the BM-8-8, and on the larger Studebaker trucks as the BM-8-48. In 1942, the team of scientists Leonid Shvarts, Moisei Komissarchik and engineer Yakov Shor would receive the Stalin prize for the development of the BM-8-48. Rachel Bayvel, “Tales of ‘Tank City’. Rachel Bayvel Celebrates the Soviet Jews Who Produced Weapons for Allied Victory”. Jewish Quarterly no. 198, summer 2005. Retrieved on 2008-09-30. Yosif Kremenetsky (1999), “Inzhenerno-tekhnicheskaya deyatel’nost’ yevreyev v SSSR (Engineering-technical activities of Jews in the USSR)”, Yevrey pri bol’shevistskom stroye (Jews in the Bolshevist order), Minneapolis. Retrieved on 2008-09-30. Based on the M-13, the M-30 rocket was developed in 1942. Its bulbous warhead required it to be fired from a frame, called the M-30-4, instead of a launch rail. In 1944 it became the basis for the BM-31-12 truck-mounted launcher. Combat history BM-13 battery fire, during the Battle of Berlin, April 1945, with metal blast covers pulled over the windshields The multiple rocket launchers were top secret in the beginning of World War II. A special unit of the NKVD secret police was raised to operate them. On July 7, 1941, an experimental artillery battery of seven launchers was first used in battle at Orsha in Belarus, under the command of Captain Ivan Flyorov, destroying a station with several supply trains, and causing massive German Army casualties. Following the success, the Red Army organized new Guards Mortar batteries for the support of infantry divisions. A battery's complement was standardized at four launchers. They remained under NKVD control until German Nebelwerfer rocket launchers became common later in the war. A battery of BM-31 multiple rocket launchers in operation On August 8, 1941, Stalin ordered the formation of eight Special Guards Mortar regiments under the direct control of the General Headquarters Reserve (Stavka-VGK). Each regiment comprised three battalions of three batteries, totalling 36 BM-13 or BM-8 launchers. Independent Guards Mortar battalions were also formed, comprising 36 launchers in three batteries of twelve. By the end of 1941, there were eight regiments, 35 independent battalions, and two independent batteries in service, holding a total of 554 launchers. Zaloga, p 155. In June 1942 Heavy Guards Mortar battalions were formed around the new M-30 static rocket launch frames, consisting of 96 launchers in three batteries. In July, a battalion of BM-13s was added to the establishment of a tank corps. Zaloga, p 147. In 1944, the BM-31 was used in Motorized Heavy Guards Mortar battalions of 48 launchers. In 1943, Guards Mortar brigades, and later divisions, were formed equipped with static launchers. By the end of 1942, 57 regiments were in service—together with the smaller independent battalions, this was the equivalent of 216 batteries: 21% BM-8 light launchers, 56% BM-13, and 23% M-30 heavy launchers. By the end of the war, the equivalent of 518 batteries were in service. Katyushas since World War II Russian forces use BM-27 rocket launchers during the Second Chechen War The success and economy of multiple rocket launchers (MRL) have led them to continue to be developed. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union fielded several models of Katyushas, notably the BM-21 launchers fitting the stereotypical Katyusha mould, and the larger BM-27. Advances in artillery munitions have been applied to some Katyusha-type multiple launch rocket systems, including bomblet submunitions, remotely-deployed land mines, and chemical warheads. With the breakup of the Soviet Union, Russia inherited most of its military arsenal including the Katyusha rockets. In recent history, they have been used by Russian forces during the First and Second Chechen Wars and by Armenian and Azerbaijani forces during the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Georgian government forces are reported to have used BM-21 or similar rocket artillery in fighting in the 2008 South Ossetia war. Katyushas were exported to Afghanistan, Angola, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, East Germany, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, North Korea, Poland, Syria, and Vietnam. They were also built in Czechoslovakia, People's Republic of China, North Korea, and Iran. Katyushas also saw action in the Korean War, used by the Chinese People's Volunteer Army against the South and United Nations forces. Soviet BM-13s were known to have been imported to China before the Sino-Soviet split and were operational in the People's Liberation Army. Israel captured BM-24 MRLs during the Six-Day War (1967), used them in two battalions during the Yom Kippur War (1973) and the 1982 Lebanon War, and later developed the MAR-240 launcher for the same rockets, based on a Sherman tank chassis. During the 2006 Lebanon War, Hezbollah fired between 3,970 and 4,228 rockets, from light truck-mounts and single-rail man-portable launchers. About 95% of these were 122 mm (4.8 in) Syrian-manufactured Katyusha artillery rockets, which carried warheads up to 30 kg (66 lb) and had a range of up to 30 km (19 mi). An estimated 23% of these rockets hit built-up areas, primarily civilian in nature. Hamas has launched 122-mm “Grad-type Katyusha” rockets from the Gaza Strip against several cities in Israel, although they are not reported to have truck-mounted launchers. It was reported that BM-21 launchers were used against American forces during 2003 invasion of Iraq. They have also been used in the Afghanistan and Iraq insurgencies. In Iraq, according to Associated Press and Agence France-Presse reports, Katyusha rockets were fired at the Green Zone late March 2008. See also Panzerwerfer, a German rocket launcher mounted on a half-track Wurfrahmen 40, another German rocket launcher mounted on a half-track Land Mattress, employed by Allied forces in World War II T34 Calliope Notes References External links BM-13 (Studebaker) walk-around photos Photos of various mounts of "Katyushas" Creation and Development of Rocket Artillery in the First Phase of the War, translation of a 1976 article published by the USSR Defence Ministry [broken link, see archive Photo of a Cuban BM-21 in Angola | Katyusha_rocket_launcher |@lemmatized katyusha:16 multiple:8 rocket:40 launcher:40 type:5 artillery:16 first:7 build:7 field:2 soviet:13 union:5 world:11 war:27 ii:11 compare:2 deliver:3 devastating:1 amount:1 explosive:3 area:2 target:2 quickly:1 low:2 accuracy:1 require:2 long:3 time:3 reload:2 fragile:1 gun:5 inexpensive:2 easy:1 produce:3 katyushas:10 self:2 propelled:2 mass:3 zaloga:7 p:7 usually:1 mount:13 truck:16 mobility:1 give:1 another:2 advantage:1 able:1 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7,041 | Bass_guitar | The electric bass guitar According to the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, an "Electric bass guitar [bass guitar] [is] an Electric Guitar, usually with four heavy strings tuned E'–A'–D–G." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London, 2001) (also called electric bass, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians defines the term bass thus: "Bass (iv). A contraction of Double bass or Electric bass guitar." Ibid. The proper term is "electric bass", and it is often misnamed "bass guitar", according to Tom Wheeler, The Guitar Book, pp 101–2. Guitars by Evans and Evans, page 342, agrees. Although "electric bass" is one of the common names for the instrument, "bass guitar" or "electric bass guitar" are commonly used and some authors claim that they are historically accurate (e.g., "How The Fender Bass Changed The World" in the references section). or simply bass; , as in "base") is a stringed instrument played primarily with the fingers or thumb (either by plucking, slapping, popping, tapping, or thumping), or by using a plectrum. The bass guitar is similar in appearance and construction to an electric guitar, but with a larger body, a longer neck and scale length, and usually four strings tuned to the same pitches as those of the double bass, Bass guitar/Double Bass tuning E1=41.20 Hz, A1=55 Hz, D2=73.42 Hz, G2=98 Hz + optional low B0=30.87 Hz which correspond to pitches one octave lower than those of the four lower strings of a guitar (E, A, D, and G). Standard guitar tuning E2=82.41 Hz, A2=110 Hz, D3=146.8 Hz, G3=196 Hz, B3=246.9 Hz, E4=329.6 Hz The bass guitar is a transposing instrument, as it is notated in bass clef an octave higher than it sounds (as is the double bass) in order to avoid the excessive use of ledger lines. Like the electric guitar, the electric bass guitar is plugged into an amplifier and speaker for live performances. Since the 1950s, the electric bass guitar has largely replaced the double bass in popular music as the bass instrument in the rhythm section. While the types of basslines performed by the bass guitarist vary widely from one style of music to another, the bass guitarist fulfills a similar role in most types of music: anchoring the harmonic framework and laying down the beat. The bass guitar is used in many styles of music including rock, metal, pop, country, blues and jazz. It is used as a soloing instrument in jazz, fusion, Latin, funk, and in some rock and metal (mostly progressive rock and progressive metal) styles. History 1930s Musical instrument inventor Paul Tutmarc outside his music store in Seattle, Washington In the 1930s, musician and inventor Paul Tutmarc from Seattle, Washington, developed the first guitar-style electric bass instrument that was fretted and designed to be held and played horizontally. The 1935 sales catalogue for Tutmarc's company, Audiovox, featured his "electronic bass fiddle," a four-stringed, solid-bodied, fretted electric bass guitar with a 30½-inch scale length. Model #736 Electronic Bass Fiddle (German text) The change to a "guitar" form made the instrument easier to hold and transport, and the addition of guitar-style frets enabled bassists to play in tune more easily and made the new electric bass easier to learn. However, Tutmarc's inventions never caught the public imagination, and little further development of the instrument took place until the 1950s. 1950s–1960s Leo Fender's 1959 patent sketches for the Fender Jazz Bass In the 1950s, Leo Fender, with the help of his employee George Fullerton, developed the first mass-produced electric bass. Slog, John J.; Coryat, Karl [ed.] (1999). The Bass Player Book: Equipment, Technique, Styles and Artists. Backbeat Books. p. 154. ISBN 0879305738 His Fender Precision Bass, introduced in 1951, became a widely copied industry standard. The Precision Bass (or "P-bass") evolved from a simple, uncontoured "slab" body design similar to that of a Telecaster with a single coil pickup, to a contoured body design with beveled edges for comfort and a single four-pole "single coil pickup." This "split pickup", introduced in 1957, appears to have been two mandolin pickups (Fender was marketing a four string solid body electric mandolin at the time). Because the pole pieces of the coils were reversed with respect to each other, and the leads were also reversed with respect to each other, the two coils, wired in series, produced a humbucking effect (the same effect is achieved if the coils are wired in parallel). Monk Montgomery was the first bass player to tour with the Fender bass guitar, with Lionel Hampton's postwar big band. George, Nelson (1998). Hip Hop America. Viking Press. p. 91. ISBN 0670971532 Roy Johnson, who replaced Montgomery in Hampton's band, and Shifty Henry with Louis Jordan & His Tympany Five, were other early Fender Bass pioneers. Bill Black, playing with Elvis Presley, adopted the Fender Precision Bass around 1957. A Rickenbacker 4003; note the distinctive shape of the headstock. Following Fender's lead, Gibson released the violin-shaped EB-1 Bass in 1953, Gibson EB-1 followed by the more conventional-looking EB-0 Bass in 1959. As with Fender's designs, Gibson relied heavily upon an existing guitar design for this bass; the EB-0 was very similar to a Gibson SG in appearance (although the earliest examples have a slab-sided body shape closer to that of the double-cutaway Les Paul Special). Whereas Fender basses had pickups mounted in positions in between the base of the neck and the top of the bridge, many of Gibson's early basses featured one humbucking pickup mounted directly against the neck pocket. The EB-3, introduced in 1961, also had a "mini-humbucker" at the bridge position. Gibson basses also tended to be smaller, sleeker instruments; Gibson did not produce a 34" scale bass until 1963 with the release of the Thunderbird, which was also the first Gibson bass to utilize dual-humbucking pickups in a more traditional position, about halfway between the neck and bridge. Gibson EB-0. A small number of other companies also began manufacturing bass guitars during the 1950s: Kay in 1952, and Danelectro in 1956; Bacon, Tony (2000). 50 Years of Fender. Backbeat Books. p. 24. ISBN 0879306211 Rickenbacker and Höfner also produced models. With the explosion of the popularity of rock music in the 1960s many more manufacturers began making bass guitars. First introduced in 1960, The Fender Jazz Bass was known as the Deluxe Bass and was meant to accompany the Jazzmaster guitar. The Jazz Bass (often referred to as a "J-bass") featured two single-coil pickups, one close to the bridge and one in the Precision bass' split coil pickup position, and was designed by Leo Fender to be an easier bass for a guitarist to play than the existing Precision Bass, due to the narrower nut (noted later). The earliest production basses had a 'stacked' volume and tone control for each pickup. This was soon changed to the familiar configuration of a volume control for each pickup, and a single, passive tone control. The Jazz Bass' neck was narrower at the nut than the Precision bass (1½" versus 1¾"). 70's Fender Jazz Bass with maple neckAnother visual difference that set the Jazz Bass apart from the Precision is its "offset-waist" body. Pickup shapes on electric basses are often referred to as "P" or "J" pickups in reference to the visual and electrical differences between the Precision Bass and Jazz Bass pickups. Fender also began production of the Mustang Bass; a 30" scale length instrument used by bassists such as Tina Weymouth of Talking Heads and Bill Wyman of The Rolling Stones ("P" and "J" basses have a scale length of 34", a design echoed on most current production electric basses of all makes). In the 1950s and 1960s, the bass guitar was often called the "Fender bass", due to Fender's early dominance in the market for mass-produced bass guitars. The term "electric bass" began replacing "Fender bass" in the late 1960s, however, as evidenced by the title of Carol Kaye's popular bass instructional book in 1969 How to Play the Electric Bass Eleven other of her instructional books, CDs, and DVDs call the instrument "bass." . The instrument is also referred to as an "electric bass guitar", or simply "bass". 1970s Music Man Stingray Bass. Notice the pick-up placement that is ideal for slapping. The 1970s saw the founding of Music Man Instruments by Tom Walker, Forrest White and Leo Fender, which produced the StingRay, the first widely-produced bass with active (powered) electronics. This amounts to an impedance buffering pre-amplifier on-board the instrument to lower the output impedance of the bass's pickup circuit, increasing low-end output, and overall frequency response (more lows and highs). Specific models became identified with particular styles of music, such as the Rickenbacker 4001 series, which became identified with progressive rock bassists like Chris Squire of Yes, while the StingRay was used by Louis Johnson of the funk band The Brothers Johnson. In 1971, Alembic established the template for what would subsequently be known as "boutique" or "high end" electric bass guitars. These expensive, custom-tailored instruments featured unique designs, premium wood bodies chosen and hand-finished by highly skilled luthiers, onboard electronics for preamplification and equalization, and innovative construction techniques such as multi-laminate neck-through-body construction and graphite necks. In the mid-1970s, Alembic and other "boutique" bass manufacturers such as Tobias, and Ken Smith produced 4- string basses and 5-string basses with a low "B" string. In 1975, bassist Anthony Jackson commissioned luthier Carl Thompson to a 6-string bass tuned (low to high) B, E, A, D, G, C. 1980s–2000s An early 1980s-era Steinberger headless bass In the 1980s, bass designers continued to explore new approaches. Ned Steinberger introduced a headless bass in 1979 and continued his innovations in the 1980s, using graphite and other new materials and (in 1984) introducing the Trans-Trem tremolo bar. In 1987, the Guild Guitar Corporation launched the fretless Ashbory bass, which used silicone rubber strings and a piezoelectric pickup to achieve a "double bass" sound with a short 18" scale length. In the late 1980s, MTV's "Unplugged" show, which featured bands strumming acoustic instruments, helped to popularize hollow-bodied acoustic bass guitars amplified with pickups. During the 1990s, as five-string basses became more widely available and more affordable, an increasing number of bassists in genres ranging from metal to gospel began using five-string instruments for added lower range (a low "B" below the standard "E" string. Some bassists who performed a lot in a solo setting used five-string basses to get a higher range by adding a high "C" string as the fifth string. As well, the onboard battery-powered electronics such as preamplifiers and equalizer circuits, which were previously only available on expensive "boutique" instruments, became increasingly available on modestly priced basses. In the 2000s, some bass manufacturers included digital modelling circuits inside the instrument to recreate tones and sounds from many models of basses (e.g., Line 6's Variax bass). Traditional bass designs such as the Fender Precision Bass and Fender Jazz Bass remain popular in the 2000s; in 2006, a 60th Anniversary P-bass was introduced by Fender, along with the introduction of the Fender Jaguar Bass. Design considerations Instruments handmade by highly skilled luthiers are becoming increasingly available. Bass bodies are typically made of wood although other materials such as graphite (for example, some of the Steinberger designs) have also been used. While a wide variety of woods are suitable for use in the body, neck, and fretboard of the bass guitar, the most common type of wood used for the body is alder, for the neck is maple, and for the fretboard is rosewood. Other commonly used woods include mahogany, maple, ash, and poplar for bodies, mahogany for necks, and maple and ebony for fretboards. Other design options include finishes, such as lacquer, wax and oil; flat and carved designs; Luthier-produced custom-designed instruments; headless basses, which have tuning machines in the bridge of the instrument (e.g. Steinberger and Hohner designs) and several artificial materials such as luthite. The use of artificial materials (e.g. BassLab) allows for unique production techniques such as die-casting, to produce complex body shapes. While most basses have solid bodies, they can also include hollow chambers to increase the resonance or reduce the weight of the instrument. Some basses are built with entirely hollow bodies, which changes the tone and resonance of the instrument. Acoustic bass guitars are typically equipped with piezoelectric or magnetic pickups and amplified. An Eston acoustic bass guitar, fretless but with fretlike markers, made in Italy in the 1980s Many exotic woods include bubinga, wenge, ovangkol, ebony and goncalo alves. Graphite or carbon fiber are used to make lightweight necks An approach used by G. Gould of Modulus Guitars, and by Peavey, which makes graphite-necked basses such as the G-Bass the B-Quad. and, in some cases, entire basses. E.g. Status brand basses, which are made from graphite. Exotic woods are used on more expensive instruments: for example, the company 'Alembic' is associated with the use of cocobolo as a body material or top layer because of its attractive grain. Warwick bass guitars are also well-known for exotic hardwoods: most of the necks are made of ovangkol, and the fingerboards wenge or ebony. Solid bubinga bodies are also used for tonal and aesthetic qualities. The "long scale" necks used on Leo Fender's basses, giving a scale length (distance between nut and bridge) of 34", remain the standard for electric basses. However, 30" or "short scale" instruments, such as the Höfner Violin Bass, played by Paul McCartney, and the Fender Mustang Bass are popular, especially for players with smaller hands. While 35", 35.5" and 36" scale lengths were once only available in "boutique" instruments, in the 2000s, many manufacturers have begun offering these lengths, also called an "extra long scale." This extra long scale provides a higher string tension, which yields a more defined tone on the low "B" string of 5- and 6-stringed instruments (or detuned 4-string basses). Fretted and fretless basses A fretless bass with flatwound strings; note the markers inlaid into the side of the fingerboard, to aid the performer in finding the correct pitch. Another design consideration for the bass is whether to use frets on the fingerboard. On a fretted bass, the frets divide the fingerboard into semitone divisions (as on a guitar). The original Fender basses had 20 frets, but modern basses may have 24 or more. Fretless basses have a distinct sound, because the absence of frets means that the string must be pressed down directly onto the wood of the fingerboard as with the double bass. The string buzzes against the wood and is somewhat muted because the sounding portion of the string is in direct contact with the flesh of the player's finger. The fretless bass allows players to use the expressive devices of glissando, vibrato and microtonal intonations such as quarter tones and just intonation. Some bassists use both fretted and fretless basses in performances, according to the type of material they are performing, as with Pino Palladino, whose performance on the fretless bass during the 1980s made him a highly desirable session player backing high profile musicians that included Eric Clapton, and David Gilmour. However, the late 1990s showed a shift toward fretted basses as well, as he branched out into a wide variety of genres. While fretless basses are often associated with jazz and jazz fusion, bassists from other genres use fretless basses, such as metal bassist Steve DiGiorgio and Colin Edwin of modern/progressive rock band Porcupine Tree. Jazz fusion bassist Jaco Pastorius was known for his expressive fretless bass playing. The first fretless bass guitar was made by Bill Wyman in 1961 when he converted an inexpensive Japanese fretted bass by removing the frets. Roberts, Jim (2001). 'How The Fender Bass Changed the World' or Jon Sievert interview with Bill Wyman, guitar player magazine December (1978) This fretless bass can be heard on The Rolling Stones songs such as "Paint it Black". The first production fretless bass was the Ampeg AUB-1 introduced in 1966, and Fender introduced a fretless Precision Bass in 1970. In the early 1970s, fusion-jazz bassist Jaco Pastorius created his own fretless bass by removing the frets In interviews, Pastorius gave various versions of how he accomplished this; the versions mention the use of pliers, a putty knife, and, in at least one interview (Guitar Player magazine, 1984) he states that he bought the instrument with the frets already removed, badly, with the slots where the frets once were not yet filled in. from a Fender Jazz Bass, filling the holes with wood putty, and coating the fretboard with epoxy resin. Pastorius used epoxy rather than varnish to obtain a glass-like finish suitable for the use of roundwound strings, which are otherwise much harder on the wood of the fingerboard. Some fretless basses have "fret line" markers inlaid in the fingerboard as a guide, while others only use guide marks on the side of the neck. Tapewound (double bass type) and flatwound strings are sometimes used with the fretless bass so that the metal string windings will not wear down the fingerboard. Some fretless basses have fingerboards which are coated with epoxy to increase the durability of the fingerboard, enhance sustain and give a brighter tone. Although most fretless basses have four strings, five-string and six-string fretless basses are also available. Fretless basses with more than six strings are also available as "boutique" or custom-made instruments. Strings and tuning The standard design for the electric bass guitar has four strings, tuned E, A, D and G, in fourths such that the open highest string, G, is an eleventh (an octave and a fourth) below middle C, making the tuning of all four strings the same as that of the double bass. This tuning is also the same as the standard tuning on the lower four strings on a 6-string guitar, only an octave lower. String types include all-metal strings (roundwound, flatwound, groundwound, or halfwound), metal strings with different coverings, such as tapewound and plastic-coatings. The variety of materials used in the strings gives bass players a range of tonal options. In the 1950s, bassists mostly used flatwound strings with a smooth surface, which had a smooth, damped sound reminiscent of a double bass. In the 1960s and 1970s, roundwound bass strings similar to guitar strings became popular, though flatwounds also continue to be popular. Roundwounds have a brighter timbre with greater sustain than flatwounds. The tuning machines are mounted on the back of the headstock on the bass guitar neck; note the spiral metal worm gears. A number of other tuning options and bass types have been used to extend the range of the instrument. The most common are four, five, or six strings: Four strings with alternate tunings to obtain an extended lower range. Tunings such as "BEAD" (this requires a low "B" string in addition to the other three "standard" strings), "D-A-D-G" (a "standard" set of strings, with only the lowest string detuned), and D-G-C-F or C-G-C-F (a "standard" set of strings, all of which are detuned) give bassists an extended lower range. A tenor bass tuning of "A-D-G-C" provides a higher range. Tuning in fifths eg. CGDA gives an extended upper and lower range. Five strings usually tuned B-E-A-D-G, which provides extended lower range. Five string basses tuned to B-E-A-D-G (and sometimes A-D-G-C-F) are often used in contemporary rock and metal alongside seven string guitars, baritone guitars, and otherwise downtuned instruments. Another common tuning used on early five-string basses is E-A-D-G-C, known as "tenor tuning". This is still a popular tuning for jazz and solo bass. Other tunings such as C-E-A-D-G are used though rare. The fifth string provides a greater lower range (if a low B is used) or a greater upper range (if a high C string is added) than the 4-string bass, and gives access to more notes for any given hand position.Washburn XB600, a six string bass. Six strings are usually tuned B-E-A-D-G-C. The 6-string bass is a 4-string bass with an additional low "B" string and a high "C" string. While much less common than 4- or 5-string basses, they are still used in Latin, jazz, and several other genres, as well as in studio work where a single instrument must be highly versatile. Alternate tunings for 6-string bass include B-E-A-D-G-B, matching the first five strings of an acoustic or electric guitar, and EADGBE, completely matching the tuning of a 6-string guitar but one octave lower allowing the use of guitar chord fingerings. Rarer tunings such as EADGCF and F#BEADG provide a lower or higher range in a given position while maintaining consistent string intervals.Note positions on a right-handed 4-string bass in standard EADG tuning. The dots below the frets are often inlaid into the wood of bass necks, as a visual aid to help the player find different positions. Detuners, such as the Hipshot, are mechanical devices operated by the thumb on the fretting hand that allow one or more strings to be quickly detuned to a pre-set lower pitch. Hipshots are typically used to drop the "E"-string down to "D" on a four string bass. Hipshots are similarly used to drop the "B"-string down to a "B♭" on five or six string basses where it is advantageous when accompanying brass bands whose music is commonly in the key of "B♭". More rarely, some bassists (e.g., Michael Manring) will add detuners to more than one string, or even more than one detuner to each string, to enable them to detune strings during a performance and have access to a wider range of chime-like harmonics. Extended range approaches Some bassists have used other types of tuning methods to obtain an extended range or other benefits such as providing multiple octaves of notes at any given position, as well as a significantly larger tonal range. Instrument types or tunings used for this purpose include basses with fewer than four strings (1-string bass guitars, Japanese manufacturer Atlansia offers 1-, 2- and 3-stringed instruments 2-string bass guitars, 3-string bass guitars (E-A-D) – Session bassist Tony Levin commissioned Music Man to build a three-string version of his favorite Stingray bass ); alternate tunings (e.g., tenor bass, Tuned A-D-G-C, like the top 4 strings of a 6-string bass, or simply a standard 4-string with the strings each tuned up an additional perfect fourth. Tenor bass is a tuning used by Stanley Clarke, Victor Wooten, and Stu Hamm. piccolo bass, Tuned "e-a-d-g" (an octave higher than standard bass tuning – -the same as the bottom four strings of a guitar). This is used by jazz fusion bassists such as Stanley Clarke. and guitar-tuned basses The D-G-B-E tuning matches the first four strings (from highest to lowest) of a guitar, pitched two octaves lower. ) and 8, 10, 12 and 15-string basses, which are built on the same principle as the 12-string guitar, where the strings are grouped into "courses" tuned in unison or octaves, to be played simultaneously. For example, an 8-string bass would be strung Ee-Aa-Dd-Gg, while a 12-string bass might be tuned Eee-Aaa-Ddd-Ggg (four courses of three strings each). In the case of the 12-string, the standard pitch strings are augmented by two strings both an octave higher than the standard pitched string. Ten-string basses have octave strings added to the low-B of a 5-string bass. A 15-string bass (tuned Eee Aaa Ddd Ggg Ccc) was developed by Jauqo III-X and produced by Warrior Guitars(the 15 string bass made for Jauqo III-X by Warrior was the world's first 15-string bass guitar ever made. A 1998 video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G6O0Lgyn6aE ) Extended Range Basses (ERBs) are basses with 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12 strings which are not doubling unisons or octaves. The 7-string bass (B-E-A-D-G-C-F) was built by luthier Michael Tobias in 1987. This instrument, which was commissioned by bassist Garry Goodman, was an early example of a bass with more than six single course strings. Goodman developed a special playing technique for instruments requiring seven or more strings. Conklin builds 8- and 9-string basses. These have a low "F#" string below the "B" string, and the 9-string bass adds a low "F#" and a high "B♭" string. The Guitarbass is a 10-string instrument with four bass strings (tuned E-A-D-G) and six guitar strings (tuned E-A-D-G-B-E). The guitarbass has 10 strings on the same neck and body, but with separate scale lengths, bridges, fretboards, and pickups. It was created by John Woolley in 2005, based on a prototype built by David Minnieweather. A seven-string fretless bass Luthier Michael Adler built the first 11-string bass in 2004 and completed the first single-course 12-string bass in 2005. Adler's 11- and 12-string instruments have the same range as a grand piano. The Adler 12-string has the same range as the Bösendorfer 290 grand piano with 97 notes. This was made possible by Goodman developing an Ab 4 string for the 32" scale. Sub-contra basses, such as C#-F#-B-E ("C#" being at 17.32 Hz) (e.g., the Jauqo III-X from 2000 or the sub-bass guitar, E-A-D-G one octave below standard ("E" being at 20.6 Hz) have been created. Ibanez had released SR7VIISC in 2009, featuring a 30" scale and narrower width, and tuned as B-E-A-D-G-C-E; the company dubbed it a cross between bass and guitar. http://www.ibanezrules.com/namm/2009/sr7.htm Yves Carbonne developed 10 and 12 string fretless sub-bass guitars. These extended range sub-basses, Legend X YC and Legend XII YC, were built by luthier from Barcelona Jerzy Drozd. The 12 string Legend XII YC uses a new B string tuned at 15,4 hertz. http://www.bass-musician-magazine.com/General/bass-musician-magazine-masthead-detail.asp?directory-id=807599636 Bass Musician Magazine: Yves Carbonne http://www.bass-musician-magazine.com/General/bass-musician-magazine-detail.asp?year=2008&month=6&article-id=613057319 Bass Musician Magazine Article: "Why Fretless?" Pickups and amplification For more information on pickups, see Pickup (music). Magnetic pickups Most electric bass guitars use magnetic pickups. The vibrations of the instrument's metal strings within the magnetic field of the permanent magnets in magnetic pickups produce small variations in the magnetic flux threading the coils of the pickups. This in turn produces small electrical voltages in the coils. These low-level signals are then amplified and played through a speaker. Less commonly, non-magnetic pickups are used, such as piezoelectric pickups which sense the mechanical vibrations of the strings. Since the 1980s, basses are often available with battery-powered "active" electronics that boost the signal and/or provide equalization controls to boost or cut bass and treble frequencies. Dual "J"-Style Pickups. "Jazz" pickups (referring to the original Fender Jazz Bass), which are also referred to as "J pickups", are wider eight-pole pickups which lie underneath all four strings. J pickups are typically single-coil designs, although there are a large number of humbucking designs. As with the halves of the P-pickups, the J-pickups are reverse-wound with reverse magnetic polarity. As a result they have hum canceling properties when used at the same volume, with hum cancellation decreasing when the pickups are used at unequal volume and altogether absent when each pickup is used individually. 'J' Style pickups tend to have a lower output and a thinner sound than 'P' Style pickups making it perfect for most rock music. Many bassists choose to combine a 'J' pickup at the bridge and a 'P' pickup at the neck, to be 'blended' together for a unique sound. "Precision" pickups (which refers to the original Fender Precision Bass), which are also referred to as "P pickups", are actually two distinct single-coil pickups. Each is offset a small amount along the length of the body so that each half is underneath two strings. The pickups are reverse-wound with reversed magnetic polarity to reduce hum. This makes the 'P' pickup a [humbucking] single coil pickup; something which is almost unique to the 'P' style pickup. Less common is the single-coil "P" pickup, used on the original 1951 Fender Precision bass. This is also known as the 'Vintage P' due to it being found on vintage basses before the invention of the split coil pickup. The single-coil "P" pickup is also used in the reissue and the Sting signature model. "Dual Coil" (Humbucker) pickups, also known as "DC pickups", have two signal producing coils which are reverse wound around opposed polarity magnets (similar in principle to the two individual J-pickups). This significantly reduces noise from interference compared to single coil pickups. Humbuckers also often produce a higher output level than single coil pickups. Dual coil pickups come in two main varieties; ceramic or ceramic and steel. Ceramic only magnets have a relatively harsher sound than their ceramic and steel counterparts, and are thus used more commonly in heavier rock styles. A well-known bass humbucker is the pickup used on the Music Man series of basses; it has two coils, each with four large polepieces. This style is known as the "MM" pickup for this reason, and many aftermarket pickup manufacturers and custom builders incorporate these pickups. The most common configurations are a single pickup at the bridge, two pickups similar in placement to a Jazz Bass, or an MM pickup at the bridge with a single-coil pickup (often a "J") at the neck. These pickups can often be "tapped", meaning one of the two coils can be essentially turned off, giving a sound similar to a single-coil pickup. "Soapbar" Pickups are so-named due to their resemblance to a bar of soap and originally referred to the Gibson P-90 guitar pickup. The term is also used to describe any pickup with a rectangular shape and no visible pole pieces; most of the pickups falling into this category are humbucking. They are commonly found in basses designed for the rock and metal genres, such as Gibson, ESP Guitars, and Schecter. 'Soapbar pickups' are also called 'extended housing'. Many basses have just one pickup, typically a "P" or soapbar pickup. Multiple pickups are also quite common, two of the most common configurations being a "P" near the neck and a "J" near the bridge (e.g. Fender Precision Bass Special, Fender Precision Bass Plus), or two "J" pickups (e.g. Fender Jazz). A two-"soapbar" configuration is also very common, especially on basses by makes such as Ibanez and Yamaha. A combination of a J pickup at the neck and a Music Man-style humbucker Some basses use more unusual pickup configurations, such as a soapbar and a "P" pickup (found on some Fenders), Stu Hamm's "Urge" basses which have a "P" pickup sandwiched between two "J" pickups, and some of Bootsy Collins' custom basses, which had as many as 5 J pickups. Another unusual pickup configuration is found on some of the custom basses that Billy Sheehan uses, in which there is one humbucker at the neck and a split-coil pickup at the middle position. The placement of the pickup greatly affects the sound. A pickup near the neck joint emphasizes the fundamental and low-order harmonics and thus produces a deeper, bassier sound, while a pickup near the bridge emphasizes higher-order harmonics and makes a "tighter" or "sharper" sound. Usually basses with multiple pickups allow blending of the output from the pickups, with electrical and acoustical interactions between the two pickups (such as partial phase cancellations) allowing a range of tonal effects. Sound demonstrations of the tonal effects of varying blends of the P and J pickups are demonstrated at the following link. Non-magnetic pickups The use of non-magnetic pickups allows bassists to use non-ferrous strings such as nylon, brass or even silicone rubber, which create different tones. Piezoelectric pickups (also called "piezo" pickups) are non-magnetic pickups that use a transducer crystal to convert the vibrations produced by the string into an electrical signal. They produce a different tone from magnetic pickups, often similar to that of an acoustic bass. Piezo pickups are often used in acoustic bass guitars. Optical pickups are another type of non-magnetic pickup. They use an infrared LED to optically track the movement of the string, which allows them to reproduce low-frequency tones at high volumes without the "hum" or excessive resonance associated with conventional magnetic pickups. Since optical pickups do not pick up high frequencies or percussive sounds well, they are commonly paired with piezoelectric pickups to fill in the missing frequencies. The Lightwave company builds basses with optical pickups. Amplification and effects This amplification setup is a "bass stack" approach, in which an amplifier (in this case a Hartke 5000) is plugged into separate speaker cabinets. Like the electric guitar, the electric bass guitar is often connected to an amplifier and a speaker with a patch cord for live performances. Electric bassists use either a "combo" amplifier, which combines an amplifier and a speaker in a single cabinet, or an amplifier and a separate speaker cabinet (or cabinets). In some cases when the bass is being used with large-scale PA amplification, it is plugged into a "DI" or "direct box", which routes their signal directly into a mixing console, and thence to the main and monitor speakers. Recording may use a microphone setup for the amplified signal or a direct box feeding the recording console. The performer or producer may also use a blend of the miked and direct signals. Various electronic bass effects such as preamplifiers, "stomp box"-style pedals and signal processors and the configuration of the amplifier and speaker can be used to alter the basic sound of the instrument. In the 1990s and early 2000s, signal processors such as equalizers, distortion devices, and compressors or limiters became increasingly popular. Playing techniques Sitting or standing Most bass players stand while playing, although sitting is also accepted, particularly in large ensemble settings, such as jazz big bands or in acoustic genres such as folk music. It is a matter of the player's preference as to which position gives the greatest ease of playing and what a bandleader expects. When sitting, right-handed players can balance the instrument on the right thigh or like classical guitar players, the left. Balancing the bass on the left thigh positions it in such a way that it mimics the standing position, allowing for less difference between the standing and sitting positions. Bassist Victor Wooten performs in a bass trio called SMV with Stanley Clarke and Marcus Miller. Performing techniques Plucking techniques In contrast to the upright bass (or double bass), the electric bass guitar is played horizontally across the body, like an electric guitar. When the strings are plucked with the fingers (pizzicato), the index and middle fingers (and sometimes with the thumb, ring, and pinky fingers as well) are used. James Jamerson, an influential bassist from the Motown era, played intricate bass lines using only his index finger, which he called "The Hook." There are also variations in how a bassist chooses to rest the right-hand thumb (or left thumb in the case of left-handed players). A player may rest his thumb on the top edge of one of the pickups or on the side of the fretboard, which is especially common among bassists who have an upright bass influence. Some bassists anchor their thumbs on the lowest string and move it off to play on the low string. Alternatively, the thumb can be rested loosely on the strings to mute the unused strings. The string can be plucked at any point between the bridge and the point where the fretting hand is holding down the string; different timbres are produced depending on where along the string it is plucked. Some players are known for plucking near the bridge where the string is most taut, such as jazz fusion bassist Jaco Pastorius, whereas other bassists prefer the "looser" part of the string nearer to the fingerboard. Bassists trying to emulate the sound of a double bass sometimes pluck the strings with their thumb and use palm-muting to create a short, "thumpy" tone. The late Monk Montgomery (who played in Lionel Hampton's band), Bruce Palmer (who performed with Buffalo Springfield), Sting and progressive rocker Geddy Lee use thumb downstrokes. The use of the thumb was acknowledged by early Fender models, which came with a "thumbrest" or "Tug Bar" attached to the pickguard below the strings. Contrary to its name, this was not used to rest the thumb, but to provide leverage while using the thumb to pluck the strings. The thumbrest was moved above the strings in 1970s models and eliminated in the 1980s. "Slap and pop" The slap and pop method, or "thumbstyle", which is a mainstay of funk, uses tones and percussive sounds achieved by striking, thumping, or "slapping" a string with the thumb and snapping (or "popping") a string or strings with the index or middle fingers. Bassists often interpolate left hand-muted "dead notes" between the slaps and pops to achieve a rapid percussive effect, and after a note is slapped or popped, the fretting hand may cause other notes to sound by using "hammer ons", "pull offs", or a left-hand glissando (slide). Larry Graham of Sly and the Family Stone and Graham Central Station was an early innovator of the slap style, and Louis Johnson of the The Brothers Johnson is also credited as an early slap bass player. Slap and pop style is also used by many bassists in other genres, such as rock (e.g., J J Burnel and Les Claypool), metal (e.g. Eric Langlois, Fieldy and Ryan Martinie), and fusion (e.g. Marcus Miller, Victor Wooten (performing with The Dave Matthews Band and Bela Fleck), and Alain Caron). Slap style playing was popularized throughout the 1980s and early 1990s by pop bass players such as Mark King (from Level 42) and rock bassists such as with Pino Palladino (currently a member of the John Mayer Trio and bassist for The Who), Flea (from the Red Hot Chili Peppers) and Alex Katunich (from Incubus). Wooten popularized the "double thump," in which the string is slapped twice, on the upstroke and a downstroke (for more information, see Classical Thump). A rarely-used playing technique related to slapping is the use of wooden dowel "funk fingers", an approach popularized by Tony Levin. Flea from the funk-rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers is known for his use of percussive slapping techniques. Picking techniques The pick (or plectrum) is used to obtain a more articulate attack, for speed, or just personal preference. Although the use of a pick is primarily associated with rock, picks are also used in other styles. Jazz bassist Steve Swallow uses a pick for upbeat or funky songs. Picks can be used with alternating downstrokes and upstrokes, or with all downstrokes for a more consistent attack. The pick is usually held with the index and thumb, with the up-and-down plucking motion supplied by the wrist (one exception is tremolo picking, in which the whole arm is used to play a note very rapidly). Some bassists use their fingernails to play flamenco-style, such as the late John Entwistle, Geddy Lee, the late Cliff Burton, Les Claypool and Stanley Clarke. There are many varieties of picks available, but due to the thicker, heavier strings of the electric bass, bassists tend to use heavier picks than those used for electric guitar, typically ranging from 1.14 mm – 3.00 mm (3.00 is unusual). Different materials are used for picks, including plastic, nylon, and felt, all of which produce different tones. Felt picks are used to emulate a fingerstyle tone. Fretting techniques The fretting hand—the left hand for right-handed bass players and the right hand for left-handed bass players — is used to press down the strings to play different notes and shape the tone or timbre of a plucked or picked note. The fretting hand can be used to change a sounded note, either by fully muting it after it is plucked or picked to shorten its duration or by partially muting it near the bridge to reduce the volume of the note, or make the note die away faster. The fretting hand is often used to mute strings that are not being played and stop the sympathetic vibrations, particularly when the player wants a "dry" or "focused" sound. On the other hand, the sympathetic resonance of harmonically-related strings may be desired for some songs, such as ballads. In these cases, a bassist can fret harmonically-related notes. For example, while fretting a sustained "F" (on the third fret of the "D" string), underneath an F major chord, a bassist might hold down the "C" and low "F" below this note, so that their harmonics will sound sympathetically. The fretting hand can add vibrato to a plucked or picked note, either a gentle, narrow vibrato or a more exaggerated, wide vibrato with bigger pitch variations. For fretted basses, vibrato is always an alternation between the pitch of the note and a slightly higher pitch. For fretless basses, the player can use this style of vibrato, or they can alternate between the note and a slightly lower pitch. While vibrato is mostly done on "stopped" notes—that is, notes that are pressed down on the fingerboard—open strings can also be vibratoed by pressing down on the string behind the nut. As well, the fretting hand can be used to "bend" a plucked or picked note up in pitch. To create the opposite effect, a "bend down", the string is pushed to a higher pitch before being plucked or picked and then allowed to fall to the lower, regular pitch after it is sounded. More rarely, a bassist may use a tremolo bar-equipped bass to produce the same effect. In addition to pressing down one note at a time, bassists can also press down several notes at one time with their fretting hand to perform a chord. While chords are used less often by bassists than by electric guitarists, a variety of chords can be performed on the electric bass, especially with instruments with higher ranges such as six-string basses. Another variation to fully pressing down a string is to gently graze the string with the finger at the harmonic node points on the string, which creates chime-like upper partials. Glissando is an effect in which the fretting hand slides up or down the neck. A subtle glissando can be performed by moving the fretting hand without plucking or picking the string; for a more pronounced effect, the string is plucked or picked first, or, in a metal or hardcore punk context, a pick may be scraped along the sides of the strings. The fretting hand can also be used to sound notes, either by plucking an open string with the fretting hand, or, in the case of a string that has already been plucked or picked, by "hammering on" a higher pitch or "pulling off" a finger to pluck a lower fretted or open stringed note. Jazz bassists use a subtle form of fretting hand pizzicato by plucking a very brief open string grace note with the fretting hand right before playing the string with the plucking hand. When a string is rapidly hammered on, the note can be prolonged into a trill. Two-handed tapping A bassist performing tapping, in which notes are sounded by striking the strings against the fretboard In the two-handed tapping styles, bassists use both hands to play notes on the fretboard by rapidly pressing and holding the string to the fret. Instead of plucking or picking the string to create a sound, in this technique, the action of striking the string against the fretboard is used to create the sound. Since two hands can be used to play on the fretboard, this makes it possible to play interweaving contrapuntal lines, to simultaneously play a bassline and a simple chord, or play chords and arpeggios. Bassist John Entwistle of The Who would tap percussively on the strings, causing them to strike the fretboard with a twangy sound to create drum-style fills. Some players noted for this technique include Billy Sheehan, Stuart Hamm, John Myung, Victor Wooten, Les Claypool, and Michael Manring. The Chapman Stick and Warr Guitars are string instruments that are designed to be played using two-handed tapping. Uses Popular music Popular music bands and rock groups use the bass guitar as a member of the rhythm section, which provides the chord sequence or "progression" and sets out the "beat" for the song. The rhythm section typically consists of a rhythm guitarist and/or electric keyboard player, a bass guitarist and a drummer; larger groups may add additional guitarists, keyboardists, or percussionists. The types of basslines performed by the bass guitarist vary widely from one style of music to another. Despite all of the differences in the styles of bassline, in most styles of popular music, the bass guitarist fulfills a similar role: anchoring the harmonic framework (often by emphasizing the roots of the chord progression) and laying down the beat (in collaboration with the drummer). The importance of the bass guitarist and the bass line varies in different styles of music. In some pop styles, such as 1980s-era pop and musical theater, the bass sometimes plays a relatively simple part, and the music forefronts the vocals and melody instruments. In contrast, in reggae or funk, entire songs may be centered around the bass groove, and the bassline is usually very prominent in the mix. In traditional country music, folk rock, and related styles, the bass often plays the roots and fifth of each chord in alternation. In Chicago blues, the electric bass often performs a walking bassline made up of scales and arpeggios. In blues rock bands, the bassist often plays blues scale-based riffs and chugging boogie-style lines. In metal, the bass guitar may perform complex riffs along with the rhythm guitarist or play a low, rumbling pedal point to anchor the group's sound. Bassist Robert Trujillo performing with metal band Metallica The bass guitarist sometimes breaks out of the strict rhythm section role to perform bass breaks or bass solos. The types of basslines used for bass breaks of bass solos vary by style. In a rock band, a bass break may consist of the bassist playing a riff or lick during a pause in the song. In some styles of metal, a bass break may consist of "shred guitar"-style tapping on the bass. In a funk or funk rock band, a bass solo may showcase the bassist's percussive slap and pop playing. In genres such as progressive rock, art rock, or progressive metal, the bass guitar player may play melody lines along with the lead guitar (or vocalist) and perform extended guitar solos. Jazz and jazz fusion The electric bass is a relative newcomer to the world of jazz. The big bands of the 1930s and 1940s Swing era and the small combos of the 1950s Bebop and Hard Bop movements all used the double bass. The electric bass was introduced during the late 1960s and early 1970s, when rock influences were blended with jazz to create jazz-rock fusion. When the electric bass is used in jazz, it has both an accompaniment and a soloing role. When the bass is used to accompany, it may be used to perform walking basslines for traditional tunes and "jazz standards", in smooth quarter note lines which imitate the sound of the double bass. For latin or salsa tunes and rock-infused jazz fusion tunes, the electric bass may play rapid, syncopated rhythmic figures in coordination with the drummer, or lay down a low, heavy groove. Double bassist and electric bassist Christian McBride performing in the jazz group "Five Peace Band" in 2008 In a jazz setting, the electric bass tends to have much a much more expansive solo role than in most popular styles. In most rock settings, the bass guitarist may only have a few short bass breaks or brief solos during a concert. During a jazz concert, a jazz bassist may have a number of lengthy improvised solos, which are called "blowing" in jazz parlance. Whether a jazz bassist is comping (accompanying) or soloing, they usually aim to create a rhythmic drive and "timefeel" that creates a sense of "swing" and "groove". For information on notable jazz bassists, see the List of jazz bassists article. Contemporary classical music Contemporary classical music uses both the standard instruments of Western Art music (piano, violin, double bass, etc) and newer instruments or sound producing devices, ranging from electrically amplified instruments to tape players and radios. The electric bass guitar has occasionally been used in contemporary classical music (art music) since the late 1960s. Contemparary composers often obtained unusual sounds or instrumental timbres through the use of non-traditional (or unconventional) instruments or playing techniques. As such, bass guitarists playing contemporary classical music may be instructed to pluck or strum the instrument in unusual ways. American composers using electric bass in the 1960s included experimental classical music composer Christian Wolff (born 1934) (Electric Spring 1, 1966; Electric Spring 2, 1966/70; Electric Spring 3, 1967; and Untitled, 1996); Francis Thorne, a student of Paul Hindemith at Yale University (born 1922), who wrote (Liebesrock 1968–69); and Krzysztof Penderecki (Cello Concerto no. 1, 1966/67, rev. 1971/72), The Devils of Loudun, 1969; Kosmogonia, 1970; and Partita, 1971), Louis Andriessen (Spektakel, 1970; De Staat, 1972-76; Hoketus, 1976; De Tijd, 1980-81 and De Materie, 1984–1988). European composers who began scoring for the bass guitar in the 1960s included Danish composer Pelle Gudmundsen-Holmgreen (born 1932) (Symfoni på Rygmarven, 1966; Rerepriser, 1967; and Piece by Piece, 1968); Irwin Bazelon (Churchill Downs, 1970). Russian and Soviet composer Alfred Schnittke, pictured here in 1989, used electric bass for his Symphony no. 1 (1972). In the 1970s, electric bass was used by the American conductor- composer Leonard Bernstein (1918 – 1990) for his MASS, 1971). American jazz pianist Dave Brubeck used bass guitar for his 1971 piece Truth Has Fallen. Russian and Soviet composer Alfred Schnittke used the instrument for his Symphony no. 1, 1972. In 1977, David Amram(born 1930) scored for electric bass in En memoria de Chano Pozo. Amram is an American composer known for his eclectic use of jazz, ethnic and folk music. In the 1980s and 1990s, electric bass was used in works by Hans Werner Henze (El Rey de Harlem, 1980; and Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, 1981), Harold Shapero, On Green Mountain (Chaconne after Monteverdi), 1957, orchestrated 1981; Steve Reich's Electric Counterpoint (1987), Wolfgang Rihm (Die Eroberung von Mexico, 1987-91), Arvo Pärt (Miserere, 1989/92), Sofia Gubaidulina (Aus dem Stundenbuch, 1991), Giya Kancheli (Wingless, 1993), John Adams (I Was Looking at the Ceiling and Then I Saw the Sky, 1995; and Scratchband, 1996/97), and Michael Nyman (many works for the Michael Nyman Band). Pedagogy and training The pedagogy and training for the electric bass varies widely by genre and country. Rock and pop bass has a history of pedagogy dating back to the 1950s and 1960s, when method books were developed to help students learn the instrument. One notable method book was Carol Kaye's How to Play the Electric Bass. In the jazz scene, since the bass guitar takes on much of the same role as the double bass—laying down the rhythm, and outlining the harmonic foundation—electric bass players have long used both bass guitar methods and jazz double bass method books. The use of jazz double bass method books by electric bass players in jazz is facilitated in that jazz methods tend to emphasize improvisation techniques (e.g., how to improvise walking basslines) and rhythmic exercises rather than specific ways of holding or plucking the instrument. Formal training Of all of the genres, jazz and the mainstream commercial genres (rock, R&B, etc) have the most established and comprehensive systems of instruction and training for electric bass. In the jazz scene, teens can begin taking private lessons on the instrument and performing in amateur big bands at high schools or run by the community. Young adults who aspire to becomnig professional jazz bassists or studio rock bassists can continue their studies in a variety of formal training settings, including colleges and some universities. Even though there are formal training routes for jazz and popular music styles, many electric bass players, including professionals, have learned informally, by playing "by ear", learning basslines from records and CDs, and by playing in a number of bands. Several colleges offer electric bass training in the US. The Bass Institute of Technology (BIT) in Los Angeles was founded in 1978, as part of the Musician's Institute. Chuck Rainey (electric bassist for Aretha Franklin and Marvin Gaye) was BIT's first director. BIT was one of the earliest professional training program for electric bassists. The program teaches a range of modern styles, including funk, rock, jazz, Latin, and R&B. Bassist Michael Manringis a well-known alumus of the bass department of the Berklee College of Music The Berklee College of Music in Boston offers training for electric bass players. Electric bass students get private lessons and there is a choice of over 270 ensembles to play in. Specific electric bass courses include funk/fusion styles for bass; slap techniques for electric bass; fingerstyle R&B; 5 & 6-string electric bass playing (including performing chords); and how to read bass sheet music. http://www.berklee.edu/departments/bass.html In Canada, the Humber College Institute of Technology & Advanced Learning offers an Advanced Diploma (a three-year program) in jazz and commercial music. The program accepts performers who play bass, guitar, keyboard, drums, melody instruments (e.g., sax, flute, violin) and who sing. Students get private lessons and perform in 40 student ensembles. http://postsecondary.humber.ca/music.htm Although there are far fewer university programs that offer electric bass instruction in jazz and popular music, there are some universities which offer Bachelor's degrees (B.Mus.) and Master of Music (M.Mus.) degrees in jazz performance or "commercial music", in which electric bass can be the main instrument. In the US, the Manhattan School of Music has a jazz program leading to B.Mus. and M.Mus degrees which accepts students who play bass (double bass and electric bass), guitar, piano, drums, and melody instruments (e.g., sax, trumpet, etc.). http://www.msmnyc.edu/undergrad/ As well, there are a variety of other training programs such as jazz or funk summer camps and festivals, which give students the opportunity to play a wide range of contemporary music, from 1970s-style jazz-rock fusion to 2000s-style R&B. Informal training In other less mainstream genres, such as hardcore punk or metal, the pedagogical systems and training sequences are typically not formalized and institutionalized. As such, many players learn "by ear", by copying the basslines from records and CDs, and by playing in a number of bands. Even in non-mainstream styles, though, students may be able to take lessons from experienced players from these styles. As well, there are a range of books, playing methods, and, since the 1990s, instructional DVDs (e.g., on how to play metal bass). See also Acoustic bass guitar, a hollow-bodied instrument built similarly to an acoustic guitar, which plays in the same range as an electric bass Ashbory bass, a very short-scale instrument that uses thick silicone rubber strings Bass effects, electronic devices that alter the sound of the electric bass Double bass, a large wooden instrument from the violin family, used in orchestras, and in blues, jazz, rockabilly, and country music. Octobass, an extremely large and rare bass instrument from the violin family used in orchestras. Piccolo bass Electric upright bass, a smaller, lighter, electrically-amplified variant of the double bass Fender Jazz Bass Fender Precision Bass Guitar effects Washtub bass References Further reading External links Weird Bass Guitars (Images) be-x-old:Бас-гітара | Bass_guitar |@lemmatized electric:74 bass:340 guitar:94 accord:3 new:8 grove:3 dictionary:3 music:46 musician:12 usually:8 four:20 heavy:5 string:182 tune:34 e:41 g:43 second:1 edition:1 edit:1 stanley:5 sadie:1 john:8 tyrrell:1 london:1 also:39 call:9 define:1 term:4 thus:3 iv:1 contraction:1 double:25 ibid:1 proper:1 often:22 misname:1 tom:2 wheeler:1 book:11 pp:1 evans:2 page:1 agrees:1 although:8 one:22 common:11 name:3 instrument:62 commonly:7 use:127 author:1 claim:1 historically:1 accurate:1 fender:41 change:6 world:4 reference:3 section:5 simply:3 base:4 stringed:1 play:46 primarily:2 finger:10 thumb:15 either:5 pluck:22 slap:14 pop:13 tap:5 thump:4 plectrum:2 similar:10 appearance:2 construction:3 large:9 body:23 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7,042 | Analytical_chemistry | Analytical chemistry is the study of the chemical composition of natural and artificial materials. Properties studied in analytical chemistry include geometric features such as molecular morphologies and distributions of species, as well as features such as composition and species identity. Unlike the sub disciplines inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry, analytical chemistry (like physical chemistry) is not restricted to any particular type of chemical compound or reaction.The contributions made by analytical chemists have played critical roles in the sciences ranging from the development of concepts and theories (pure science) to a variety of practical applications, such as biomedical applications, environmental monitoring, quality control of industrial manufacturing and forensic science (applied science). Overview Analytical chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that has the broad mission of understanding the chemical composition of all matter and developing the tools and experiments to make either qualitative or quantitative measurements. In a nutshell, analytical chemistry applies measurement science principles along with an understanding of chemical systems to provide useful information; and it has significant overlap with other branches of chemistry through the measurement methods that it provides. For example, the field of bioanalytical chemistry is a growing area of analytical chemistry that addresses analytical questions in biochemistry, (the chemistry of life). Experimental physical chemistry and analytical chemistry show similarity in that both have a measurement science focus. While there is occasional overlap between these two disciplines, the goal of physical chemistry experiments is to determine the dynamics of how energy affects the chemical system by making kinetic, thermodynamic, and spectroscopic measurements, while analytical chemistry sometimes uses such energy-based measurements to determine matter-related properties such as chemical identity and quantity. Analytical chemistry is also focused on improvements in experimental design and the creation of new measurement tools to provide better chemical information. Traditionally, analytical chemistry was particularly concerned with the questions of "what chemicals are present, what are their characteristics and in what quantities are they present?" These questions are often involved in questions that are more dynamic such as what chemical reaction an enzyme catalyzes or how fast it does it, or even more dynamic such as what is the transition state of the reaction. The next logical steps of understanding what it means, how it fits into a larger system, how can this result be generalized into theory, or how it can be used all result from information provided by analytical chemistry methods. Analytical chemists work to improve the reliability of existing techniques to meet the demands for better chemical measurements which arise constantly in our society. They adapt proven methodologies to new kinds of materials or to answer new questions about their composition. They carry out research to discover completely new principles of measurement and are at the forefront of the utilization of major discoveries such as lasers and microchip devices for practical purposes. They make important contributions to many other fields as diverse as forensic chemistry, archaeology, and space science. Modern analytical chemistry Modern analytical chemistry is dominated by instrumental analysis. Many analytical chemists focus on a single type of instrument. Academics tend to either focus on new applications and discoveries or on new methods of analysis. The discovery of a chemical present in blood that increases the risk of cancer would be a discovery that an analytical chemist might be involved in. An effort to develop a new method might involve the use of a tunable laser to increase the specificity and sensitivity of a spectrometric method. Many methods, once developed, are kept purposely static so that data can be compared over long periods of time. This is particularly true in industrial quality assurance (QA), forensic and environmental applications. Analytical chemistry plays an increasingly important role in the pharmaceutical industry where, aside from QA, it is used in discovery of new drug candidates and in clinical applications where understanding the interactions between the drug and the patient are critical. History Much of early chemistry was analytical chemistry since the questions of what elements and chemicals were present in the world around us and what are their fundamental natures is very much in the realm of analytical chemistry. There was also significant early progress in synthesis and theory which of course are not analytical chemistry. During this period significant analytical contributions to chemistry include the development of systematic elemental analysis by Justus von Liebig and systematized organic analysis based on the specific reactions of functional groups. The first instrumental analysis was flame emissive spectrometry developed by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff who discovered rubidium (Rb) and caesium (Cs) in 1860. ANALYTICAL SCIENCES 2001, VOL.17 SUPPLEMENT , Basic Education in Analytical Chemistry Most of the major developments in analytical chemistry take place after 1900. During this period instrumental analysis becomes progressively dominant in the field. In particular many of the basic spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques were discovered in the early 20th century and refined in the late 20th century. Talanta Volume 51, Issue 5, p921-933 , Review of analyticalnext term measurements facilitated by drop formation technology The separation sciences follow a similar time line of development and also become increasingly transformed into high performance instruments. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry Volume 21, Issues 9-10, Pages 547-557 , History of gas chromatography In the 1970s many of these techniques began to be used together to achieve a complete characterization of samples. Starting in approximately the 1970s into the present day analytical chemistry has progressively become more inclusive of biological questions (bioanalytical chemistry), whereas it had previously been largely focused on inorganic or small organic molecules. Lasers have been increasingly used in chemistry as probes and even to start and influence a wide variety of reactions. The late 20th century also saw an expansion of the application of analytical chemistry from somewhat academic chemical questions to forensic, environmental, industrial and medical questions, such as in histology. Talanta, Volume 36, Issues 1-2, January-February 1989, Pages 1-9 History of analytical chemistry in the U.S.A. Types Traditionally, analytical chemistry has been split into two main types, qualitative and quantitative: Qualitative Qualitative inorganic analysis seeks to establish the presence of a given element or inorganic compound in a sample. Qualitative organic analysis seeks to establish the presence of a given functional group or organic compound in a sample. Quantitative Quantitative analysis seeks to establish the amount of a given element or compound in a sample. Approaches Most modern analytical chemistry is categorized by two different approaches such as analytical targets or analytical methods. Analytical Chemistry (journal) reviews two different approaches alternatively in the issue 12 of each year. By Analytical Targets Bioanalytical chemistry Material analysis Chemical analysis Environmental analysis Forensics By Analytical Methods Spectroscopy Mass Spectrometry Spectrophotometry and Colorimetry Chromatography and Electrophoresis Crystallography Microscopy Electrochemistry Traditional analytical techniques Although modern analytical chemistry is dominated by sophisticated instrumentation, the roots of analytical chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments are from traditional techniques many of which are still used today. These techniques also tend to form the backbone of most undergraduate analytical chemistry educational labs. Examples include: Titration Titration involves the addition of a reactant to a solution being analyzed until some equivalence point is reached. Often the amount of material in the solution being analyzed may be determined. Most familiar to those who have taken college chemistry is the acid-base titration involving a color changing indicator. There are many other types of titrations, for example potentiometric titrations. These titrations may use different types of indicators to reach some equivalence point. Gravimetry Gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material present by weighing the sample before and/or after some transformation. A common example used in undergraduate education is the determination of the amount of water in a hydrate by heating the sample to remove the water such that the difference in weight is due to the water lost. Inorganic qualitative analysis Inorganic qualitative analysis generally refers to a systematic scheme to confirm the presence of certain, usually aqueous, ions or elements by performing a series of reactions that eliminate ranges of possibilities and then confirms suspected ions with a confirming test. Sometimes small carbon containing ions are included in such schemes. With modern instrumentation these tests are rarely used but can be useful for educational purposes and in field work or other situations where access to state-of-the-art instruments are not available or expedient. Instrumental Analysis Block diagram of an analytical instrument showing the stimulus and measurement of response Spectroscopy Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with electromagnetic radiation. Spectroscopy consists of many different applications such as atomic absorption spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, Mössbauer spectroscopy and so on. Mass Spectrometry Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric and magnetic fields. There are several ionization methods: electron impact, chemical ionization, electrospray, fast atom bombardment, matrix assisted laser desorption ionization, and others. Also, mass spectrometry is categorized by approaches of mass analyzers: magnetic-sector,quadrupole mass analyzer, quadrupole ion trap, Time-of-flight, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance, and so on. Crystallography Crystallography is a technique that characterizes the chemical structure of materials at the atomic level by analyzing the diffraction patterns of usually x-rays that have been deflected by atoms in the material. From the raw data the relative placement of atoms in space may be determined. Electrochemical Analysis Electroanalytical methods measure the potential (volts) and/or current (amps) in an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2nd Edition, 2000. Skoog, D.A.; West, D.M.; Holler, F.J. Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry New York: Saunders College Publishing, 5th Edition, 1988. These methods can be categorized according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The three main categories are potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is measured), coulometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential). Thermal Analysis Calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis measure the interaction of a material and heat. Separation Separation processes are used to decrease the complexity of material mixtures. Chromatography and electrophoresis are representative of this field. Hybrid Techniques Combinations of the above techniques produce "hybrid" or "hyphenated" techniques. Several examples are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under development. For example, Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, LC-MS, GC-IR, LC-NMR, LC-IR, CE-MS, and so on. Hyphenated separation techniques refers to a combination of two (or more) techniques to detect and separate chemicals from solutions. Most often the other technique is some form of chromatography. Hyphenated techniques are widely used in chemistry and biochemistry. A slash is sometimes used instead of hyphen, especially if the name of one of the methods contains a hyphen itself. Examples of hyphenated techniques: LC-MS (or HPLC-MS) HPLC/ESI-MS LC-DAD CE-MS CE-UV GC-MS LC-IR Microscopy The visualization of single molecules, single cells, biological tissues and nano- micro materials is very important and attractive approach in analytical science. Also, hybridization with other traditional analytical tools is revolutionizing analytical science. Microscopy can be categorized into three different fields: optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and scanning probe microscopy. Recently, this field is rapidly progressing because of the rapid development of computer and camera industries. Lab-on-a-chip Devices that integrate (multiple) laboratory functions on a single chip of only millimeters to a few square centimeters in size and that are capable of handling extremely small fluid volumes down to less than pico liters. Methods and data analysis Standard Curve A standard method for analysis of concentration involves the creation of a calibration curve. This allows for determination of the amount of a chemical in a material by comparing the results of unknown sample to those of a series known standards.If the concentration of element or compound in a sample is too high for the detection range of the technique, it can simply be diluted in a pure solvent. If the amount in the sample is below an instrument's range of measurement, the method of addition can be used. In this method a known quantity of the element or compound under study is added, and the difference between the concentration added, and the concentration observed is the amount actually in the sample. Internal Standards Sometimes an internal standard is added at a known concentration directly to an analytical sample to aid in quantitation. The amount of analyte present is then determined relative to the internal standard as a calibrant. Trends Analytical chemistry research is largely driven by performance (sensitivity, selectivity, robustness, linear range, accuracy, precision, and speed), and cost (purchase, operation, training, time, and space). Among the main branches of contemporary analytical atomic spectrometry, the most widespread and universal are optical and mass spectrometry (see Prospects in Analytical Atomic Spectrometry). In the direct elemental analysis of solid samples, the new leaders are laser-induced breakdown and laser ablation mass spectrometry, and the related techniques with transfer of the laser ablation products into inductively coupled plasma. Advances in design of diode lasers and optical parametric oscillators promote developments in fluorescence and ionization spectrometry and also in absorption techniques where uses of optical cavities for increased effective absorption pathlength are expected to expand. Steady progress and growth in applications of plasma- and laser-based methods are noticeable. An interest towards the absolute (standardless) analysis has revived, particularly in the emission spectrometry. A lot of effort is put in shrinking the analysis techniques to chip size. Although there are few examples of such systems competitive with traditional analysis techniques, potential advantages include size/portability, speed, and cost. (micro Total Analysis System (µTAS) or Lab-on-a-chip). Microscale chemistry reduces the amounts of chemicals used. Much effort is also put into analyzing biological systems. Examples of rapidly expanding fields in this area are: Genomics - DNA sequencing and its related research. Genetic fingerprinting and DNA microarray are very popular tools and research fields. Proteomics - the analysis of protein concentrations and modifications, especially in response to various stressors, at various developmental stages, or in various parts of the body. Metabolomics - similar to proteomics, but dealing with metabolites. Transcriptomics- mRNA and its associated field Lipidomics - lipids and its associated field Peptidomics - peptides and its associated field Metalomics - similar to proteomics and metabolomics, but dealing with metal concentrations and especially with their binding to proteins and other molecules. Analytical chemistry has played critical roles in the understanding of basic science to a variety of practical applications, such as biomedical applications, environmental monitoring, quality control of industrial manufacturing, forensic science and so on. The recent developments of computer automation and information technologies have innervated analytical chemistry to initiate a number of new biological fields. For example, automated DNA sequencing machines were the basis to complete human genome projects leading to the birth of genomics. Protein identification and peptide sequencing by mass spectrometry opened a new field of proteomics. Furthermore, a number of ~omics based on analytical chemistry have become important areas in modern biology. Also, analytical chemistry has been an indispensable area in the development of nanotechnology. Surface characterization instruments, electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes enables scientists to visualize atomic structures with chemical characterizations. Analytical chemistry is pursuing the development of practical applications and commercial instruments rather than elucidating scientific fundamentals. This may be an arguable difference from overlapping science areas such as physical chemistry and biophysics, although there isn't any distinct boundaries among disciplines in contemporary science and technology. However, this aspect may attract many engineers' interest; thus, it is not difficult to see papers from engineering departments in analytical chemistry journals. Among active contemporary analytical chemistry research fields, micro total analysis system is considered as a great promise of revolutionary technology. In this approach, integrated and miniaturized analytical systems are being developed to control and analyze single cells and single molecules. This cutting-edge technology has a promising potential of leading a new revolution in science as integrated circuits did in computer developments. See also List of chemical analysis methods List of materials analysis methods Important publications in analytical chemistry Virtual instrumentation AutoAnalyzer References External links Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry American Chemical Society: Division of Analytical Chemistry Royal Society of Chemistry: Analytical Gateway | Analytical_chemistry |@lemmatized analytical:62 chemistry:61 study:3 chemical:22 composition:4 natural:1 artificial:1 material:12 property:2 include:5 geometric:1 feature:2 molecular:1 morphology:1 distribution:1 specie:2 well:1 identity:2 unlike:1 sub:2 discipline:4 inorganic:6 organic:5 like:1 physical:4 restrict:1 particular:2 type:6 compound:6 reaction:6 contribution:3 make:4 chemist:4 play:3 critical:3 role:3 science:16 range:5 development:11 concept:1 theory:3 pure:2 variety:3 practical:4 application:12 biomedical:2 environmental:5 monitoring:2 quality:3 control:4 industrial:4 manufacturing:2 forensic:5 apply:1 overview:1 broad:1 mission:1 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7,043 | Leszek_Miller | Leszek Miller with Marek Belka, 2004 Leszek Miller (born July 3, 1946 in Żyrardów) is a Polish left-wing politician, a many-year leader of the Democratic Left Alliance, Prime Minister of the government of the Republic of Poland in 2001-2004. Childhood and youth Leszek Miller comes from a poor, working-class family: His father was a tailor and his mother a needlewoman. His parents broke up when Leszek was six months old; his father, Florian, left the family and Leszek has never maintained any contact with him. His mother brought him up in a religious spirit – following her wish, he was even, for some time, an altar-boy. Due to hard life conditions, after graduation from vocational school, 17-year-old Leszek got a job in the Textile Linen Plant in Żyrardów, while continuing his education in the evenings at the Vocational Secondary School of Electric Power Engineering. He soon completed his military service on the ORP Bielik submarine. In 1969, Miller married Aleksandra, three years his junior, in church. The Millers have a son, Leszek, and a granddaughter, Monika. Career in the People’s Republic of Poland Leszek Miller started his political career as an activist of the Socialist Youth Union, where he held the position of Chairman of the Plant Board, soon becoming a member of the Town Committee. After the military service, in 1969, he joined the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR). In 1973-1974, Leszek Miller was the Secretary of the PZPR Plant Committee. With granted Party’s recommendation, he started political sciences studies at the Party’s Higher School of Political Sciences (Wyższa Szkoła Nauk Społecznych), graduating in 1977. After graduation, Leszek Miller worked at the PZPR Central Committee, supervising the Group, and later on the Department of Youth, Physical Education and Tourism. In July 1986, Leszek Miller was elected the 1st Secretary of the PZPR Provincial Committee in Skierniewice. In December 1988, he returned to Warsaw, due to his promotion to the position of the Secretary of the PZPR Central Committee. As a representative of the government side, he took part in the session of the historic “Round Table”, where, together with Andrzej Celiński, he co-chaired the sub-team for youth issues (the only one that closed the session without signing the agreement). In 1989, he became member of the PZPR Political Bureau. The Third Republic of Poland After the PZPR was dissolved, Leszek Miller became a co-founder of the Social Democracy of the Polish Republic (till March 1993, he was Secretary General, then Deputy Chairman and, from December 1997, the Chairman of that party). In December 1999, at the Founding Congress of the Alliance of the Democratic Left (SLD), he was elected its Chairman, holding the function continuously till February 2004. In 1997-2001 he was the Chairman of the SLD’s caucus. In 1989, he ran unsuccessfully for Senate as a representative of the Skierniewice Province. In subsequent elections (1991), Leszek Miller was a leader on the election list of the Social Democracy of the Polish Republic in Łódź and, following a considerable success in elections, he won a seat in the Sejm, becoming Chairman of the Parliamentary Group of the Social Democracy of the Polish Republic. In three subsequent elections to the Sejm, he ran all the time from Łódź, each time gaining more and more votes (from 50 thousand in 1991 up to 146 thousand in 2001); he held a seat in Parliament till 2005. Through all that time he remained one of the leading politicians on the left wing. In early 90’s, together with Mieczysław Rakowski, he was suspected in the case of the, so-called, “Moscow loan”. After revealing that affair in 1991, Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz called Miller to abstain from taking an MP’s oath due to accusations laid against him. When Leszek Miller got cleared of the charges, Prime Minister Cimoszewicz appointed him later as the Minister in Charge of the Office of the Council of Ministers and in 1997 the Minister of Internal Affairs and Administration in his government. In turn, Cimoszewicz became the Minister of Foreign Affairs in Leszek Miller’s cabinet. In 1993-1996, Miller was the Minister of Labour and Social Policy in the governments of Waldemar Pawlak and Józef Oleksy respectively. In 1996, he was nominated as Senior Minister in charge of the Office of the Council of Ministers. He then got the nickname “The Chancellor”. Leszek Miller played an important role in concluding the case of Colonel Ryszard Kukliński. He was severely criticised for that within his political circle. A similar disapproval was expressed after Miller’s support for the Concordat and the candidature of Prof. Leszek Balcerowicz to the position of President of the National Bank of Poland. During the period of the Solidarity Electoral Action’s government, Leszek Miller was in charge of the parliamentary opposition, leading the political fight with the governing party. He was also consolidating the majority of significant left-wing groups around his person. In 1999, he succeeded in establishing one uniform political party – the Democratic Left Alliance – which turned out to be very successful in forthcoming elections. Prime Minister Following the sweeping victory of the Left (41% vs. 12% of the subsequent party) in the Parliamentary Election in 2001, on October 19, 2001, President Aleksander Kwaśniewski appointed Miller the Prime Minister and obliged to nominate the government. The new government won the parliamentary vote of confidence on October 26, 2001 (306:140 votes with one abstention). The 16-person cabinet of Prime Minister Miller has been the least numerous government of the Polish Republic so far. Leszek Miller’s predecessor has burdened him with a difficult economic situation of the country, including an unemployment rate above 18%, a high level of public debt, and economic stagnation. At the end of Miller’s government term, economic growth exceeded 6%; still, it was too slow to reduce the unemployment rate. During his term, the unpopular program of cuts in public expenses was implemented, together with a hardly successful reform of health care financing. The reforms of the tax system and of the Social Insurance Institution were continued, and the attempt to settle the mass-media market failed. Taxes were significantly lowered – to 19 % for companies and for persons running business activity – and the act of freedom in business activity was voted through. A radical, structural reform of secret services was implemented (the State Security Office was dissolved and replaced by the Internal Security Agency and the Intelligence Agency). Simultaneously, institutional and legal adjustments were continued, resulting from the accession to the European Union. The Accession conditions were negotiated, being the main strategic goal of Miller’s cabinet. On December 13, 2002, at the summit in Copenhagen (Denmark), Prime Minister Leszek Miller completed the negotiations with the European Union. On April 16, 2003 in Athens, Miller, together with Cimoszewicz, signed the Accession Treaty, bringing Poland into the European Union. Miller’s government, in collaboration with various political and social forces, organized the accession referendum with a successful outcome. On June 7 and 8, 2003, 77.45% of the referendum participants voted in favor of Poland’s accession to the European Union. The referendum turn-out reached 58.85%. Leszek Miller’s government, together with President Kwaśniewski, made a decision (March 2003) to join the anti-terrorist coalition and deploy Polish troops to Iraq, within an international campaign, targeting at overthrowing Saddam Hussein’s government. Miller was also a co-signatory of “the letter of 8”, signed by eight European prime ministers, supporting the US position on Iraq. On December 4, 2003, Leszek Miller suffered injuries in a Mi-8 helicopter crash near Warsaw. At the end of its term of office, Leszek Miller’s government had the lowest public support of any government since 1989. It was mainly caused by the continuing high unemployment rate, corruption scandals, with Rywingate on top, and by the attempt of fulfilling the plan of reducing social spending (the Hausner’s plan). In result of criticism in his own party, the Democratic Left Alliance, in February 2004, Leszek Miller resigned from chairing the party. Miller was criticized for an excessively liberal approach and for stressing the role of free market mechanisms in economy. He was reproached for his acceptance of a flat tax, which ran counter to the left-wing doctrine. He was also identified with the “chieftain-like style” of leadership. On March 26, 2004, following the decision of the Speaker of the Parliament, Marek Borowski, to found a new dissenting party, the Polish Social Democracy, Leszek Miller decided to resign from the position of Prime Minister on May 2, 2004, a day after Poland’s accession to the EU. On May 1, 2004, together with President Kwaśniewski, he was in Dublin, taking part in the Grand Ceremony of accession of 10 states, including Poland, to the European Union. Later career In 2005, despite the support of the Łódź Branch of the Democratic Left Alliance, Leszek Miller was not registered on the election list to the Parliament. At the same time, he was offered to run for Senate but refused. Retirement of the old activists was presented in media as “inflow of new blood into the Democratic Left Alliance”. After the election, Leszek Miller became active in journalism, writing mainly for the “Wprost” weekly on liberal economic concepts and current political issues. In the first half of 2005, he stayed at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C., implementing a research project: “Status of the new Poland in the Eastern Europe’s space”. In September 2007, Miller became assosiated with the populist and eurosceptic Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland, when he accepted place on their electoral list. Witty remarks Miller is known for his inclination to witty remarks. He once described his political partner, Aleksandra Jakubowska as "a brave heart in a shapely breast ". Another tag, "it’s not important how a man begins, it’s important how he finishes" stated with regards to a journalist’s question why he had decided to stay in the government after Prime Minister Pawlak left, being later replaced by Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz, with whom he was on hardly good terms at that time, was very often referred to at the beginning of 2004 in various evaluations of Leszek Miller’s accomplishments as Prime Minister. The sentence: "The Kaczynski brothers are not only from the same party but from the same egg" was voted by the internauts of the Wirtualna Polska portal as the Statement of the Year 2005. Bibliography J. Machejek, A. Machejek, Leszek Miller: dogońmy Europę!(wywiad-rzeka z liderem SLD)(Catch up with Europe! An extended interview with the Leader of the Democratic Left Alliance), Hamal Books, 2001. L. 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7,044 | Film_genre | In film theory, genre refers to the method of film categorization based on similarities in the narrative elements from which films are constructed. Most theories of film genre are borrowed from literary genre criticism. As with genre in a literary context, there is a great deal of debate over how to define or categorize genres. Besides the basic distinction in genre between fiction and documentary, film genres can be categorized in several ways. Fictional films are usually categorized according to their setting, theme topic, mood, or format . The setting is the milieu or environment where the story and action takes place. The theme or topic refers to the issues or concepts that the film revolves around. The mood is the emotional tone of the film. Format refers to the way the film was shot (e.g., anamorphic widescreen) or the manner of presentation (e.g.: 35 mm, 16 mm or 8 mm). An additional way of categorizing film genres is by the target audience. Some film theorists argue that neither format nor target audience are film genres. Film genres often branch out into subgenres, as in the case of the courtroom and trial-focused subgenre of drama known as the legal drama. They can be combined to form hybrid genres, such the melding of horror and science fiction in the Aliens films. Definition Janet Staiger argues that Hollywood films are never pure genres, because most Hollywood movies blend the love-oriented plot of the romance genre with other genres. Keith, Barry. Film Genre: From Iconography to Ideology. Wallflower Press: 2007 Staiger claims that the genre of a film can be defined in four ways. The "idealist method" judges films by a predetermined standard. The "empirical method" identifies the genre of a film by comparing it to a list of films already deemed to fall within a certain genre The "a priori" method uses common generic elements which are identified in advance. The "social conventions" method of identifying the genre of a film is based on the accepted cultural consensus within society. Jim Collins claims that since the 1980s, Hollywood films have been influenced by the trend towards "ironic hybridization", in which directors combine elements from different genres, as in the case of the Western-Science fiction mix in Back to the Future III. A genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries. Many works also cross into multiple genres. In this respect film theorist Robert Stam has noted whether genres really exist, or whether they are merely made up by critics. Stam has questioned whether "genres [are] really 'out there' in the world, or are they merely the constructions of analysts?". As well, he has asked whether there is a "... finite taxonomy of genres or are they in principle infinite?" and whether genres are "...timeless Platonic essences or ephemeral, time-bound entities? Are genres culture-bound or trans-cultural?". Stam has also asked whether genre analysis should aim at being descriptive or prescriptive. While some genres are based on story content (the war film), other are borrowed from literature (comedy, melodrama) or from other media (the musical). Some are performer-based (the Astaire-Rogers films) or budget-based (blockbusters), while others are based on artistic status (the art film), racial identity (Black cinema), location (the Western) or sexual orientation (Queer Cinema). Stam, Robert. Film Theory: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2000. 14. Many genres have built-in audiences and corresponding publications that support them, such as magazines and websites. Films that are difficult to categorize into a genre are often less successful. As such, film genres are also useful in areas of marketing, criticism and consumption. Hollywood story consultant John Truby states that "...you have to know how to transcend the forms [genres] so you can give the audience a sense of originality and surprise." Some screenwriters use genre as a means of determining what kind of plot or content to put into a screenplay. They may study films of specific genres to find examples. This is a way that some screenwriters are able to copy elements of successful movies and pass them off in a new screenplay. It is likely that such screenplays fall short in originality. As Truby says, "Writers know enough to write a genre script but they haven’t twisted the story beats of that genre in such a way that it gives an original face to it". Screenwriters often attempt to defy the elements found in past works, as originality and surprise are seen as elements that make for good film stories. For example, European-filmed spaghetti westerns changed the western film genre by eschewing many of the conventions of earlier Westerns. There are other methods of dividing films into groups besides genre. For example auteur critics group films according to their directors. Some groupings may be casually described as genres although the definition is questionable. For example, while independent films are sometimes discussed as if they are a genre in-and-of themselves, independent productions can belong to any genre. Similarly, art films are referred to as a genre, even though an art film can be in a number of genres. Genre can also be distinguished from film style, which concerns the choices made about cinematography, editing, and sound. A particular style can be applied to any genre. Whereas film genres identify the manifest content of film, film styles identify the manner by which any given film's genre(s) is/are rendered for the screen. Style may be determined by plot structure, scenic design, lighting, cinematography, acting, and other intentional artistic components of the finished film product. Others argue that this distinction is too simplistic, since some genres are primarily recognizable by their styles. Many film historians and film critics debate whether film noir is a genre or a style of film-making often emulated in the period's heyday. Indeed, film noir films from the 1940s and 1950s were made in a range of genres, such as gangster films, police procedural dramas, and thrillers. Categorization Film genres can be categorized according to the setting of the film. Nevertheless, films with the same settings can be very different, due to the use of different themes or moods. For example, while both The Battle of Midway and All Quiet on the Western Front are set in a wartime context, the first examines the themes of honor, sacrifice, and valour, and the second is an anti-war film which emphasizes the pain and horror of war. While there is an argument that film noir movies could be deemed to be set in an urban setting, in cheap hotels and underworld bars, many classic noirs take place mainly in small towns, suburbia, rural areas, or on the open road. The editors of filmsite.org argue that animation, children's films, and so on are non-genre-based film categories Other Film Categories . The non-genre based categories they list include children's films, family films, cult films, documentary films, pornographic films and silent films. Linda Williams argues that horror, melodrama, and pornography all fall into the category of "body genres", since they are each designed to elicit physical reactions on the part of viewers. Horror is designed to elicit spine-chilling, white-knuckled, eye-bulging terror; melodramas are designed to make viewers cry after seeing the misfortunes of the onscreen characters; and pornography is designed to elicit sexual arousal . References Further reading Altman, Rick. Film/Genre . BFI Publishing (1999). ISBN 0851707173; ISBN 978-0851707174 Grant, Barry. Film Genre Reader Keith, Barry. Film Genre: From Iconography to Ideology. Wallflower Press: 2007. Neale, Steve. Genre and Contemporary Hollywood Neale, Steve. Genre and Hollywood (Sightlines) Langford, Barry. Film Genre: Hollywood and Beyond External links Genres of film at the Internet Movie Database An Introduction to Genre Theory by Daniel Chandler | Film_genre |@lemmatized film:70 theory:4 genre:62 refers:3 method:6 categorization:2 base:8 similarity:1 narrative:1 element:6 construct:1 borrow:2 literary:2 criticism:2 context:2 great:1 deal:1 debate:2 define:2 categorize:6 besides:2 basic:1 distinction:2 fiction:3 documentary:2 several:1 way:6 fictional:1 usually:1 accord:3 setting:5 theme:4 topic:2 mood:3 format:3 milieu:1 environment:1 story:5 action:1 take:2 place:2 issue:1 concept:1 revolve:1 around:1 emotional:1 tone:1 shoot:1 e:2 g:2 anamorphic:1 widescreen:1 manner:2 presentation:1 mm:3 additional:1 target:2 audience:4 theorist:2 argue:5 neither:1 often:4 branch:1 subgenres:1 case:2 courtroom:1 trial:1 focused:1 subgenre:1 drama:3 know:3 legal:1 combine:2 form:2 hybrid:1 melding:1 horror:4 science:2 alien:1 definition:2 janet:1 staiger:2 hollywood:7 never:1 pure:1 movie:4 blend:1 love:1 orient:1 plot:3 romance:1 keith:2 barry:4 iconography:2 ideology:2 wallflower:2 press:2 claim:2 four:1 idealist:1 judge:1 predetermined:1 standard:1 empirical:1 identify:5 compare:1 list:2 already:1 deem:2 fall:3 within:2 certain:1 priori:1 use:3 common:1 generic:1 advance:1 social:1 convention:2 accepted:1 cultural:2 consensus:1 society:1 jim:1 collins:1 since:3 influence:1 trend:1 towards:1 ironic:1 hybridization:1 director:2 different:3 western:6 mix:1 back:1 future:1 iii:1 always:1 vague:1 term:1 fixed:1 boundary:1 many:5 work:2 also:4 cross:1 multiple:1 respect:1 robert:2 stam:4 note:1 whether:7 really:2 exist:1 merely:2 make:5 critic:3 question:1 world:1 construction:1 analyst:1 well:1 ask:2 finite:1 taxonomy:1 principle:1 infinite:1 timeless:1 platonic:1 essence:1 ephemeral:1 time:1 bound:2 entity:1 genres:1 culture:1 trans:1 analysis:1 aim:1 descriptive:1 prescriptive:1 content:3 war:3 literature:1 comedy:1 melodrama:3 medium:1 musical:1 performer:1 astaire:1 rogers:1 budget:1 blockbuster:1 others:2 artistic:2 status:1 art:3 racial:1 identity:1 black:1 cinema:2 location:1 sexual:2 orientation:1 queer:1 introduction:2 malden:1 blackwell:1 build:1 correspond:1 publication:1 support:1 magazine:1 website:1 difficult:1 less:1 successful:2 useful:1 area:2 marketing:1 consumption:1 consultant:1 john:1 truby:2 state:1 transcend:1 give:3 sense:1 originality:3 surprise:2 screenwriter:3 mean:1 determine:2 kind:1 put:1 screenplay:3 may:3 study:1 specific:1 find:2 example:5 able:1 copy:1 pass:1 new:1 likely:1 short:1 say:1 writer:1 enough:1 write:1 script:1 twist:1 beat:1 original:1 face:1 attempt:1 defy:1 past:1 see:2 good:1 european:1 spaghetti:1 change:1 eschew:1 early:1 divide:1 group:2 auteur:1 grouping:1 casually:1 describe:1 although:1 questionable:1 independent:2 sometimes:1 discuss:1 production:1 belong:1 similarly:1 refer:1 even:1 though:1 number:1 distinguish:1 style:6 concern:1 choice:1 cinematography:2 edit:1 sound:1 particular:1 apply:1 whereas:1 manifest:1 render:1 screen:1 structure:1 scenic:1 design:5 lighting:1 act:1 intentional:1 component:1 finish:1 product:1 simplistic:1 primarily:1 recognizable:1 historian:1 noir:3 making:1 emulate:1 period:1 heyday:1 indeed:1 range:1 gangster:1 police:1 procedural:1 thriller:1 nevertheless:1 due:1 battle:1 midway:1 quiet:1 front:1 set:2 wartime:1 first:1 examine:1 honor:1 sacrifice:1 valour:1 second:1 anti:1 emphasize:1 pain:1 argument:1 could:1 urban:1 cheap:1 hotel:1 underworld:1 bar:1 classic:1 noirs:1 mainly:1 small:1 town:1 suburbia:1 rural:1 open:1 road:1 editor:1 filmsite:1 org:1 animation:1 child:2 non:2 category:4 include:1 family:1 cult:1 pornographic:1 silent:1 linda:1 williams:1 pornography:2 body:1 elicit:3 physical:1 reaction:1 part:1 viewer:2 spine:1 chilling:1 white:1 knuckle:1 eye:1 bulging:1 terror:1 cry:1 misfortune:1 onscreen:1 character:1 arousal:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 altman:1 rick:1 bfi:1 publishing:1 isbn:2 grant:1 reader:1 neale:2 steve:2 contemporary:1 sightlines:1 langford:1 beyond:1 external:1 link:1 internet:1 database:1 daniel:1 chandler:1 |@bigram revolve_around:1 anamorphic_widescreen:1 mm_mm:2 science_fiction:2 sexual_orientation:1 malden_blackwell:1 classic_noirs:1 filmsite_org:1 sexual_arousal:1 external_link:1 |
7,045 | Marmite | A jar of the British version of Marmite Marmite () is the name given to two similar food spreads, a British version produced in the United Kingdom and South Africa and the other in New Zealand. Marmite is made from yeast extract, a by-product of beer brewing, and is suitable for vegetarians and vegans. The British version of the product is a sticky, dark brown paste with a distinctive, powerful flavour, which is extremely salty and savoury with umami qualities, somewhat comparable to soy sauce. This distinctive taste is reflected in the British company's marketing slogan: "Love it or hate it." It is similar to the Australian Vegemite and Swiss Cenovis. The distinctive product was originally British, but a version with a noticeably different taste has been manufactured in New Zealand since 1919, and this is the dominant version in New Zealand, Australia and the Pacific Islands. The image on the front of the British jar shows a "marmite" (), a French term for a large, covered earthenware or metal cooking pot. Dictionary.com "Marmite" The British Marmite was originally supplied in earthenware pots, but since the 1920s has been sold in glass jars that approximate the shape of such pots. Marmite.com "Origins of the Design" (company website) A thinner version in squeezable plastic jars was introduced in March 2006. British Marmite history The Marmite Food Extract Company was formed in Burton upon Trent, Staffordshire, England, in 1902, with Marmite as its main product, and Burton as the site of the first factory. The by-product yeast needed for the paste came from the biggest brewer at the time, Bass Brewery. By 1907, the product had become successful enough to warrant construction of a second factory at Camberwell Green in London. Accomodata.co.uk "The Marmite Story" Initially, Marmite was popular with vegetarians as a meat-free alternative to beef extract products such as Bovril, which were popular in the late 19th and early 20th century. Today, the main ingredients of Marmite manufactured in the UK are glutamic acid-rich yeast extract, with lesser quantities of sodium chloride (table salt), vegetable extract, niacin, thiamine, spice extracts, riboflavin, folic acid, and celery extracts, although the precise composition is a trade secret. Marmite ingredients (company web site) By 1912, the discovery of vitamins was a boost for Marmite, as the spread is a rich source of the vitamin B complex; vitamin B12 is not naturally found in yeast extract, but is added to Marmite during manufacture. With the vitamin B1 deficiency beri-beri being common during the First World War, the spread became more popular. In 1990, Marmite Limited—which had become a subsidiary of Bovril Limited—was bought by CPC (United Kingdom) Limited, which changed its name to Best Foods Inc in 1998. Best Foods Inc subsequently merged with Unilever in 2000, and Marmite is now a trademark owned by Unilever. Marmite's publicity campaigns initially emphasised the spread's healthy nature, extolling it as "The growing up spread you never grow out of." During the 1980s, the spread was advertised with the slogan "My mate, Marmite", chanted in television commercials by an army platoon. (The spread had been a standard vitamin supplement for British-based German POWs during the Second World War.) By the 1990s, another strand entered the company's marketing efforts; Marmite's distinctive and powerful flavour had earned it as many detractors as it had fans, and it was commonly notorious for producing a binary and exclusive "love/hate" reaction amongst consumers. Modern advertisements play on this, and Marmite runs a dual skinned website with two URLs; I Love Marmite and I Hate Marmite, where people may share their experiences of Marmite and are actively encouraged to fuel this debate, as prompted by the I Hate Marmite registration form. A 2004 UK TV advert, which parodied the 1958 Steve McQueen film The Blob, substituting Marmite for the original alien space menace and including scenes of fleeing crowds, was dropped from children's television after concerned parents reported that their children had been scared by the adverts and had nightmares after viewing them. BBC News "Marmite ads 'terrified' children" The 'squeezy' version of UK Marmite Marmite is less common outside of the United Kingdom (see Availability worldwide). It is frequently cited as the most-missed foodstuff by British expatriates. Paul Ridout, a British backpacker kidnapped by Kashmiri separatists in 1994, was quoted as saying "It's just one of those things—you get out of the country and it's all you can think about." Guardian.co.uk "It must be spread thinly. T-h-i-n-l-y...." Bill Bryson, in Notes from a Small Island writes: "There are certain things that you have to be British, or at least older than me, or possibly both, to appreciate: skiffle music, salt-cellars with a single hole, [and] Marmite (an edible yeast extract with the visual properties of an industrial lubricant)." Ladyshrike.com "Lissuns in the Galley: Bill Bryson on M*rm*te" In 2006, a new "squeezy" jar of Marmite was released. It was released to make the Marmite easier to get out. The container is made of plastic, and when first launched the "Marmite" logo was replaced by the words "Squeeze me". In 2007 Marmite launched a limited edition version, made with yeast from the brewing of Guinness. 300,000 of these jars were made and sold, with much interest from the media and collectors. In 2008 the company produced a limited edition champagne-flavoured Marmite for Valentine's day - the jar's banner said 'I Love You' instead of 'Marmite', and had room on the back to write a message to a loved one. Paddington Bear featured in the Marmite UK TV advertisement (broadcast on 13 September 2007); in which he tries a Marmite and cheese sandwich instead of his traditional marmalade sandwich. When he offers the sandwiches to other characters, he gets mixed and often dramatic reactions. New Zealand Marmite The Sanitarium Health Food Company obtained sole rights to distribute the product in New Zealand and Australia in 1908. Sanitarium: Marmite FAQs. They later began manufacturing Marmite under licence in Christchurch. In the 1930s Sanitarium began experimenting with the recipe for Marmite. Ingredients are now present in quantities different from the British version; the New Zealand version has high levels of potassium, for example, while the British version does not. New Zealand Marmite is now considered to have a somewhat sweeter flavour than the British version. It is distributed throughout Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands; competing for marketshare with Vegemite. Serving suggestions Marmite is traditionally eaten as a savoury spread on bread, toast, and biscuits. Owing to its concentrated taste it is usually spread thinly with butter or margarine. Marmite is also often made into a drink by diluting with hot water. In 2003, the Absolute Press published Paul Hartley's The Marmite Cookbook, containing recipes and suggestions on how to blend Marmite with other foodstuffs. Absolute Press "The Marmite Cookbook" Marmite also works well with cheese (such as in a cheese sandwich) and has been used as an additional flavouring in Mini Cheddars, a cheese-like biscuit snack. Similarly, it has been used by Walkers Crisps for a special-edition flavour and has introduced, with local Dorset bakery Fudges, Marmite Biscuits in the UK. Starbucks UK has a cheese and Marmite Panini on their menu. In New Zealand, Sanitarium, the Marmite company recommends spreading it on bread with potato crisps added to make a "Marmite and Chip" or "Crisps and Marmite" sandwich. In Singapore, Marmite is popularly added to plain rice congee to give it a strong, tasty flavour. In August 2006 as part of the launch of squeezy Marmite celebrity chef Gary Rhodes created a dessert consisting of coffee ice cream topped with chocolate sauce with a dash of Marmite. It was served for one week only in his London restaurant—since this it has been reported that a handful of ice cream bars in some parts of the UK are now offering this topping.. British product range Use in sausages, under licence. Marmite 57g Marmite 125g Marmite 250g Marmite 500g Marmite 600g (Catering size, in a plastic tub rather than the normal glass jar) Marmite Love portions (6x8g) (Also sold individually in some cafés) Marmite Squeeze 200g Limited Edition Guinness Marmite Limited Edition Champagne Marmite 250g Marmite Breadsticks 30g packets Marmite Rice Cakes 30g packets Marmite Breadsticks 30g (Black) Marmite Rice Cakes 30g (Black) Marmite flavour crisps 25g Availability worldwide New Zealand Marmite and a New Zealand-made variety of Vegemite Marmite is widespread and available in most food stores in the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Sri Lanka, and South Africa, and generally most parts of the Commonwealth of Nations. Countries where (Unilever UK Export) Marmite export has some availability, such as some supermarkets, local shops and health food stores are Bahrain Belgium Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark FinlandFrance Germany Gibraltar Greece Hong Kong HungaryIndia Ireland Israel Italy Japan LuxembourgMalaysia Malta Netherlands Norway Philippines PolandPortugal Romania Singapore Slovenia South Africa SpainSweden Switzerland Taiwan Thailand United States</table> Marmite purchased in New Zealand, Australia and the Pacific Islands is New Zealand Marmite, which has its own distinctive taste. British supermarket Tesco's own brand yeast extract is also available in stores in the Czech Republic and Hungary. New Zealand Marmite ingredients include sugar and comes in different packaging; it is manufactured by the Sanitarium Health Food Company, which started importing it from Britain in 1910, gained the exclusive agency to sell in New Zealand in 1919, and in the 1930s started experimenting with blends that led to today's independent product. NZ Marmite is marketed and sold in some speciality shops in the UK under the name "Vitamite". UK Marmite is available in Australia in the 125g size from several small imported food stores. Our Mate — jar of UK Made Marmite Spread branded for sale in Australia There is also an imported version called Our Mate which is produced and exported by Unilever's UK export division (Unilever UK Export). These are also sold in the 125g size and are produced in Burton on Trent, the home of Marmite and Bovril. The label states "Made in the UK by Unilever UK." Australia's national distributor Manassen Foods works with Unilever UK Export to sell Our Mate (Marmite) in Australia and New Zealand. In February 2007 Marmite produced a limited edition Guinness Marmite of 300,000 250g jars of their yeast extract with 30% Guinness yeast. The Guinness Marmite has a more subtle and smoother taste. Although it is alcohol free, it still retains a noticeable hint of "Guinness" flavour. Its consistency is rather more runny than the normal Marmite and care might be needed when opening the white and black liveried jar. In January 2008 a new special edition Champagne Marmite was released for Valentine's Day 2008; the limited edition run 600,000 was initially released exclusively to Selfridges of London and then across the UK from January the 21st. With 0.3% champagne added to the recipe the spread isn't alcoholic, but does have a sweeter smell than the regular spread, a slightly lighter hue and like the Guinness edition a runnier consistency than usual. The special edition also has a modified label in the shape of a heart with "I love you" instead of the regular Marmite logo and decorated with italic writing and cherubs. The lid has also been made a golden colour to match the label and emulate a champagne bottle. A new touch to the jar is a space on the back to write in the name of one's valentine onto the jar. Manufacture Whilst the actual process is secret, the general method for making yeast extract on a commercial scale is to add salt to a suspension of yeast making the solution hypertonic, which leads to the cells shrivelling up; this triggers "autolysis", in which the yeast self-destructs. The dying yeast cells are then heated to complete their breakdown, and since yeast have thick hull walls which would detract from the smoothness of the end product, the husks are sieved out. As with other yeast extracts, Marmite contains free glutamic acids, which are analogous to monosodium glutamate (MSG). Nutritional information In the 1930s, Marmite was used by the English scientist Lucy Wills to identify folic acid and its effect in suppressing anaemia. Bastian H (2007), Lucy Wills (1888-1964): The life and research of an adventurous independent woman, The James Lind Library Besides folic acid (Vitamin B9) Marmite has useful quantities of several other vitamins, even in small servings. Sodium (salt) content of the spread is high and has caused concern, but the amount per serving, not the percentage in bulk Marmite, is the significant factor. The main ingredient of Marmite is yeast extract, which contains a high concentration of glutamic acid. Marmite made in the United Kingdom is gluten-free. +British Nutrition. Retrieved on 2008-11-27. & New Zealand Marmite UK Marmite per 100 g per 4 g serving NZ Marmite per 100 g per 5 g serving Energy 983 kJ 39 kJ Energy 680 kJ 34 kJ Calories 231 kcal 9 kcal Calories 163 kcal 8 kcal Protein 38.4 g 1.5 g Protein 16.2 g 0.8 g Carbohydrates 19.2 g 0.8 g Carbohydrates 16.6 g 0.8 g of which sugars 0.5 g trace Fat 0.1 g nil Fat 0.9 g 0.1 g of which saturates trace nil Fibre 3.1 g 0.1 g Fibre 11.5 g 0.58 g Sodium 3.9 g 0.2 g Sodium 3.4 g 0.17 g Salt 11 g 0.44 g Potassium 1.95 g 0.098 g % RDA % RDI Thiamin 5.8 mg 0.23 mg 17% Thiamin 11.0 mg 0.55 mg 50% Riboflavin 7.0 mg 0.28 mg 18% Riboflavin 8.4 mg 0.4 mg 25% Niacin 160.0 mg 6.4 mg 36% Niacin 50.0 mg 2.5 mg 25% Folic Acid 2500 µg 100 µg 50% Folate 2000 µg 10 µg 50% Vitamin B12 15.0 µg 0.6 µg Based on RDA of 1.5µg; see http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals/vitaminb12/?lang=en 40% Vitamin B12 10.0 µg 0.5 µg 25% Iron 36.0 mg 1.8 mg 15% RDA = Recommended Daily Allowance Suggested serving 4g for adults, 2 g for children Children's serve has ½ of the adult quantities shown. RDI = Recommended Daily Intake Marmite and Mosquitos Some suggest that the consumption of Marmite can ward off mosquitos, Guardian newspaper "The Body Beautiful" the reasoning being that the skin gives off a scent, unnoticeable to humans, but which mosquitoes find unappealing, or that the vitamin B content wards off the flying pests. British travelers to tropical locations sometimes take Marmite with them to eat during the trip, although it has been shown that the B vitamin complex does not repel mosquitoes. National Center for Biotechnology information "Testing vitamin B as a home remedy against mosquitoes" The root of this belief might have been its use during the 1934–5 Malaria Epidemic in Sri Lanka: References See also Ambient food Bovril Cenovis Guinness Yeast Extract Natto Promite Twiglets Vegemite External links Official site UK Marmite Official site, NZ Marmite The Marmite FAQ Feature on Marmite from The Independent Official Marmite Community on Facebook | Marmite |@lemmatized jar:13 british:19 version:13 marmite:106 name:4 give:3 two:2 similar:2 food:11 spread:15 produce:6 united:5 kingdom:4 south:3 africa:3 new:21 zealand:18 make:14 yeast:17 extract:15 product:11 beer:1 brewing:2 suitable:1 vegetarian:2 vegan:1 sticky:1 dark:1 brown:1 paste:2 distinctive:5 powerful:2 flavour:8 extremely:1 salty:1 savoury:2 umami:1 quality:1 somewhat:2 comparable:1 soy:1 sauce:2 taste:5 reflect:1 company:9 marketing:2 slogan:2 love:6 hate:4 australian:1 vegemite:4 swiss:1 cenovis:2 originally:2 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7,046 | James_Monroe | James Monroe (April 28, 1758 – July 4, 1831) was the fifth President of the United States (1817–1825). His administration was marked by the acquisition of Florida (1819); the Missouri Compromise (1820), in which Missouri was declared a slave state; the admission of Maine in 1820 as a free state; and the profession of the Monroe Doctrine (1823), declaring U.S. opposition to European interference in the Americas, as well as breaking all ties with France remaining from the War of 1812. Early years James Monroe was born in a wooded area of Westmoreland County, VA. The site is marked and is one mile from what is known today as Monroe Hall, VA. Monroe's father, Spence Monroe (1727-1774) was a moderately prosperous planter who also learned the carpentry trade. His mother, Elizabeth Jones Monroe (1730-1774) married Spence Monroe in 1752. They had five children to live to maturity: Elizabeth Monroe Buckner - of Caroline County, Virginia James Monroe Spence Monroe, Jr. - Died at age 1 Andrew Monroe - of Albemarle County, Virginia Joseph Jones Monroe - clerk of the District Court of Northumberland County, Virginia; private secretary to President Monroe; later settled in Missouri. Education From ages 11–16, Monroe studied at Campbelltown Academy, a school run by the Reverend Archibald Campbell of Washington Parish. He progressed through Latin and math at a rate faster than that of most boys his age. Among his classmates was John Marshall, later chief justice of the U.S. At 16, Monroe entered the College of William and Mary. However the atmosphere on the Williamsburg campus was not conducive to study in 1774. The prospect of revolution charged most of the students, including Monroe, with patriotic fervor. In June 1775, after the battles of Lexington and Concord had sounded the opening guns of the Revolution, Monroe joined 24 older men in raiding the arsenal at the Governor's Palace. The 200 muskets and 300 swords they stole helped arm the Williamsburg militia. Next spring, Monroe dropped out of college to join the Continental army. He never returned to earn a degree. During 1780-1783, he studied law under Thomas Jefferson. Monroe fought in the Continental Army, serving with distinction at the Battle of Trenton, where he was shot in his left shoulder. Then he spent three months in Bucks County, PA for rehab. Dr. Riker sewed his shoulder up. He is depicted holding the flag in the famous painting of Washington Crossing the Delaware. Following his war service, he practiced law in Fredericksburg, Virginia. Marriage and Family James Monroe married Elizabeth Kortright (1768-1830), daughter of Laurence Kortright and Hannah Aspinwall Kortright, on February 16, 1786 in New York City. After a brief honeymoon on Long Island, the Monroes returned to New York to live with her father until Congress adjourned. The Monroes had the following children: Eliza Monroe Hay (1786-1835) - married George Hay in 1808 and substituted as official White House hostess for her ailing mother. James Spence Monroe (1799-1801) Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur (1803-1850) - married her second cousin Samuel L. Gouverneur on March 8, 1820 in the first wedding ever performed in the White House. Marker designating the site of James Monroe's birthplace in Monroe Hall, Virginia Elective Office Monroe was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates in 1782 and served in the Continental Congress from 1783 to 1786. He ran for a seat on the 1st Congress but was defeated by future President James Madison. As a youthful politician, he joined the anti-Federalists in the Virginia Convention which ratified the Constitution, and in 1790, was elected United States Senator. Ambassador After his term in the Senate, Monroe was appointed Minister to France from 1794 to 1796. His appointment there was made difficult as he had strong sympathies for the French Revolution, but dutifully maintained President Washington's strict policy of neutrality between Britain and France. Governor of Virginia and Diplomat Out of office, Monroe returned to practicing law in Virginia until elected governor there, serving from 1799 to 1802. He called out the state militia to suppress Gabriel's Rebellion. Gabriel and 26 other enslaved people who participated were hanged. In reaction, the Virginia and other legislatures passed restrictions on free blacks, as well as the education, movement and hiring out of the enslaved. Under the first Jefferson administration, Monroe was dispatched to France to assist Robert R. Livingston to negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. Monroe was then appointed Minister to the Court of St. James (Britain) from 1803 to 1807. In 1806 he negotiated a treaty with Britain to replace the Jay Treaty of 1794, but Jefferson rejected it as unsatisfactory, as the treaty contained no ban on the British practice of impressment of American sailors. As a result, the two nations moved closer toward the War of 1812. Cabinet Secretary Monroe returned to the Virginia House of Delegates and was elected to another term as governor of Virginia in 1811, but he resigned a few months into the term. He then served as Secretary of State from 1811 to 1814. When he was appointed to the post of Secretary of War in 1814, he stayed on as the Secretary of State ad interim. At the war's end in 1815, he was again commissioned as the permanent Secretary of State, and left his position as Secretary of War. Thus from October 1, 1814, to February 28, 1815, Monroe effectively held both cabinet posts. Monroe stayed on as Secretary of State until the end of the James Madison Presidency, and the following day Monroe began his term as the new President of the United States. Presidency 1817–1825: The Era of Good Feelings Policies In both the presidential elections of 1816 and 1820 Monroe's run for office was difficult to oppose. Attentive to detail, well prepared on most issues, non-partisan in spirit, and above all pragmatic, Monroe managed his presidential duties well. He made strong Cabinet choices, naming a southerner, John C. Calhoun, as Secretary of War, and a northerner, John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of State. Only Henry Clay's refusal to accept a position kept Monroe from adding an outstanding westerner. Most appointments went to deserving Democratic-Republicans, but he did not try to use them to build the party's base. Indeed, he allowed the lower posts to take on diverse political appointees, which reduced anxiety and led to the naming of this period in American history as the "Era of Good Feelings". To build national trust, he gave two long national tours in 1817. Frequent stops allowed innumerable ceremonies of welcome and good will. All the while the Federalist Party was diminishing. The party maintained its vitality and organizational integrity at the state and local level but dwindled at the federal level due to redistricting. The party's Congressional caucus stopped meeting, and there were no notable national conventions after Monroe's last term. During his presidency, Congress demanded high subsidies for internal improvements, such as for the improvement of the Cumberland Road. "The administration of James Monroe". Monroe vetoed the Cumberland Road Bill, which provided for yearly improvements to the road, because he believed it to be "unconstitutional" for the government to have such a large hand in what was essentially a civics bill deserving of attention on a state by state basis. This sort of defiance underlined Monroe's populist ideals and added credit to the local offices that he was so fond of visiting on his speech trails. The era of "good feelings" endured until 1824, and carried over, albeit some what convexly, to John Quincy Adams who was elected President by the House of Representatives in what Andrew Jackson alleged to be a "corrupt bargain." The people's vote might very well have hinted at a consecutive term, but it was the diversity of political support in lower office, and the diminishing power of the federalist party that couldn't carry him. Monroe's popularity, however, was undiminished even when following difficult nationalist policies as the country's commitment to nationalism was starting to show serious fractures. The Panic of 1819 caused a painful economic depression. The application for statehood by the Missouri Territory, in 1819, as a slave state failed. An amended bill for gradually eliminating slavery in Missouri precipitated two years of bitter debate in Congress. The Missouri Compromise bill resolved the struggle, pairing Missouri as a slave state with Maine, a free state, and barring slavery north and west of Missouri forever. [decades later, the Missouri Compromise was declared unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court]. Through it all, Monroe is probably best known for the Monroe Doctrine, which he delivered in his message to Congress on December 2, 1823. In it, he proclaimed the Americas should be free from future European colonization and free from European interference in sovereign countries' affairs. It further stated the United States' intention to stay neutral in European wars and wars between European powers and their colonies, but to consider any new colonies or interference with independent countries in the Americas as hostile acts toward the United States. Although it is Monroe's most famous contribution to society, it is important to note that the speech was written by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. Monroe began to formally recognize the young sister republics (the former Spanish colonies) in 1822. He and John Quincy Adams had wished to avoid trouble with Spain until it had ceded the Floridas to the U.S., which was done in 1821. Britain, with its powerful navy, also opposed re-conquest of Latin America and suggested that the United States join in proclaiming a "hands off" policy. Ex-Presidents Jefferson and Madison counseled Monroe to accept the offer, but Quincy Adams advised, "It would be more candid ... to avow our principles explicitly to Russia and France, than to come in as a cock-boat in the wake of the British man-of-war." Monroe accepted Adams' advice. Not only must Latin America be left alone, he warned, but also Russia must not encroach southward on the Pacific coast. "... the American continents," he stated, "by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European Power." Some 20 years after Monroe died in 1831 this became known as the Monroe Doctrine. Native American Policies James Monroe in December 1817 ordered Andrew Jackson to lead a campaign in Georgia against the Seminole and Creek Indians. Jackson was also charged with preventing Spanish Florida from becoming a refuge for runaway slaves. Critics later alleged that Jackson exceeded orders in his Florida actions. His directions were to "terminate the conflict." In October 1820, Andrew Jackson and Thomas Hinds were sent as commissioners representing the United States in an action to conduct a treaty that would require the Choctaw to surrender to the United States a portion of their country located in present day Mississippi. They met with chiefs, mingos (leaders), and headsmen such as Colonel Silas Dinsmore and Chief Pushmataha at Doak's Stand on the Natchez Trace. The convention began on October 10 with a talk by Andrew Jackson to more than 500 Choctaws. Pushmataha accused Jackson of deceiving them about the quality of land west of the Mississippi. Pushmataha responded to Jackson's retort stating that he knew the land they were being offered was inferior to the land they were being asked to give up. Andrew Jackson resorted to threats, which pressured the Choctaws to sign the Doak's Stand treaty. Historian Anna Lewis stated that Apuckshunubbee, a Choctaw district chief, was blackmailed by Jackson to sign the treaty. On October 18, the Treaty of Doak's Stand was signed. (In 1824) Apuckshunubbee, Pushmataha, and Mosholatubbee, the principal leaders of the Choctaws, went to Washington City (the 19th century name for Washington, D.C.) to discuss European-Americans' squatting on Choctaw lands. They sought either expulsion of the settlers or financial compensation for the loss of their lands. The group also included Talking Warrior, Red Fort, Nittahkachee; Col. Robert Cole and David Folsom, both half-breed (mixed-race) Indians; Captain Daniel McCurtain, and Major John Pitchlynn, the U.S. interpreter, who also was mixed-race, with European ancestry. Pushmataha met with President James Monroe and gave a speech to Secretary of War John C. Calhoun, reminding him of the longstanding alliances between the United States and the Choctaws. He said, "[I] can say and tell the truth that no Choctaw ever drew his bow against the United States ... My nation has given of their country until it is very small. We are in trouble." On January 20, 1825, the Treaty of Washington City was signed, by which the Choctaw ceded even more territory to the United States. Administration and Cabinet Supreme Court appointments Monroe appointed Smith Thompson to the Supreme Court of the United States. States admitted to the Union Mississippi December 10, 1817 Illinois December 3, 1818 Alabama December 14, 1819 Maine March 15, 1820 Missouri August 10, 1821 Later life When his presidency was over on March 4, 1825, James Monroe lived at Monroe Hill on the grounds of the University of Virginia. This university's modern campus was Monroe's family farm from 1788 to 1817, but he had sold it in the first year of his presidency to the new college. He served on the college's Board of Visitors under Jefferson and then under the second rector and another former President James Madison, until his death. Monroe had racked up many debts during his years of public life. As a result, he was forced to sell off his Highland Plantation (now called Ash Lawn-Highland; it is owned by his alma mater, the College of William and Mary, which has opened it to the public). Throughout his life, he was not financially solvent, and his wife's poor health made matters worse. For these reasons, he and his wife lived in Oak Hill, Virginia, until Elizabeth's death on September 23, 1830. Monroe's grave at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia. John Tyler's grave is visible in the background. Death Upon Elizabeth's death in 1830, Monroe moved to New York City to live with his daughter Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur who had married Samuel L. Gouverneur in the first White House wedding. Monroe died there from heart failure and tuberculosis on July 4, 1831, becoming the third president to die on the 4th of July. His death came 55 years after the U.S. Declaration of Independence was proclaimed and 5 years after the death of the Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. He was originally buried in New York at the Gouverneur family's vault in the New York City Marble Cemetery. Twenty-seven years later in 1858 he was re-interred to the President's Circle at the Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia. Religious beliefs "When it comes to Monroe's ...thoughts on religion", Bliss Isely comments in his The Presidents: Men of Faith, "less is known than that of any other President." He burned much of his correspondence with his wife, and no letters survive in which he might have discussed his religious beliefs. Nor did his friends, family or associates write about his beliefs. Letters that do survive, such as ones written on the occasion of the death of his son, contain no discussion of religion. Monroe was raised in a family that belonged to the Church of England when it was the state church in Virginia, and as an adult frequently attended Episcopalian churches, though there is no record he ever took communion. He has been classified by some historians as a Deist, and he did use deistic language to refer to God. Jefferson had been attacked as an atheist and infidel for his deistic views, but never Monroe. Unlike Jefferson, Monroe was not anticlerical. [Holmes 2003] Legacy Since its 1824 renaming in his honor, the capital city of the West African country of Liberia has been named Monrovia. It is the only non-American capital city named after a U.S. President. Quotations Presidential Dollar of James Monroe Statue of Monroe at Ash Lawn-Highland "It is only when the people become ignorant and corrupt, when they degenerate into a populace, that they are incapable of exercising their sovereignty. Usurpation is then an easy attainment, and an usurper soon found. The people themselves become the willing instruments of their own debasement and ruin." "The best form of government is that which is most likely to prevent the greatest sum of evil." "Never did a government commence under auspices so favorable, nor ever was success so complete. If we look to the history of other nations, ancient or modern, we find no example of a growth so rapid, so gigantic, of a people so prosperous and happy." "In this great nation there is but one order, that of the people, whose power, by a peculiarly happy improvement of the representative principle, is transferred from them, without impairing in the slightest degree their sovereignty, to bodies of their own creation, and to persons elected by themselves, in the full extent necessary for the purposes of free, enlightened, and efficient government." "The earth was given to mankind to support the greatest number of which it is capable, and no tribe or people have a right to withhold from the wants of others more than is necessary for their own support and comfort." See also Adams-Onís Treaty Battle of Monmouth List of United States political appointments that crossed party lines Monrovia Bibliography Harry Ammon. James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (1990) (ISBN 0-8139-1266-0), full length biography Samuel Flagg Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy (1949), is a standard study of Monroe's foreign policy. Noble E. Cunningham, Jr. The Presidency of James Monroe (American Presidency Series.) University Press of Kansas. (1996) George Dangerfield. The Era of Good Feelings (1952). George Dangerfield. The Awakening of American Nationalism: 1815–1828 (1965) Heidler, David S. "The Politics of National Aggression: Congress and the First Seminole War." Journal of the Early Republic 1993 13(4): 501–530. ISSN 0275-1275 Fulltext: in Jstor. Abstract: Monroe sparked a constitutional controversy when, in 1817, he sent General Andrew Jackson to move against Spanish Florida in order to pursue hostile Seminoles and punish the Spanish for aiding them. News of Jackson's exploits ignited a congressional investigation of the 1st Seminole War. Dominated by Democratic-Republicans, the 15th Congress was generally expansionist and more likely to support the popular Jackson. Ulterior political agendas of many congressmen dismantled partisan and sectional coalitions, so that Jackson's opponents argued weakly and became easily discredited. After much debate, the House of Representatives voted down all resolutions that condemned Jackson in any way, thus implicitly endorsing Monroe's actions and leaving the issue surrounding the role of the executive with respect to war powers unanswered. David L. Holmes, The Faiths of the Founding Fathers, May 2006, online version Ernest R. May, The Making of the Monroe Doctrine (1975), argues it was issued to influence the outcome of the presidential election of 1824. Bradford Perkins, Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812–1823 (1964) Dexter Perkins, The Monroe Doctrine, 1823–1826 (1927), the standard monograph about the origins of the doctrine. (it) Nico Perrone, Il manifesto dell'imperialismo americano nelle borse di Londra e Parigi, Belfagor (revue), 1977, III Scherr, Arthur. "James Monroe on the Presidency and 'Foreign Influence;: from the Virginia Ratifying Convention (1788) to Jefferson's Election (1801)." Mid-America 2002 84(1-3): 145–206. ISSN 0026-2927. Abstract: Analyzes Monroe's concern over untoward foreign influence on the presidency. He was alarmed at Spanish diplomat Diego María de Gardoqui, involving a US attempt to secure the opening of the Mississippi River to American commerce. Here Monroe saw Spain overinfluencing the republic, which could have risked the loss of the Southwest or dominance of the Northeast. Monroe placed faith in a strong presidency and the system of checks and balances. In the 1790s he fretted over an aging George Washington being too heavily influenced by close advisers like Hamilton who was too close to Britain. Monroe opposed the Jay Treaty and was humiliated when Washington criticized for his support of revolutionary France while he was minister to France. He saw foreign and Federalist elements in the genesis of the Quasi War of 1798–1800 and in efforts to keep Thomas Jefferson away from the presidency in 1801. As governor he considered using the Virginia militia to force the outcome in favor of Jefferson. Federalists responded in kind, some seeing Monroe as at best a French dupe and at worst a traitor. Monroe thus contributed to a paranoid style of politics. Scherr, Arthur. "Governor James Monroe and the Southampton Slave Resistance of 1799." Historian 1999 61(3): 557–578. ISSN 0018-2370 Fulltext online in SwetsWise and Ebsco. Abstract: Assesses Monroe's views on slavery as governor of Virginia from 1799 to 1802, emphasizing Monroe's moderate view of slaveholding during a slave uprising in Southampton County in October 1799. Monroe took pains to see that the charged rebels received proper legal treatment, demonstrating a marked concern for their civil rights. He conducted an exhaustive investigation into the incident and saw to it the slaves involved received a fair trial. Although he opposed abolition, Monroe supported African colonization proposals and gradual, compensated emancipation. When the occasion warranted, as in Gabriel Prosser's rebellion of 1800, Monroe took an unpopular position in supporting fair trials and attempting to explain and justify slave actions. In the final analysis, Monroe believed in the eventual demise of slavery. Leonard D. White, The Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1801–1829 (1951) Arthur P. Whitaker, The United States and the Independence of Latin America (1941) Wilmerding, Jr., Lucius, James Monroe: Public Claimant (1960) A study regarding Monroe's attempts to get reimbursement for personal expenses and losses from his years in public service after his Presidency ended. Additional sources External links Extensive essay on James Monroe and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs James Monroe: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress White House Biography James Monroe Biography and Fact File The Presidential Home of James Monroe (College of William and Mary) James Monroe Memorial Foundation James Monroe Birthplace James Monroe Scholarship Award The Papers of James Monroe at the Avalon Project Monroe Doctrine and related resources at the Library of Congress James Monroe's Health and Medical History James Monroe Birthplace Commission InfoPlease- James Monroe The Religion of James Monroe A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825 | James_Monroe |@lemmatized james:28 monroe:106 april:1 july:3 fifth:1 president:15 united:15 state:36 administration:4 mark:2 acquisition:1 florida:5 missouri:10 compromise:3 declare:3 slave:8 admission:1 maine:3 free:7 profession:1 doctrine:7 u:8 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7,047 | Forgetting_curve | A typical representation of the forgetting curve. The forgetting curve illustrates the decline of memory retention in time. A related concept is the strength of memory that refers to the durability that memory traces in the brain. The stronger the memory, the longer period of time that a person is able to recall it. A typical graph of the forgetting curve shows that humans tend to halve their memory of newly learned knowledge in a matter of days or weeks unless they consciously review the learned material. History In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus discovered the exponential nature of forgetting. The following formula can roughly describe the forgetting: where is memory retention, is the relative strength of memory, and is time. The first significant study in this area was carried out by Hermann Ebbinghaus and published in 1885 as Über das Gedächtnis (later translated into English as Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology). Ebbinghaus studied the memorisation of nonsense syllables, such as "WID" and "ZOF". By repeatedly testing himself after various time periods and recording the results, he was the first to describe the shape of the forgetting curve. Description The speed of forgetting depends on a number of factors such as the difficulty of the learned material (e.g. how meaningful it is), its representation (see: mnemonic), and physiological factors such as stress and sleep. The basal forgetting rate differs little between individuals. The difference in performance (e.g. at school) can be explained by mnemonic representation skills. Basic training in mnemonic techniques can help overcome those differences in part. The best methods for increasing the strength of memory are: better memory representation (e.g. with mnemonic techniques) repetition based on active recall (esp. spaced repetition) Each repetition in learning increases the optimum interval before the next repetition is needed (for near-perfect retention, initially repetitions may need to be made within days, but later they can be made after years) There is debate among researchers about the shape of the curve for events and facts that are more significant to the subject. Some researchers, for example, suggest that memories for shocking events such as the Kennedy Assassination or 9/11 are vividly imprinted in memory. Others have compared contemporaneous written recollections with recollections recorded years later, and found considerable variations as the subject's memory incorporates after-acquired information. See flashbulb memory. There is considerable research in this area as it relates to eyewitness identification testimony. In a typical schoolbook application (e.g. learning word pairs), most students show the retention of 90% after 3–6 days (depending on the material). This means that, in this period, the forgetting curve "falls" by 10%. See also Memory Spaced repetition References | Forgetting_curve |@lemmatized typical:3 representation:4 forgetting:5 curve:6 forget:4 illustrate:1 decline:1 memory:15 retention:4 time:4 related:1 concept:1 strength:3 refer:1 durability:1 trace:1 brain:1 strong:1 long:1 period:3 person:1 able:1 recall:2 graph:1 show:2 human:1 tend:1 halve:1 newly:1 learn:4 knowledge:1 matter:1 day:3 week:1 unless:1 consciously:1 review:1 learned:1 material:3 history:1 hermann:2 ebbinghaus:3 discover:1 exponential:1 nature:1 following:1 formula:1 roughly:1 describe:2 relative:1 first:2 significant:2 study:2 area:2 carry:1 publish:1 über:1 da:1 gedächtnis:1 later:3 translate:1 english:1 contribution:1 experimental:1 psychology:1 memorisation:1 nonsense:1 syllable:1 wid:1 zof:1 repeatedly:1 test:1 various:1 record:2 result:1 shape:2 description:1 speed:1 depends:1 number:1 factor:2 difficulty:1 e:4 g:4 meaningful:1 see:3 mnemonic:4 physiological:1 stress:1 sleep:1 basal:1 rate:1 differs:1 little:1 individual:1 difference:2 performance:1 school:1 explain:1 skill:1 basic:1 training:1 technique:2 help:1 overcome:1 part:1 best:1 method:1 increase:2 well:1 repetition:6 base:1 active:1 esp:1 spaced:1 optimum:1 interval:1 next:1 need:2 near:1 perfect:1 initially:1 may:1 make:2 within:1 year:2 debate:1 among:1 researcher:2 event:2 fact:1 subject:2 example:1 suggest:1 shock:1 kennedy:1 assassination:1 vividly:1 imprint:1 others:1 compare:1 contemporaneous:1 write:1 recollection:2 find:1 considerable:2 variation:1 incorporates:1 acquired:1 information:1 flashbulb:1 research:1 relate:1 eyewitness:1 identification:1 testimony:1 schoolbook:1 application:1 word:1 pair:1 student:1 depend:1 mean:1 fall:1 also:1 space:1 reference:1 |@bigram forgetting_curve:3 hermann_ebbinghaus:2 über_da:1 nonsense_syllable:1 kennedy_assassination:1 |
7,048 | Manhattan_Project | The Manhattan Project was the codename for a project conducted during World War II, primarily by the United States, to develop the first atomic bomb. Formally designated as the Manhattan Engineer District (MED), it refers specifically to the period of the project from 1942–1946 under the control of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, under the administration of General Leslie R. Groves. The scientific research was directed by American physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer. The most comprehensive history of the Manhattan Project is Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (Simon & Schuster, 1986). The project's roots lay in scientists' fears since the 1930s that Nazi Germany was also investigating nuclear weapons of its own. Born out of a small research program in 1939, the Manhattan Project eventually employed more than 130,000 people and cost nearly $2 billion USD ($24 billion in 2008 dollars based on CPI). It resulted in the creation of multiple production and research sites that operated in secret. Stephen I. Schwartz Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998. Manhattan Project expenditures The three primary research and production sites of the project were the plutonium-production facility at what is now the Hanford Site, the uranium-enrichment facilities at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and the weapons research and design laboratory now known as Los Alamos National Laboratory. Project research took place at over thirty sites across the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. The MED maintained control over U.S. weapons production until the formation of the Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947. Discovery of nuclear fission The first decades of the 20th century led to radical changes in the understanding of the physics of the atom, including the discovery of the nucleus, the idea of radiation, and the fact that the splitting of atomic nuclei in a chain reaction could lead to massive release of energy (nuclear fission). By 1932 the atom was thought to consist of a small, dense nucleus containing most of the atom's mass in the form of protons and neutrons and surrounded by a shell of electrons. Study on the phenomenon of radioactivity began with the discovery of uranium ores by Henri Becquerel in 1896 and was followed by the work of Pierre and Marie Curie on radium. Their research seemed to promise that atoms, previously thought to be ultimately stable and indivisible, actually had the potential of containing and releasing immense amounts of energy. In 1919 Ernest Rutherford achieved the first artificial nuclear disintegrations by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles emitted from a radioactive source, thus becoming the first person in history to intentionally "split the atom". It had become clear from the Curies' work that there was a tremendous amount of energy locked up in radioactive decay — far more than chemistry could account for. But even in the early 1930s such illustrious physicists as Ernest Rutherford and Albert Einstein could see no way of artificially releasing that energy any faster than nature naturally allowed it to leave. "Radium engines" in the 1930s were the stuff of science fiction, such as was being written at the time by Edgar Rice Burroughs. H.G. Wells included air-dropped "atomic bombs" in his 1914 novel The World Set Free. Though Wells' "atomic bombs" bore little resemblance to actual nuclear weapons — they were simply regular bombs that never stopped exploding — Leó Szilárd later commented that this story influenced his later research into this subject. Progress in controlling and understanding nuclear fission accelerated in the 1930s when further manipulation of the nuclei of atoms became possible. In 1932 Sir John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton were first to "split the atom" (cause a nuclear reaction) by using artificially accelerated particles. In 1934 Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie discovered that artificial radioactivity could be induced in stable elements by bombarding them with alpha particles. The same year Enrico Fermi reported similar results when bombarding uranium with neutrons (discovered in 1932), but he did not immediately appreciate the consequences of his results. In December 1938 Germans Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann published experimental results about bombarding uranium with neutrons. They showed that it produced an isotope of barium. Shortly after, their Austrian co-worker Lise Meitner (a political refugee in Sweden at the time) and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch correctly interpreted the results as the splitting of the uranium nucleus after the absorption of a neutron—nuclear fission, which released a large amount of energy and additional neutrons. A direct experimental evidence of the nuclear fission was performed by Frisch, following a fundamental idea suggested to him by George Placzek Frisch O. R.: "The Discovery of Fission—How It All Began". Physics Today 20 (1967), 11, pp. 43–48. Wheeler J. A.: "Mechanism of Fission". Physics Today 20 (1967), 11, pp. 49–52 . In 1933 Hungarian physicist Leó Szilárd had proposed that if any neutron-driven process released more neutrons than those required to start it, an expanding nuclear chain reaction might result. Chain reactions were familiar as a phenomenon from chemistry (where they typically caused explosions and other runaway reactions), but Szilárd was proposing them for a nuclear reaction for the first time. However, Szilárd had proposed to look for such reactions in the lighter atoms, and nothing of the sort was found. Upon experimentation shortly after the uranium fission discovery, Szilárd found that the fission of uranium released two or more neutrons on average, and immediately realized that a nuclear chain reaction by this mechanism was possible in theory. Szilárd kept this secret at first because he feared its use as a weapon by fascist governments. He convinced others to do so, but identical results were soon published by the Joliot-Curie group, to his great dismay. That such mechanisms might have implications for civilian power or military weapons was perceived by numerous scientists in many countries, around the same time. While these developments in science were occurring, many political changes were happening in Europe. Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor of Germany in January 1933. His anti-Semitic ideology caused all Jewish civil servants, including many physicists, to be fired from their posts. Consequently many European physicists who later made key discoveries went into exile in the United Kingdom and the United States. After Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939 and World War II began, many scientists in the United States and the United Kingdom became anxious about what Germany might do with nuclear technology. Albert Einstein in particular wrote several letters to Franklin Roosevelt urging him to establish nuclear capability before the Germans. These letters, especially one called the Einstein-Szilárd letter (written in August 1939, but not personally received by Roosevelt until October 1939), were also factors in the acceleration of the project. Uranium Committee (1939-1941) In 1939, President Franklin Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head "The Uranium Committee" as a result of the Einstein-Szilárd letter. Even though Roosevelt had sanctioned the project, progress was slow and was not directed exclusively towards military applications. Meanwhile, in the United Kingdom, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls made a breakthrough by discovering the fissile properties of uranium-235. A British committee, the MAUD Committee, concluded that an atomic bomb was "not only feasible, it was inevitable." Their reports were sent to Briggs, but were ignored. One of the members of the MAUD Committee, Mark Oliphant, flew to the United States in late August 1941 to find out why the U.S. was ignoring the MAUD Committee's findings. He reported that "this inarticulate and unimpressive man (Briggs) had put the reports in his safe and had not shown them to members of his committee." Oliphant then met with the whole Uranium Committee and other physicists to galvanize the USA into action. As a result, in December 1941 Vannevar Bush created the larger and more powerful Office of Scientific Research and Development—which was empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research—and became its director. Acceleration of the Project A few months after he was put in charge of fast neutron research, Berkeley physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer convened a conference on the topic of nuclear weapon design. Now that the bomb project was under the OSRD, the project leaders began to accelerate the work. Arthur Compton organized the University of Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory in early 1942 to study plutonium and fission piles (primitive nuclear reactors), and asked theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer of the University of California, Berkeley to take over research on fast neutron calculations — key to calculations about critical mass and weapon detonation — from Gregory Breit. John Manley, a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory, was assigned to help Oppenheimer find answers by coordinating and contacting several experimental physics groups scattered across the country. During the spring of 1942, Oppenheimer and Robert Serber of the University of Illinois worked on the problems of neutron diffusion (how neutrons moved in the chain reaction) and hydrodynamics (how the explosion produced by the chain reaction might behave). To review this work and the general theory of fission reactions, Oppenheimer convened a summer study at the University of California, Berkeley, in June 1942. Theorists Hans Bethe, John Van Vleck, Edward Teller, Felix Bloch, Emil Konopinski, Robert Serber, Stanley S. Frankel, and Eldred C. Nelson (the latter three all former students of Oppenheimer) quickly confirmed that a fission bomb was feasible. There were still many unknown factors in the development of a nuclear bomb, however, even though it was considered to be theoretically possible. The properties of pure uranium-235 were still relatively unknown, as were the properties of plutonium, a new element which had only been discovered in February 1941 by Glenn Seaborg and his team. Plutonium was the product of uranium-238 absorbing a neutron which had been emitted from a fissioning uranium-235 atom, and was thus able to be created in a nuclear reactor. But at this point no reactor had yet been built, so while plutonium was being pursued as an additional fissile substance, it was not yet to be relied upon. Only microgram quantities of plutonium existed at the time (produced from neutrons derived from reaction started in a cyclotron). A number of the different fission bomb assembly methods explored during the summer 1942 conference, later reproduced as drawings in The Los Alamos Primer. In the end, only the "gun" method (at top) and a more complicated variation of the "implosion" design would be used. At the bottom are "autocatalytic method" designs. The scientists at the Berkeley conference determined that there were many possible ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical mass, the simplest being the shooting of a "cylindrical plug" into a sphere of "active material" with a "tamper"—dense material which would focus neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency (this model "avoids fancy shapes", Serber would later write). Serber, Robert. The Los Alamos Primer (Los Alamos Report LA-1, compiled April 1943, declassified 1965): p. 21. They also explored designs involving spheroids, a primitive form of "implosion" (suggested by Richard C. Tolman), and explored the speculative possibility of "autocatalytic methods" which would increase the efficiency of the bomb as it exploded. Considering the idea of the fission bomb theoretically settled -at least until more experimental data was available- the conference then turned in a different direction. Hungarian physicist Edward "Ede" Teller pushed for discussion on an even more powerful bomb: the "Super", which would use the explosive force of a detonating fission bomb to ignite a fusion reaction in deuterium and tritium. This concept was based on studies of energy production in stars made by Hans Bethe before the war, and suggested as a possibility to Teller by Enrico Fermi not long before the conference. When the detonation wave from the fission bomb moved through the mixture of deuterium and tritium nuclei, these would fuse together to produce much more energy than fission could. But Bethe was skeptical. As Teller pushed hard for his "superbomb"—now usually referred to as a "hydrogen bomb" — proposing scheme after scheme, Bethe refused each one. The fusion idea had to be put aside in order to concentrate on actually producing fission bombs. Teller also raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might "ignite" the atmosphere, because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei. Bethe calculated, according to Serber, that it could not happen. However, a report co-authored by Teller showed that ignition of the atmosphere was not impossible, just unlikely. In Serber's account, Oppenheimer mentioned it to Arthur Compton, who "didn't have enough sense to shut up about it. It somehow got into a document that went to Washington" which led to the question being "never laid to rest". In Bethe's account, the possibility of this ultimate catastrophe came up again in 1975 when it appeared in a magazine article by H.C. Dudley, who got the idea from a report by Pearl Buck of an interview she had with Arthur Compton in 1959. The worry was not entirely extinguished in some people's minds until the Trinity test. The conferences in the summer of 1942 provided the detailed theoretical basis for the design of the atomic bomb, and convinced Oppenheimer of the benefits of having a single centralized laboratory to manage the research for the bomb project rather than having specialists spread out at different sites across the United States. Project sites Though it involved over thirty different research and production sites, the Manhattan Project was largely carried out at four secret laboratories that were established by power of eminent domain in four cities: Los Alamos, New Mexico; Oak Ridge, Tennessee; Richland, Washington; Chalk River, Ontario, Canada. The Tennessee site was chosen because of the vast quantities of cheap hydroelectric power already available there (due to the Tennessee Valley Authority) necessary to produce uranium-235 in giant ion separation magnets. The Hanford Site near Richland, Washington, was chosen for its location near the Columbia River, a river that could supply water to cool the reactors which would produce the plutonium. The Canadian site, Chalk River, Ontario, was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing of Ontario and Quebec, located on a rail head, adjacent to a large military base, Camp Petawawa, located on the Ottawa River it had access to abundant water. All the sites were suitably far from coastlines and therefore less vulnerable to possible enemy attack from Germany or Japan. The Los Alamos National Laboratory was built on a mesa that previously hosted the Los Alamos Ranch School, a private school for teenage boys. The site was chosen primarily for its remoteness. Oppenheimer had known of it from his horse-riding near his ranch in New Mexico, and he showed it as a possible site to the government representatives, who promptly bought it for $440,000. In addition to being the main "think-tank", Los Alamos was responsible for final assembly of the bombs, mainly from materials and components produced by other sites. Manufacturing at Los Alamos included casings, explosive lenses, and fabrication of fissile materials into bomb cores. Oak Ridge facilities covered more than 60,000 acres (243 km²) of several former farm communities in the Tennessee Valley area. Some Tennessee families were given two weeks' notice to vacate family farms that had been their homes for generations. So secret was the site during World War II that the state governor was unaware that Oak Ridge (which was to become the fifth largest city in the state) was being built. At one point Oak Ridge plants were consuming 1/6th of the electrical power produced in the U.S., more than New York City. Oak Ridge mainly produced uranium-235. Chalk River, was established to house the allied effort that was going on at McGill University, in Montreal. Since the site was 120 miles west of Ottawa, a new community was also built at Deep River, Ontario to be the home of the project team members. Both were established in 1944, with scientists, engineers, trades from Canada, Britain, Wales, Scotland, New Zealand, Australia, France, Norway, etc. providing their contribution to the war effort. The Hanford Site, which grew to almost 1,000 square miles (2,600 km²), took over irrigated farm land, fruit orchards, a railroad, and two farming communities, Hanford and White Bluffs, in a sparsely populated area adjacent to the Columbia River. Hanford hosted nuclear reactors cooled by the river and was the plutonium production center. The existence of these sites and the secret cities of Los Alamos, Oak Ridge, Richland, and Chalk River were not made public until the announcement of the Hiroshima explosion, and the sites remained secret until after the end of WWII. The project originally was headquartered at 270 Broadway in Manhattan. Other offices were scattered throughout the city, including the New York Friars' Club building. The Broadway headquarters lasted little more than a year before it was moved in 1943, although many of the other offices in Manhattan remained. Why They Called It the Manhattan Project, nytimes.com, accessed Nov 2, 2007. A selection of U.S. sites important to the Manhattan Project. Major Manhattan Project sites and subdivisions included: Site W (Hanford, Washington): a plutonium production facility (now Hanford Site) Site X (Oak Ridge, Tennessee): enriched uranium production and plutonium production research (now Oak Ridge National Laboratory) Site X also included: X-10 Graphite Reactor: graphite reactor research pilot plant (on the site of what is now Oak Ridge National Laboratory) Y-12: electromagnetic separation uranium enrichment plant K-25: gaseous diffusion uranium enrichment plant S-50: thermal diffusion uranium enrichment plant Site Y (Los Alamos, New Mexico): a bomb research laboratory (now Los Alamos National Laboratory) Metallurgical Laboratory (Chicago, Illinois): reactor development (now Argonne National Laboratory) Project Alberta (Wendover, Utah and Tinian): preparations for the combat delivery of the bombs Project Ames (Ames, Iowa): production of raw uranium metal (now Ames Laboratory) Dayton Project (Dayton, Ohio): research and development of polonium refinement and industrial production of polonium for atomic bomb triggers Project Camel (Inyokern, California): high explosives research and non-nuclear engineering for the Fat Man bomb Project Trinity (Alamogordo, New Mexico): preparations for the testing of the first atomic bomb Radiation Laboratory (Berkeley, California): electromagnetic separation enrichment research (now Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) Project '9' (Trail, British Columbia): heavy water (deuterium) production. Need for coordination The measurements of the interactions of fast neutrons with the materials in a bomb were essential; because the scientists needed to know the number of neutrons produced in the fission of uranium and plutonium, and because the substance surrounding the nuclear material needed the ability to reflect, or scatter, neutrons back into the chain reaction before it was blown apart - this in order to increase the energy produced. Therefore, the neutron scattering properties of materials had to be measured to find the best reflectors. Estimating the explosive power required knowledge of many other nuclear properties, including the cross section (a measure of the probability of an encounter between particles that result in a specified effect) for nuclear processes of neutrons in uranium and other elements. Fast neutrons could only be produced in particle accelerators, which were still relatively uncommon instruments in 1942. The need for better coordination was clear. By September 1942, the difficulties in conducting studies on nuclear weapons at universities scattered throughout the country indicated the need for a laboratory dedicated solely to that purpose. A greater need was the construction of industrial plants to produce uranium-235 and plutonium—the fissionable materials to be used in the weapons. Vannevar Bush, the head of the civilian Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), asked President Roosevelt to assign the operations connected with the growing nuclear weapons project to the military. Roosevelt chose the Army to work with the OSRD in building production plants. The Army Corps of Engineers selected Col. James Marshall to oversee the construction of factories to separate uranium isotopes and manufacture plutonium for the bomb. Marshall and his deputy, Col. Kenneth Nichols, struggled to understand the proposed processes and the scientists with whom they had to work. Thrust into the new field of nuclear physics, they felt unable to distinguish between technical and personal preferences. Although they decided that a site near Knoxville, Tennessee, would be suitable for the first production plant, they did not know how large the site needed to be, and thus delayed its acquisition. Because of its experimental nature, the nuclear weapons work could not compete for priority with the Army's more urgent tasks. The scientists' construction of the work and production plants were often delayed by Marshall's inability to obtain critical materials -such as steel- needed in other military projects. Even selecting a name for the project was difficult. The title chosen by Gen. Brehon B. Somervell, "Development of Substitute Materials," objectionable because it seemed to reveal too much. Manhattan Engineer District General Leslie Groves (left) was appointed the military head of the Manhattan Project, while Robert Oppenheimer (right) was the scientific director. Vannevar Bush became dissatisfied with Col. James Marshall's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously and made this known to Secretary of War Stimson and Army Chief of Staff George Marshall. Marshall then directed General Somervell to replace Col. Marshall with a more energetic officer as director. In the summer of 1942, Col. Leslie Groves was deputy to the chief of construction for the Army Corps of Engineers and had overseen the very rapid construction of the Pentagon, the world's largest office building. He was widely respected as an intelligent, hard driving, though brusque officer who got things done in a hurry. Hoping for an overseas command, Groves vigorously objected when Somervell appointed him to the weapons project. His objections were overruled, and Groves resigned himself to leading a project he thought had little chance of success. Groves appointed Oppenheimer as the project's scientific director, to the surprise of many. (Oppenheimer's radical political views were thought to pose security problems). However, Groves was convinced Oppenheimer was a genius who could talk about and understand nearly anything, and he was convinced such a man was needed for a project such as the one being proposed. Groves renamed the project The Manhattan Engineer District. The name evolved from the Corps of Engineers practice of naming districts after its headquarters' city (Marshall's headquarters were in New York City). At that time, Groves was promoted to brigadier general, giving him the rank necessary to deal with senior people whose cooperation was required, or whose own projects were hampered by Groves' top-priority project. Within a week of his appointment, Groves had solved the Manhattan Project's most urgent problems. His forceful and effective manner was soon to become all too familiar to the atomic scientists. The first major scientific hurdle of the project was solved on December 2, 1942, beneath the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago, where a team led by Enrico Fermi, for whom Fermilab is named, initiated the first artificial Natural self-sustaining nuclear reactions have occurred in the distant past (circa two billion years ago); see Natural nuclear fission reactor self sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental nuclear reactor named Chicago Pile-1. A coded phone call from Compton saying, "The Italian navigator [referring to Fermi] has landed in the new world, the natives are friendly" to Conant in Washington, D.C., brought news of the experiment's success. Uranium bomb A gun-type nuclear bomb. The Hiroshima bomb, Little Boy, was made from uranium-235, a rare isotope of uranium that has to be physically separated from the more plentiful uranium-238 isotope, which is not suitable for use in an explosive device. Since U-235 makes up only 0.7% of raw uranium and is chemically identical to the 99.3% of U-238, various physical methods were considered for separation. Most of the uranium enrichment work was performed at Oak Ridge. Control panels and operators for calutrons at the Y-12 Plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. One method of separating uranium 235 from raw uranium ore was devised by Franz Simon and Nicholas Kurti, two Jewish émigrés, at Oxford University. Their method using gaseous diffusion was scaled up in a large separation plant at Oak Ridge, using uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas as the process fluid. During the war this method was important primarily for producing partly enriched material to feed the electromagnetic separation process undertaken in calutrons (see below). Another method—electromagnetic isotope separation—was developed by Ernest Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. This method was implemented in Oak Ridge at the Y-12 Plant, employing devices known as calutrons, which were effectively mass spectrometers. Copper was originally intended for electromagnet coils, but there was an insufficient amount available due to war shortages. The project engineers were forced to borrow silver from the U.S. Treasury. A total of 70,000,000 pounds of silver from the U.S. Treasury reserves was used for coils, and was returned after the project ended. Initially the method seemed promising for large scale production but was expensive and produced insufficient material and was later abandoned after the war. Other techniques were also tried, such as thermal diffusion and the use of high-speed centrifuges. Thermal diffusion was not used to produce highly-enriched uranium, but was used during the war in the S-50 facility to begin enrichment of the uranium, and its product was passed as the feed into the other facilities. The uranium bomb was a gun-type fission weapon. One mass of U-235, the "bullet," is fired down a more or less conventional gun barrel into another mass of U-235, rapidly creating the critical mass of U-235, resulting in an explosion. The method was so certain to work that no test was carried out before the bomb was dropped over Hiroshima, though extensive laboratory testing was undertaken to make sure the fundamental assumptions were correct. Also, the bomb dropped used all the existing extremely highly purified U-235 (and even most of the less highly purified material) so there was no U-235 available for such a test anyway. The bomb's design was known to be inefficient and prone to accidental discharge. It has been estimated that only about 15% of the fissile material went critical. Plutonium bomb The basic concept of an implosion-style nuclear weapon. Actual pictures and details of the bomb's inner workings remain classified. The bombs used in the first test at Trinity Site on July 16, 1945, in New Mexico (the gadget of the Trinity test), and in the Nagasaki bomb, Fat Man, were made primarily of plutonium-239, a synthetic element. Although uranium-238 is useless as a fissile isotope for an atomic bomb, it is key in producing plutonium. The fission of U-235 releases neutrons, which are absorbed by U-238, which then becomes uranium-239. U-239 rapidly decays to neptunium-239 (U-239 has a half-life 23.45 minutes). Neptunium-239 (with a half-life 2.35 days) then decays into plutonium-239. The production and purification of plutonium used techniques developed in part by Glenn Seaborg while working at Berkeley and Chicago. Beginning in 1943, huge plants were built to produce plutonium at the Hanford Site. A mock-up of the plutonium bomb, Fat Man In 1943–1944, development efforts were directed to a gun-type fission weapon with plutonium, called "Thin Man". Once this was achieved, the scientists thought the uranium version, "Little Boy," would require a relatively simple adaptation. Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron-generated plutonium-239, which was extremely pure, but could only be created in very small amounts. On April 5, 1944, Emilio Segrè at Los Alamos received the first sample of Hanford-produced plutonium. Within ten days, he discovered a fatal flaw: reactor-bred plutonium was far less isotopically pure than cyclotron-produced plutonium. A higher concentration of Pu-240, formed from Pu-239 by capture of an additional neutron, gave it a much higher spontaneous fission rate than U-235. Pu-240 was even harder to separate from Pu-239 than U-235 was to separate from U-238, so no purification was even attempted. This made the Hanford plutonium unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon. The gun-type bomb worked by mechanically assembling the critical mass from two subcritical masses: a "bullet" and a target. The chain reaction resulting from collision of the "bullet" with the target released tremendous energy, producing an explosion, but also blew apart the critical mass and ended the chain reaction. The configuration of the critical mass determined how much of the fissile material reacted in the interval between assembly and dispersal, and therefore the explosive yield of the bomb. (The chain reaction actually starts before complete assembly of the critical mass.) Even a 1% fission of the material would result in a workable bomb, equal to thousands of tons of high explosive. A poor configuration, or slow assembly, would release enough energy to disperse the critical mass, but too quickly. Far less than 1% would react, and the yield would be equivalent to only a few tons of HE - a fizzle. The chain reaction of U-235 was slow enough that gun-type assembly would work. But suppose a gun-type bomb was made with the Hanford plutonium. As the critical mass comes together, "early" neutrons from spontaneously fissioning Pu-240 start the chain reaction prematurely. This releases enough energy to disperse the critical mass with only a minimal amount of plutonium reacted. In plain English, a gun-type plutonium bomb fizzles. In an incident of disruptive technology, Oppenheimer promptly recognized that the April 1944 suggestion by James L. Tuck to use explosive lenses to create spherical, converging implosion waves was the best strategy to rapidly achieve a working plutonium device. He promptly cancelled ongoing work in order to reallocate resources in that new direction. The Atomic Heritage Foundation - Atomic History Timeline 1942-1944 This then-new idea remains a mainstay of nuclear weapon design. In July 1944, the decision was made to cease work on the plutonium gun method. There would be no "Thin Man." The gun method was further developed for uranium only, which had few complications. Most efforts were then directed to a different method for plutonium. In July 1944 the Los Alamos laboratory abandoned the plutonium gun-type bomb ("Thin Man", shown above) and focused almost entirely on the problem of implosion. (The Fat Man casing is also visible in the photo background.) Ideas for alternative detonation schemes had existed for some time at Los Alamos. One of the more innovative was the idea of "implosion". Using chemical explosives, a sub-critical sphere of fissile material could be squeezed into a smaller and denser form. When the fissile atoms were packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture would increase, and the mass would become a critical mass. The metal needed to travel only very short distances, so the critical mass would be assembled in much less time than it would take to assemble a mass by a bullet impacting a target. Initially, implosion had been entertained as a possible, though unlikely, method. But then Emilio Segrè discovered that a gun-type bomb using reactor-bred plutonium could not work. Uranium-235 production could not be substantially increased. The plutonium implosion bomb was the only practical solution for production of multiple bombs from the available fissionable material. Because of this, the implosion project received the highest priority. By the end of July 1944, the entire Manhattan Project had been reorganized around building the implosion-type bomb. The required implosion was achieved by using shaped charges with many explosive lenses to produce the perfectly spherical explosive wave which compressed the plutonium sphere. Because of the complexity of an implosion-style weapon, it was decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, an initial test would be required. The first nuclear test took place on July 16, 1945, near Alamogordo, New Mexico, under the supervision of Groves's deputy Brig. Gen. Thomas Farrell. Oppenheimer gave the test the code name "Trinity". Similar efforts A similar effort was undertaken in the USSR in September 1941 headed by Igor Kurchatov (with some of Kurchatov's World War II knowledge coming secondhand from Manhattan Project countries, thanks to spies, including at least two on the scientific team at Los Alamos, Klaus Fuchs and Theodore Hall, unknown to each other). After the MAUD Committee's report, the British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but initially did not pool their efforts. A British project, code-named Tube Alloys, was started but did not have United States resources. Consequently the British bargaining position worsened, and their motives were mistrusted by the Americans. Collaboration therefore lessened markedly until the Quebec Agreement of August 1943, when a large team of British, Canadian and Australian scientists joined the Manhattan Project. The German experimental nuclear pile at Haigerloch The question of Axis efforts on the bomb has been a contentious issue for historians. It is believed that efforts undertaken in Germany, headed by Werner Heisenberg, and in Japan, were also undertaken during the war with little progress. It was initially feared that Hitler was very close to developing his own bomb. Many German scientists in fact expressed surprise to their Allied captors when the bombs were detonated in Japan. They were convinced that talk of atomic weapons was merely propaganda. However, Werner Heisenberg (by then imprisoned in Britain at Farm Hall with several other nuclear project physicists) almost immediately figured out what the Allies had done, explaining it to his fellow scientists (and hidden microphones) within days. The Nazi reactor effort had been severely handicapped by Heisenberg's belief that heavy water was necessary as a neutron moderator (slowing preparation material) for such a device. The Germans were short of heavy water throughout the war because of Allied efforts to prevent Germany from obtaining it, and the Germans never did stumble on the secret of purified graphite for making nuclear reactors from natural uranium. Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and Enrico Fermi were all colleagues who were key figures in developing the quantum theory together with Wolfgang Pauli, prior to the war. They had known each other well in Europe and were friends. Niels Bohr and Heisenberg even discussed the possibility of the atomic bomb prior to and during the war, before the United States became involved. Bohr recalled that Heisenberg was unaware that the supercritical mass could be achieved with U-235, and both men gave differing accounts of their conversations at this sensitive time. Bohr at the time did not trust Heisenberg, and never quite forgave him for his decision not to flee Germany before the war when given the chance. Heisenberg, for his part, seems to have thought he was proposing to Bohr a mutual agreement between the two sides not to pursue nuclear technology for destructive purposes. If so, Heisenberg's message did not get through. Heisenberg, to the end of his life, maintained that the partly-built German heavy-water nuclear reactor found after the war's end in his lab was for research purposes only, and a full bomb project had not been contemplated (there is no evidence to contradict this, but by this time late in the war, Germany was far from having the resources for a Hanford-style plutonium bomb, even if its scientists had decided to pursue one and had known how to do it). See also Timeline of the Manhattan Project August 1945 Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Smyth Report Related locations Hanford Site (plutonium production) B Reactor Ames Laboratory (uranium production from ores) Los Alamos National Laboratory (secret weapons lab) Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (second weapons lab, created in 1950s) Metallurgical Laboratory (first controlled nuclear chain reaction) Oak Ridge, Tennessee Oak Ridge National Laboratory (site of graphite reactor and pilot facilities for plutonium production) Y-12 (uranium enrichment) K-25 (uranium enrichment) Trinity site (first nuclear test) Trail, British Columbia (Project 9, heavy water plant) Nuclear weapons History of nuclear weapons Nuclear arms race Nuclear weapon Nuclear weapon design Isotope separation (necessary for uranium enrichment) List of countries with nuclear weapons The United States and nuclear weapons People :Category:Manhattan Project people (lists articles about people involved in the project) Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, discoverers of fission David Bohm, did work that was immediately classified, that he then wasn't allowed to read Other projects Operation Alsos, and German nuclear energy project Japanese atomic program Soviet atomic bomb project Tube Alloys (British WWII atomic program) Movies, in chronological order: Above and Beyond (1952), a film related to the project, centered on Col Paul Tibbets, pilot of the plane which dropped the Hiroshima bomb Kiss Me Deadly (1955), a film noir only tangentially related to the Manhattan Project The Day After Trinity (1981), a documentary about the project. Day One (1989), a film about the project in a political perspective Fat Man and Little Boy (1989), Hollywood drama based on the project starring Paul Newman White Light/Black Rain: The Destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (2007) Music Manhattan Project by Rush Brighter Than A Thousand Suns by Iron Maiden The Manhattan Project by Between The Screams Doctor Atomic, an opera by John Coolidge Adams with libretto by Peter Sellars Sedition by Strike Anywhere, a song about lead singer Thomas Barnett's grandfather, a welder and steamfitter on the Manhattan Project who was unaware of his role in creating the Atomic Bomb and exposure to radium until the project was completed Entertainment The main character of the game Freedom Force , Minuteman, was a scientist for the Manhattan Project 3D Realms (originally Apogee) released a video game entitled "Duke Nukem: Manhattan Project" for PC in 2002. Dr. Manhattan, a superhero from Alan Moore's graphic novel Watchmen named by the US government after the Manhattan Project. In the game Metal Gear Solid, the character Otacon claims that his grandfather was involved in the Manhattan Project. In the game Metal Gear Solid 2, the character Fat Man is named after the bomb dropped in Nagasaki, Japan. In the game Civilization Revolution, the player can research the Manhattan Project resulting in the creation of an atomic bomb which the player can use against his enemies. In the game Civilization 3, the player can create the "Manhattan Project" wonder, allowing ALL players to use nuclear weapons. Notes References Overall, administrative, and diplomatic histories of the Manhattan Project DeGroot, Gerard, "The Bomb: A History of Hell on Earth", London: Pimlico, 2005. ISBN 0-7126-7748-8 Groves, Leslie. Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project. New York: Harper, 1962. ISBN 0-306-70738-1 Herken, Gregg. Brotherhood of the Bomb : The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2002. ISBN 0-8050-6588-1 Hewlett, Richard G., and Oscar E. Anderson. The New World, 1939-1946. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1962. Howes, Ruth H. and Herzenberg, Caroline L. Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999. ISBN 1-56639-719-7 Jungk, Robert, Brighter Than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists, (NY: Harcourt, Brace, 1956, 1958) Norris, Robert S., "Racing for the Bomb: General Leslie R. Groves, The Manhattan Project's Indispensable Man". Vermont: Steerforth Press, First Paperback edition, 2002. ISBN 1-58642-067-4. Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986. ISBN 0-671-44133-7 Rhodes, Richard. Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0-684-80400-X Feynman, Richard P. Surely you're joking, Mr. Feynman W. W. Norton & Company, 1997. ISBN 978-0393316049 Technical histories Sherwin, Martin J. A World Destroyed: The Atomic Bomb and the Grand Alliance. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975. ISBN 0-394-49794-5 Groueff, Stephane. Manhattan Project: The Untold Story of the Making of the Atomic Bomb. Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1967. Hoddeson, Lillian, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, and Catherine L. Westfall. Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-44132-3 Serber, Robert. The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. ISBN 0-520-07576-5—Original 1943, Los Alamos Report "LA-1", declassified in 1965. (Available on Wikimedia Commons). Smyth, Henry DeWolf. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes; the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1945. See Smyth Report. Yenne, William. "The Manhattan Project," Secret Weapons of World War II: The Techno-Military Breakthroughs That Changed History. New York: Berkley Books, 2003. 2-7. Participant accounts Badash, Lawrence, Joseph O. Hirschfelder, Herbert P. Broida, eds. Reminiscences of Los Alamos, 1943–1945. Dordrecht, Boston: D. Reidel, 1980. ISBN 90-277-1097-X Bethe, Hans A. The Road from Los Alamos. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. ISBN 0-671-74012-1 Nichols, Kenneth David. The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made. New York: William Morrow and Company Inc, 1987. ISBN 0-688-06910-X Serber, Robert. Peace and War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-231-10546-0 Ulam, Stanisław. Adventures of a Mathematician. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1983. ISBN 0-520-07154-9 External links Why They Called It the Manhattan Project White Light/Black Rain Official Website (film) National Atomic Museum - The Manhattan Project Development of the Atomic Bomb Truth of Atomic Bomb : from Hiroshima Annotated bibliography for the Manhattan Project from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues. Nuclear Files.org Information on the history of the Manhattan Project The Manhattan Project and its effect on the Buffalo-Niagara region. The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb from atomicarchive.com Profile of 90 Church Street travelgoat guide to New York City The Manhattan Project: A New and Secret World of Human Experimentation Atomic Heritage Foundation Manhattan Project Historic Preservation Interview with Joseph Rotblat who worked on the Manhattan Project and left to work for Pugwash. The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to both Rotblat and Pugwash. Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust. Los Alamos, a murder mystery novel by Joseph Kanon, shows life at the Manhattan Project base. Notebook recording the first controlled nuclear chain reaction (includes "We're cookin!" note at the bottom of the page) Ames Laboratory, USDOE, history page concerning Project Ames World War II: Atomic Bomb--The Manhattan Project The Cold War International History Project (CWIHP) for Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks containing evidence on Soviet atomic espionage The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists | Manhattan_Project |@lemmatized manhattan:48 project:93 codename:1 conduct:2 world:12 war:22 ii:6 primarily:4 united:13 state:13 develop:6 first:19 atomic:40 bomb:76 formally:1 designate:1 engineer:9 district:4 med:2 refer:3 specifically:1 period:1 control:6 u:25 army:6 corp:4 administration:1 general:6 leslie:5 r:3 grove:13 scientific:7 research:24 direct:6 american:3 physicist:11 j:5 robert:13 oppenheimer:18 comprehensive:1 history:13 richard:6 rhodes:3 making:4 simon:5 schuster:4 root:1 lay:2 scientist:17 fear:3 since:3 nazi:3 germany:9 also:12 investigate:1 nuclear:57 weapon:31 bear:1 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7,049 | North_Sea | The North Sea is a marginal, epeiric sea on the European continental shelf. The Dover Strait and the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north connect it to the Atlantic Ocean. It is more than long and wide, with an area of around . A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea including water from the Baltic Sea. Much of the sea's coastal features are the result of glacial movements. Deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and parts of the Scottish coastline, whereas the southern coasts consist of sandy beaches and mudflats. These flatter areas are particularly susceptible to flooding, especially as a result of storm tides. Elaborate systems of dikes have been constructed to protect coastal areas. The development of European civilisation has been heavily affected by the maritime traffic on the North Sea. The Romans and the Vikings sought to extend their territory across the sea. The Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and finally the British sought to dominate commerce on the North Sea and through it to access the markets and resources of the world. Commercial enterprises, growing populations, and limited resources gave the nations on the North Sea the desire to control or access it for their own commercial, military, and colonial ends. In recent decades, its importance has shifted from the military and geopolitical to the purely economic. While traditional activities such as fishing and shipping have continued to grow, newer resources such as fossil fuels and wind and wave energy have also been discovered or developed. Geography The North Sea is bounded by the Orkney Islands and east coasts of England and Scotland to the west and the northern and central European mainland to the east and south, including Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively. In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, which lies in the very north-eastern part of the Atlantic. It is more than long and wide, with an area of . and a volume of . Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, and the Frisian Islands. The North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles island watersheds. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea including water from the Baltic Sea. The largest and most important affecting the North Sea are the Elbe river and the Rhine - Meuse watershed. The Elbe watershed drains an area of which includes 18 cities and their effluence. The Rhine-Meuse delta receives water discharge from a land area of , including its 68 cities. Around 184 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers that flow into the North Sea. This area contains dense concentrations of industry. Major features For the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of . The only exception is the Norwegian trench which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to an area north of Bergen. It is between wide and has a maximum depth of . The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris, rises 15 to 30 metres (50–100 ft) below the surface of the sea. This feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea. The Silver Pit is a hollow or valley-like depression that has been recognised since about 1843 by fishermen. Nearby is the Silverpit crater, a controversial structure initially proposed to be an impact crater, though another interpretation is that it may result from the dissolution of a thick bed of salt which permitted the upper strata to collapse. Devil's Hole is a group of trenches, around deeper than the surrounding sea floor, about east of Dundee, Scotland. The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are areas which refer to the depth in fathoms, (forty fathoms and fourteen fathoms or 73 and 26 m deep respectively). These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate, which has been alleviated by the implementation of satellite navigation systems. Hydrology Temperature and salinity The average temperature in summer is and in the winter. Climate change has been attributed to a rise in the average temperature of the North Sea. Air temperatures in January range on average between 0 to 4 °C (32 to 40 °F) and in July between 13 to 18 °C (55 to 64 °F). The winter months see frequent gales and storms. The salinity averages between 34 to 35 grams of salt per litre of water. The salinity has the highest variability where there is fresh water inflow, such as at the Rhine and Elbe estuaries, the Baltic Sea exit and along the coast of Norway. Water circulation and tides The main pattern to the flow of water in the North Sea is an anti-clockwise rotation along the edges. The North Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean receiving the majority of ocean current from the northwest opening, and a lesser portion of warm current from the smaller opening at the English Channel. These tidal currents leave along the Norwegian coast. Surface and deep water currents may move in different directions. Low salinity surface coastal waters move offshore, and deeper, denser high salinity waters move in shore. The North Sea located on the continental shelf has different waves than those in deep ocean water. The wave speeds are diminished and the wave amplitudes are increased. In the North Sea there are two amphidromic systems and a third incomplete amphidromic system. Page 329 tidal map showing amphidromes Page 157 tidal map showing amphidromes At an amphidromic point the rise and fall of tidal waves is zero due to cancelling of tidal waves, and the semidiurnal high and low tides rotate around these points twice in a tidal day. Tidal currents through the Strait of Dover As a result, the tidal range in southern Norway is less than half a metre (1.5 ft), but increases the further any given coast lies from the amphidromic point. Shallow coasts and the funnel effect of narrow straits increase the tidal range. The tidal range is at its greatest at The Wash on the English coast, where it reaches . In the North Sea the average tide difference in wave amplitude is between . The Kelvin tide of the Atlantic ocean is a semidiurnal wave which travels northward. Some of the energy from this wave travels through the English Channel into the North Sea. The wave still travels northward in the Atlantic Ocean, and once past the British Isles, the Kelvin wave turns east and south and once again enters into the North Sea. Page 94 shows the amphidromic points of the North Sea Coasts The German North Sea coast The eastern and western coasts of the North Sea are jagged, as they were stripped by glaciers during the ice ages. The coastlines along the southernmost part are soft, covered with the remains of deposited glacial sediment, which was left directly by the ice or has been redeposited by the sea. The Norwegian mountains plunge into the sea, giving birth, north of Stavanger, to deep fjords and archipelagos. South of Stavanger, the coast softens, the islands become fewer. The eastern Scottish coast is similar, though less severe than Norway. Starting from Flamborough Head in the north east of England, the cliffs become lower and are composed of less resistant moraine, which erodes more easily, so that the coasts have more rounded contours. In Holland, Belgium and in the east of England (East Anglia) the littoral is low and marshy. The east coast and south-east of the North Sea (Wadden Sea) have coastlines that are mainly sandy and straight owing to longshore currents, particularly along Belgium and Denmark. Coastal management The Afsluitdijk (Closure-dike) is a major dam in the Netherlands. The southern coastal areas were originally amphibious flood plains and swampy land. In areas especially vulnerable to storm tides, people settled behind elevated levees and on natural areas of high ground such as spits and Geestland. As early as 500 BC, people were constructing artificial dwelling hills higher than the prevailing flood levels. It was only around the beginning of the High Middle Ages, in 1200 AD, that inhabitants began to connect single ring dikes into a dike line along the entire coast, thereby turning amphibious regions between the land and the sea into permanent solid ground. The modern form of the dikes supplemented by overflow and lateral diversion channels, began to appear in the 17th and 18th centuries, built in the Netherlands. The North Sea Floods of 1953 and 1962 were impetus for further raising of the dikes as well as the shortening of the coast line so as to present as little surface area as possible to the punishment of the sea and the storms. Currently, 27% of the Netherlands is below sea level protected by dikes, dunes, and beach flats. Oosterscheldekering, North Sea Protection Works or Delta Works. Coastal management today consists of several levels. The dike slope reduces the energy of the incoming sea, so that the dike itself does not receive the full impact. Dikes that lie directly on the sea are especially reinforced. The dikes have, over the years, been repeatedly raised, sometimes up to and have become flatter in order to better reduce the erosion of the waves. Where the dunes are sufficient to protect the land behind them from the sea, these dunes are planted with beach grass to protect them from erosion by wind, water, and foot traffic. Storm tides Storm tides threaten, in particular, the coasts of the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and Denmark. Zuid-Beveland, North Sea flood of 1953 Storm surges are caused by changes in barometric pressure combined with strong wind created wave action. The first recorded storm tide flood was the Julianenflut, on 17 February 1164. In its wake the Jadebusen, (a bay on the coast of Germany), began to form. North Sea flood of 1962 in WilhelmsburgA storm tide in 1228 is recorded to have killed more than 100,000 people. In 1362, the Second Marcellus Flood, also known as the Grote Manndränke, hit the entire southern coast of the North Sea. Chronicles of the time again record more than 100,000 deaths as large parts of the coast were lost permanently to the sea, including the now legendary lost city of Rungholt. The coastline of the North Sea changed again following the flood of 1825; the Jutland Peninsula is now called the North Jutlandic Island. In the twentieth century, the North Sea flood of 1953 flooded several nations' coasts and cost more than 2,000 lives. 315 citizens of Hamburg died in the North Sea flood of 1962. The "Century Flood" of 1976 and the "North Frisian Flood" of 1981 brought the highest water levels measured to date on the North Sea coast, but because of sea defences such as improved warning systems and dikes built and modified after the flood of 1962, these led only to property damage. Tsunamis The Storegga Slides were a series of underwater landslides, in which a piece of the Norwegian continental shelf slid into the Norwegian Sea. The immense landslips occurred between 8150 BC and 6000 BC, and caused a tsunami up to high that swept through the North Sea, having the greatest effect on Scotland and the Faeroe Islands. The Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 is among the first recorded earthquakes in the North Sea measuring between 5.3 and 5.9 on the Richter Scale. This event caused extensive damage in Calais both through its tremors and two tsunamis The largest earthquake ever recorded in the United Kingdom was the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake, which measured 6.1 on the Richter Scale and caused a tsunami that flooded parts of the British coast. Geology Shallow epicontinental seas like the current North Sea have since long existed on the European continental shelf. The rifting that formed the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, from about , caused tectonic uplift in the British Isles. Since then, a shallow sea has almost continuously existed between the highs of the Fennoscandian Shield and the British Isles. See Ziegler (1990) or Glennie (1998) for the development of the paleogeography around the North Sea area from the Jurassic onwards This precursor of the current North Sea has grown and shrunk with the rise and fall of the eustatic sea level during geologic time. Sometimes it was connected with other shallow seas, such as the sea above the Paris Basin to the south-west, the Paratethys Sea to the south-east, or the Tethys Ocean to the south. During the Late Cretaceous, about , all of modern mainland Europe except for Scandinavia was a scattering of islands. By the Early Oligocene, , the emergence of Western and Central Europe had almost completely separated the North Sea from the Tethys Ocean, which gradually shrank to become the Mediterranean Sea as Southern Europe and South West Asia became dry land. The North Sea was cut off from the English Channel by a narrow land bridge until that was breached by at least two catastrophic floods between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago. (Registration is required) Since the start of the Quarternary period about , the eustatic sea level has fallen during each glacial period and then risen again. Every time the ice sheet reached its greatest extent, the North Sea became almost completely dry. The present-day North Sea coastline formed when, after the Last Glacial Maximum (the peak of the glaciation during the last ice age) 20,000 years ago, the sea began to flood the European continental shelf. The North Sea coastline still undergoes changes following changes in the worldwide sea level, tectonic movements, storm surges, erosion, the rise and fall of sea levels, shingle drifts as well as the deposition of sands and clastics in paralic environments. Natural history Fish and shellfish Pacific oysters, blue mussels and cockles in the Wadden Sea in the Netherlands. Copepods and other zooplankton are plentiful in the North Sea. These tiny organisms are crucial elements of the food chain supporting many species of fish. Over 230 species of fish live in the North Sea. Cod, haddock, whiting, saithe, plaice, sole, mackerel, herring, pouting, sprat, and sandeel are all very common and are those which are fished commercially. Due to the various depths of the North Sea trenches and differences in salinity, temperature, and water movement, some fish such as blue-mouth redfish and rabbitfish reside only in small areas of the North Sea. Crustaceans are also commonly found throughout the sea. Norway lobster, deep-water prawns, and brown shrimp are all commercially fished, but other species of lobster, shrimp, oyster, mussels and clams all live in the North Sea. Recently non-indigenous species have become established including the Pacific oyster and Atlantic jackknife clam. Birds The coasts of the North Sea are home to nature reserves including the Ythan Estuary, Fowlsheugh Nature Preserve, and Farne Islands in the UK and The Wadden Sea National Parks in Germany. These locations provide breeding habitat for dozens of bird species. Tens of millions of birds make use of the North Sea for breeding, feeding, or migratory stopovers every year. Populations of Black legged Kittiwakes, Atlantic Puffins, Northern fulmars, and species of petrels, gannets, seaducks, loons (divers), cormorants, gulls, auks, and terns, and many other seabirds make these coasts popular for birdwatching. Marine mammals A female bottlenose dolphin with her young in Moray Firth, Scotland The North Sea is also home to marine mammals. Common seals, and Harbour porpoises can be found along the coasts, at marine installations, and on islands. The very northern North Sea islands like the Shetlands are occasionally home to a larger variety of pinnipeds including bearded, harp, hooded and ringed seals, and even walrus. North Sea cetaceans include Harbour porpoises, common dolphins, bottlenose dolphins, Risso's dolphins, long-finned pilot whales and white-beaked dolphins, minke whales, killer whales, and sperm whales. Flora Plant species in the North Sea include species of wrack, among them bladder wrack, knotted wrack, and serrated wrack. Algae, macroalgal, and kelp, such as oarweed and laminaria hyperboria, and species of maerl are found as well. Sea-mat encrusts seaweeds, particularly kelps and is found in the North Sea. W. de Haas & F. Knorr (1966). Marine Life pp 212-213. Burke, London. W. J. North (1976). Underwater California pp 161. University of California Press. ISBN 0520030257 R. Barnes (1982). Coasts and Estuaries pp 114-115. Hodder & Staughton, London. Nori, (P. umbilicalis) is found along the coast of the North Sea and is a widely marketed edible seaweed. Eelgrass, formerly common in the entirety of the Wadden Sea, was nearly wiped out in the 20th century by a disease. Similarly, sea grass used to coat huge tracts of ocean floor, but have been damaged by trawling and dredging have diminished its habitat and prevented its return. Invasive Japanese seaweed has spread along the shores of the sea clogging harbours and inlets and has become a nuisance. Biodiversity and conservation Flamingos, pelicans, and Great Auk were once found along the southern shores of the North Sea, but went extinct over the 2nd millennium. Gray whale also resided in the North Sea but were driven to extinction in the Atlantic in the 1600s Other species have seen dramatic declines in population, though they are still to be found; right whales, sturgeon, shad, rays, skates and salmon among other species were common in the North Sea into the 20th century, when numbers declined due to overfishing. Other factors like the introduction of non-indigenous species, industrial and agricultural pollution, trawling and dredging, human-induced eutrophication, construction on coastal breeding and feeding grounds, sand and gravel extraction, offshore construction, and heavy shipping traffic have also contributed to the decline. The underside and mouth of a sturgeon The OSPAR commission manages the OSPAR convention to counteract the harmful effects of human activity on wildlife in the North Sea, preserve endangered species, and provide environmental protection. All North Sea border states are signatories of the MARPOL 73/78 Accords which preserves the marine environment by preventing pollution from ships. "Member States have ratified Marpol 73/78". . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands also have a trilateral agreement for the protection of the Wadden Sea, or mudflats, which run along the coasts of the three countries on the southern edge of the North Sea. History Name One of the earliest recorded names was Septentrionalis Oceanus, or "Northern Ocean" which was cited by Pliny. However, the Celts who lived along its coast referred to it as the Morimaru, the "dead sea", which was also taken up by the Germanic peoples, giving Morimarusa. Akin to Welsh môr "sea" and marw "dead"; the -sa suffix is a Proto-Germanic form akin to English sea. This name refers to the "dead water" patches resulting from a layer of fresh water sitting on top of a layer of salt water making it quite still. Oskar Bandle, Kurt Braunmuller, Lennart Elmevik, and Gun Widmark, The Nordic Languages: An International Handbook of the History of the Northern Germanic Languages (Leiden, Netherlands: Walter de Gruyter, 2002), 596. Names referring to the same phenomenon lasted into the Middle Ages, e.g., Old High German mere giliberōt and Middle Dutch lebermer or libersee. A 1490 recreation of a map from Ptolomy's Geography showing the "Oceanus Germanicus"Other common names in use for long periods were the Latin terms Mare Frisicum , Oceanum- or Mare Germanicum as well as their English equivalents, "Frisian Sea" , "German Ocean" , "German Sea" and "Germanic Sea" (from the Latin Mare Germanicum). Other names were Amalchium Mare, Britannie ef Frisie mare, Fresonicus Ocecnus, Magnum Mare, Occidentale Mare, Occidentalis Oceanus Early history The North Sea has provided waterway access for commerce and conquest. Many areas have access to the North Sea with its long coastline and European rivers which empty into it. The first records of marine traffic on the North Sea come from the Roman Empire in 12 BC. The British Isles had been protected from invasion by the North Sea waters. Great Britain was formally invaded in 43 AD and its southern areas incorporated into the Empire, establishing organised ports, an increase in shipping and the beginnings of sustained trade. The Romans abandoned Britain in 410. and in the power vacuum they left, the Germanic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began the next great migration across the North Sea during the Migration Period invading England. The Viking Age began in 793 with the attack on Lindisfarne and for the next quarter-millennium the Vikings ruled the North Sea. In their superior longships, they raided, traded, and established colonies and outposts on the Sea's coasts. From the Middle Ages through the 15th century, the north European coastal ports exported domestic goods, dyes, linen, salt, metal goods and wine. The Scandinavian and Baltic areas shipped grain, fish, naval necessities, and timber. In turn the north Sea countries imported high grade cloths, spices, and fruits from the Mediterranean region Commerce during this era was mainly undertaken by maritime trade due to underdeveloped roadways. Comments on talk page about excerpts of this academic journal. (registration is required) North Sea bordering countries 500 CE Ireland & Britain, c. AD 500, roughly the period of the legendary King Arthur. Brython kingdoms are labeled in black, Pictish kingdoms in brown, Irish kingdoms in blue, and Germanic polities in red. Based in part upon and on information derived from Mike Ashley's Mammoth Book of Irish & British Kings and Queens, and other sources. In the 13th century the Hanseatic League, though centred on the Baltic Sea, started to control most of the trade through important members and outposts on the North Sea. The League lost its dominance in the 16th century, as neighbouring states took control of former Hanseatic cities and outposts and internal conflict prevented effective cooperation and defence. Furthermore, as the League lost control of its maritime cities new trade routes emerged which provided Europe with Asian, American, and African goods. Age of sail Painting of the Four Days Battle of 1666 by Willem van de Velde the Younger The 17th century Dutch Golden Age during which Dutch herring, cod and whale fisheries reached an all time high saw Dutch power at its zenith. Important overseas colonies, a vast merchant marine, powerful navy and large profits made the Dutch the main challengers to an ambitious and jealous England. This rivalry led to the first three Anglo-Dutch Wars between 1652 and 1673 which ended with Dutch victories. After the Glorious Revolution the Dutch prince William ascended to the English throne. With both countries united, commercial, military, and political power shifted from Amsterdam to London. The Great Northern War(1700-21) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) were fought concurrently. Russia became a major power in Eastern Europe entering western mercantilism and England a rising power at sea and commercial supremacy. Several conflicts involved disruption of North Sea maritime trade, none of which had a decisive effects on the war's outcome: the French and British cut off Russia's Baltic ports during the Crimean War and Prussia's coasts were blockaded in the First and Second Schleswig Wars as well as the Franco-Prussian War. The British did not face a challenge to their dominance of the North Sea until the twentieth century. Modern era German cruiser SMS Blücher sinks in the Battle of Dogger Bank on 25 January 1915. Tensions in the North Sea were again heightened in 1904 by the Dogger Bank incident, in which Russian naval vessels mistook British fishing boats for Japanese ships and fired on them, and then upon each other. During the First World War, Great Britain's Grand Fleet and Germany's Kaiserliche Marine faced each other on the North Sea, which became the main theatre of the war for surface action. Britain's larger fleet was able to establish an effective blockade for most of the war that restricted the Central Powers' access to many crucial resources. Major battles included the Battle of Heligoland Bight , the Battle of the Dogger Bank, and the Battle of Jutland. World War One was also the first in which submarine warfare was used extensively and a number of submarine actions occurred in the North Sea. The Second World War also saw action in the North Sea, though it was restricted more to aircraft reconnaissances, aircraft fighter/bombers, submarines and smaller vessels such as minesweepers, and torpedo boats and similar vessels. In the last years of the war and the first years thereafter, hundreds of thousands of tons of weapons were disposed of by being sunk in the North Sea. After the war, the North Sea lost much of its military significance because it is bordered only by NATO member-states. However, it gained significant economic importance in the 1960s as the states on the North Sea began full-scale exploitation of its oil and gas resources. The North Sea continues to be an active trade route. Economy Political status The countries bordering the North Sea all claim the of territorial waters within which they have exclusive fishing rights. The Exclusive Economic Zones in the North Sea The Common Fisheries Policy of the exists to coordinate fishing rights and assist with disputes between EU states and the EU border state of Norway. After the discovery of mineral resources in the North Sea, Convention on the Continental Shelf established country rights which are largely divided along the median line. The median line is defined as the line "every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. " The ocean floor border between Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark was only reapportioned after protracted negotiations and a judgement of the International Court of Justice. Oil and gas As early as 1859, oil was discovered in onshore areas around the North Sea and natural gas as early as 1910. Oil platform Statfjord A with the flotel Polymarine In 1959, geologists discovered a natural gas field in Slochteren in the Dutch province of Groningen. However, at this point, the rights to natural resource exploitation on the high seas were still under dispute. Test drilling began in 1966 and then, in 1969, Phillips Petroleum Company discovered the Ekofisk oil field distinguished by valuable, low-sulphur oil. Commercial exploitation began in 1971 with tankers and, after 1975, by a pipeline, first to Teesside, England and then, after 1977, also to Emden, Germany. The exploitation of the North Sea oil reserves began just before the 1973 oil crisis, and the climb of international oil prices made the large investments needed for extraction much more attractive. Although the production costs are relatively high, the quality of the oil, the political stability of the region, and the nearness of important markets in western Europe has made the North Sea an important oil producing region. The largest single humanitarian catastrophe in the North Sea oil industry was the destruction of the offshore oil platform Piper Alpha in 1988 in which 167 people lost their lives. Semi-submersible drilling rig in North Sea The fires on the Piper Alpha burned off most of the hydrocarbons on board and released from the disrupted wells. However, a major blowout in 1977 in the Ekofisk field resulted in oil flowing unimpeded into the sea for a week before it was capped; estimates of the amount of oil released to the environment vary between 86,000 and 126,000 barrels (between 10,000 to 19,000 tonnes, depending on the density of the oil). Besides the Ekofisk oil field, the Statfjord oil field is also notable as it was the cause of the first pipeline to span the Norwegian trench. The largest natural gas field in the North Sea, Troll Field , lies in the Norwegian trench dropping over requiring the construction of the enormous Troll A platform to access it. The price of Brent Crude, one of the first types of oil extracted from the North Sea, is used today as a standard price for comparison for crude oil from the rest of the world. The North Sea contains western Europe's largest oil and natural gas reserves and is one of the world's key non-OPEC producing regions. Fishing The North Sea is Europe's main fishery accounting for over five percent of international commercial fish caught. Fishing in the North Sea is concentrated in the southern part of the coastal waters. The main method of fishing is trawling. A trawler in Nordstrand, Germany In 1995, the total volume of fish and shellfish caught in the North Sea was approximately 3.5 million tonnes. Besides fish, it is estimated that one million tonnes (907 thousand long tons or 1.15 million short tons) of unmarketable by-catch and Cetacean bycatch is caught and discarded each year, including 250,000 sea turtles and 7,000 harbour porpoises. In recent decades, overfishing has left many fisheries unproductive, disturbing marine food chain dynamics and costing jobs in the fishing industry. Herring, cod and plaice fisheries may soon face the same plight as mackerel fishing which ceased in the 1970s due to overfishing. The objective of the European Union Common Fisheries Policy is to minimize the environmental impact associated with resource use by reducing fish discards, increasing productivity of fisheries, stabilising markets of fisheries and fish processing, and supplying fish at reasonable prices for the consumer. Mineral resources In addition to oil, gas, and fish, the states along the North Sea also take millions of cubic metres per year of sand and gravel from the ocean floor. These are used for beach nourishment, land reclamation and construction. The largest extractor of sand and gravel in 2003 was the Netherlands (around 30 million cubic metres or 322 million cubic feet}) from the North Sea). Unpolished amber stones, in varying hues Rolled pieces of amber, usually small but occasionally of very large size, may be picked up on the east coast of England. Amber appears mainly along the northern seashores of Norfolk and Suffolk, and seaside resorts in Aldeburgh, Cromer, Felixstowe, Great Yarmouth, Lowestoft, and Southwold which specialize in amber products. Along the North Sea, amber is also found at various localities along the amber belt of the Danish, Swedish and Frisian Island shorelines. Amber districts of the Baltic and North Sea were known in prehistoric times, and led to early trade along the Amber Road. Renewable energy Horns Rev offshore wind farm. Due to the strong prevailing winds, countries on the North Sea, particularly Germany and Denmark, have used the areas near the coast for wind power since the 1990s. Other wind farms have been commissioned, including Windpark Egmond aan Zee (OWEZ) and Scroby Sands. However, the usage of offshore wind farms has met some resistance. Concerns include shipping collisions, reliability, environmental effects on ocean ecology and wildlife such as fish and migratory birds, and the rising costs of constructing wind farms. Nonetheless, development of North Sea wind power is continuing, with plans for additional wind farms off the coasts of Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK. There have also been proposals for a transnational power grid in the North Sea to connect new offshore wind farms. Energy production from tidal power is still in a pre-commercial stage. The European Marine Energy Centre has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney mainland and a tidal power testing station on the nearby island of Eday. Since 2003, a prototype Wave Dragon energy converter has been in operation at Nissum Bredning fjord of northern Denmark. Tourism The beaches and coastal waters of the North Sea are popular destinations for tourists. The Belgian , Dutch , German , and Danish coasts are especially developed for tourism. While many of the busiest British beach resorts are on the south coast, the British east coast also has important beach resorts. The North Sea Trail is a long-distance trail linking seven countries around the North Sea. Windsurfing and sailing are popular sports because of the strong winds. Mudflat hiking , recreational fishing and birdwatching are among other popular activities. The climatic conditions on the North Sea coast are often claimed to be especially healthful. As early as the 19th century, travellers used their stays on the North Sea coast as curative and restorative vacations. The sea air, temperature, wind, water, and sunshine are counted among the beneficial conditions that are said to activate the body's defences, improve circulation, strengthen the immune system, and have healing effects on the skin and the respiratory system. Marine traffic The North Sea is important for marine traffic and its shipping lanes are among the busiest in the world. Major ports are located along its coasts: Rotterdam, the third busiest port in the world, Antwerp and Hamburg, both in the top 25, Bremen/Bremerhaven and Felixstowe, both in the top 30 busiest container seaports, as well as the Port of Bruges-Zeebrugge, Europe's leading RoRo port. Rotterdam, Netherlands Traffic in the North Sea can be difficult in high density traffic zones so ports regulate traffic and monitor vessels in the North Sea lanes. Fishing boats, oil and gas platforms as well as merchant traffic from Baltic ports share routes on the North Sea. The Dover Strait sees more than 400 vessels a day . The North Sea coasts are home to numerous canals and canal systems to facilitate traffic between and among rivers, artificial harbours, and the sea. The Kiel Canal, connecting the North Sea with the Baltic Sea, is the most heavily used artificial seaway in the world. It saves an average of , instead of the voyage around the Jutland Peninsula. The North Sea Canal connects Amsterdam with the North Sea. See also Thames Barrier, London Doggerland List of languages of the North Sea North Sea Commission Principality of Sealand Geography Portal Nautical Portal Norway Portal References Citations Further reading External links The North Sea in brief See Interactive Map over Oil and Gas Resources in the North Sea Etymology and History of Names Old map : Manuscript chart of the North Sea, VOC, ca.1690 (high resolution zoomable scan) Atlas of Palaeogeography and Lithofacies - Hydrodynamic Environment page 150 Silver Pit chart OSPAR Commission Homepage an international commission designed to protect and conserve the North-East Atlantic and its resources The Physical Geography of Western Europe By Eduard A. 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7,050 | Giraffe | The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is an African even-toed ungulate mammal, the tallest of all land-living animal species, and the largest ruminant. It is covered in large, irregular patches of yellow to black fur separated by white, off-white, or dark yellowish brown background. The average mass for an adult male giraffe is while the average mass for an adult female is . It is approximately to tall, although the tallest male recorded stood almost . The giraffe is related to deer and cattle, but is placed in a separate family, the Giraffidae, consisting of only the giraffe and its closest relative, the okapi. Its range extends from Chad in Central Africa to South Africa. Giraffes usually inhabit savannas, grasslands, or open woodlands. However, when food is scarce they will venture into areas with denser vegetation. They prefer areas with plenty of acacia growth. They will drink large quantities of water when available which enables them to live for extended periods in dry, arid areas. Etymology The species name camelopardalis (camelopard) is derived from its early Roman name, where it was described as having characteristics of both a camel and a leopard. The English word camelopard first appeared in the 14th century and survived in common usage well into the 19th century. The Afrikaans language retained it. The Arabic word الزرافة ziraafa or zurapha, meaning "assemblage" (of animals), or just "tall", was used in English from the sixteenth century on, often in the Italianate form giraffa. Taxonomy and evolution The giraffe is one of only two living species of the family Giraffidae, along with the okapi. The family was once much more extensive, with numerous other species. The giraffids evolved from a tall antelope-like mammal that roamed Europe and Asia some 30-50 million years ago. The earliest known giraffid was Climacoceras, which still resembled deer, having large antler-like ossicones. It first appeared in the early Miocene epoch. Later examples include the genera Palaeotragus and Samotherium, which appeared in the early to mid-Miocene. They were both tall at the shoulder, and had developed the simple, unbranched ossicones of modern giraffids, but still had relatively short necks. Comparison of the African Miocene giraffids: Palaeotragus (two top) and Climacoceras (two bottom) From the late Pliocene onwards, the variety of giraffids drastically declined, until only the two surviving species remained. The modern genus Giraffa evolved during the Pliocene epoch, and included a number of other long-necked species, such as Giraffa jumae, that do not survive today. Alan Turner proposes, in the 2004 book Evolving Eden, that giraffe ancestors initially had a dark coat with pale spots, and that the spots gradually became star-shaped, before eventually forming the reticulated pattern found today. The modern species, Giraffa camelopardalis, appeared during the Pleistocene 1 million years ago. The evolution of the long necks of giraffes has been the subject of much debate. The standard story is that they were evolved to allow the giraffes to browse vegetation that was out of the reach of other herbivores in the vicinity, giving them a competitive advantage. However, an alternative theory proposes that the long necks evolved as a secondary sexual characteristic, giving males an advantage in "necking" contests (see below) to establish dominance and obtain access to sexually receptive females. This theory notes that giraffes frequently feed from relatively low-lying shrubs, and that the necks of males are significantly longer than those of females. However, this theory is not universally accepted, and some of the data supporting it has recently been challenged, lending support to the original proposal that neck length is related to browsing habits. Subspecies Different authorities recognize different numbers of subspecies, differentiated by colour and pattern variations and range. Some of these species may prove to in fact be separate species. The subspecies recognized by various authorities include: Reticulated or Somali Giraffe (G. c. reticulata) — large, polygonal liver-coloured spots outlined by a network of bright white lines. The blocks may sometimes appear deep red and may also cover the legs. Range: northeastern Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia. Angolan or Smoky Giraffe (G. c. angolensis) — large spots and some notches around the edges, extending down the entire lower leg. Range: Angola, Zambia. Kordofan Giraffe (G. c. antiquorum) — smaller, more irregular spots that cover the inner legs. Range: western and southwestern Sudan. Masai or Kilimanjaro Giraffe (G. c. tippelskirchi) — jagged-edged, vine-leaf shaped spots of dark chocolate on a yellowish background. Range: central and southern Kenya, Tanzania. Nubian Giraffe (G. c. camelopardalis) — large, four-sided spots of chestnut brown on an off-white background and no spots on inner sides of the legs or below the hocks. Range: eastern Sudan, northeast Congo. Rothschild Giraffe or Baringo Giraffe or Ugandan Giraffe (G. c. rothschildi) — deep brown, blotched or rectangular spots with poorly defined cream lines. Hocks may be spotted. Range: Uganda, north-central Kenya. South African Giraffe (G. c. giraffa) — rounded or blotched spots, some with star-like extensions on a light tan background, running down to the hooves. Range: South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique. Thornicroft or Rhodesian Giraffe (G. c. thornicrofti) — star-shaped or leafy spots extend to the lower leg. Range: eastern Zambia. West African or Nigerian Giraffe (G. c. peralta) — numerous pale, yellowish red spots. Range: Niger, Cameroon. Some scientists regard Kordofan and West African Giraffes as a single subspecies; similarly with Nubian and Rothschild's Giraffes, and with Angolan and South African Giraffes. Further, some scientists regard all populations except the Masai Giraffes as a single subspecies. By contrast, scientists have proposed four other subspecies — Cape Giraffe (G. c. capensis), Lado Giraffe (G. c. cottoni), Congo Giraffe (G. c. congoensis), and Transvaal Giraffe (G. c. wardi) — but none of these is widely accepted. Though giraffes of these populations interbreed freely under conditions of captivity, suggesting that they are subspecific populations, genetic testing published in 2007 has been interpreted to show that there may be at least six species of giraffe that are reproductively isolated and not interbreeding, even though no natural obstacles, like mountain ranges or impassable rivers block their mutual access. In fact, the study found that the two giraffe populations that live closest to each other— the reticulated giraffe (G. camelopardalis reticulata) of north Kenya, and the Masai giraffe (G. c. tippelskirchi) in south Kenya— separated genetically between 0.13 and 1.62 million years BP, judging from genetic drift in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. The implications for conservation of as many as eleven such cryptic species and sub-species were summarised by David Brown for BBC News: "Lumping all giraffes into one species obscures the reality that some kinds of giraffe are on the brink. Some of these populations number only a few hundred individuals and need immediate protection." Anatomy and morphology Giraffe skeleton from Royal Natural History by Richard Lydekker Male giraffes are up to tall at the horn tips, and weigh between . Females are between tall and weigh between . The coat is made up of brown blotches or patches separated by lighter hair. Each giraffe has a unique coat pattern. Horns Both sexes have horns, although the horns of a female are smaller. The prominent horns are formed from ossified cartilage, and are called ossicones. The appearance of horns is a reliable method of identifying the sex of giraffes, with the females displaying tufts of hair on the top of the horns, whereas males' horns tend to be bald on top — an effect of necking in combat. Males sometimes develop calcium deposits which form bumps on their skull as they age, which can give the appearance of up to three additional horns. Giraffe in captivity at the Melbourne Zoo Neck Giraffes have long necks which they use to browse tree leaves. They possess seven vertebrae (although disputed by some zoologists who claim that it has eight Solounias, N. (1999) The remarkable anatomy of the giraffe's neck. J. Zool., Lond. 247:257-268 PDF ) in the neck (the usual number for a mammal) that are elongated. The vertebrae are separated by highly flexible joints. The base of the neck has spines which project upward and form a hump over the shoulders. They have anchor muscles that hold the neck upright. Legs and pacing Giraffes also have slightly elongated forelegs, about 10% longer than their hind legs. The pace of the giraffe is an amble, though when pursued it can run extremely fast, up to 55 km/h. It cannot sustain a lengthy chase. Its leg length compels an unusual gait with the left legs moving together followed by right (similar to pacing) at low speed, and the back legs crossing outside the front at high speed. When hunting adult giraffes, lions try to knock the lanky animal off its feet and pull it down. Giraffes are difficult and dangerous prey. The giraffe defends itself with a powerful kick. A single well-placed kick from an adult giraffe can shatter a lion's skull or break its spine. Lions are the only predators which pose a serious threat to an adult giraffe. Circulatory system Giraffes bending down to drink Modifications to the giraffe's structure have evolved, particularly to the circulatory system. A giraffe's heart, which can weigh up to 10 kg (22 lb) and measure about 60 cm (2 ft) long, must generate approximately double the normal blood pressure for an average large mammal to maintain blood flow to the brain. In the upper neck, a complex pressure-regulation system called the rete mirabile prevents excess blood flow to the brain when the giraffe lowers its head to drink. Conversely, the blood vessels in the lower legs are under great pressure (because of the weight of fluid pressing down on them). In other animals such pressure would force the blood out through the capillary walls; giraffes, however, have a very tight sheath of thick skin over their lower limbs which maintains high extravascular pressure in the same way as a pilot's g-suit. Behaviour |A male (bull) with a baby (calf) giraffe at the San Francisco Zoo Social structure and breeding habits Female giraffes associate in groups of a dozen or so members, occasionally including a few younger males. Younger males tend to live in "bachelor" herds, with older males often leading solitary lives. Reproduction is polygamous, with a few older males impregnating all the fertile females in a herd. Male giraffes determine female fertility by tasting the female's urine in order to detect estrus, in a multi-step process known as the Flehmen response. Giraffes will mingle with the other herbivores in the African bush. Their company is beneficial, since they are tall enough to have a much wider scope of an area and will watch for predators. Mating Angolan Giraffes (G. c. angolensis) at Chudop waterhole, Etosha, Namibia Reproduction Giraffe gestation lasts between 400 and 460 days, after which a single calf is normally born, although twins occasionally occur. The mother gives birth standing up and the embryonic sack usually bursts when the baby falls to the ground. Newborn giraffes are about 1.8 m (6 ft) tall. Within a few hours of being born, calves can run around and are indistinguishable from a week-old calf; however, for the first two weeks, they spend most of their time lying down, guarded by the mother. The young can fall prey to lions, leopards, spotted hyenas, and wild dogs. It has been speculated that their characteristic spotted pattern provides a certain degree of camouflage. Only 25 to 50% of giraffe calves reach adulthood; the life expectancy is between 20 and 25 years in the wild and 28 years in captivity (Encyclopedia of Animals). Necking As noted above, males often engage in necking, which has been described as having various functions. One of these is combat. Battles can be fatal, but are more often less severe. The longer the neck, and the heavier the head at the end of the neck, the greater the force a giraffe is able to deliver in a blow. It has also been observed that males that are successful in necking have greater access to estrous females, so the length of the neck may be a product of sexual selection. Robert E. Simmons and Lue Scheepers: Winning by a neck: Sexual selection in the evolution of giraffe. The American Naturalist, 148 (1996): pp. 771-786. After a necking duel, a giraffe can land a powerful blow with his head — occasionally knocking a male opponent to the ground. These fights rarely last more than a few minutes or end in physical harm. Another function of necking is sexual, in which two males caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Such interactions between males are more frequent than heterosexual coupling. Coe, M.J. (1967). "Necking" behavior in the giraffe." Journal of Zoology, London 151: 313-321. In one study, up to 94% of observed mounting incidents took place between two males. The proportion of same sex activities varied between 30 and 75%, and at any given time one in twenty males were engaged in non-combative necking behaviour with another male. Only 1% of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females. Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, St. Martin's Press, 1999; pp.391-393. Giraffes use their long, prehensile tongues to extend their reach Diet The giraffe browses on the twigs of trees, preferring trees of the genera Acacia, Commiphora and Terminalia, and also eats grass and fruit. The tongue is tough due to the giraffe's diet, which can include tree thorns. In Southern Africa, giraffes feed on all acacias, especially Acacia erioloba, and possess a specially-adapted tongue and lips that are tough enough to withstand the vicious thorns of this plant. A giraffe can eat of leaves and twigs daily, but can survive on just . The giraffe requires less food than typical grazing animals because the foliage it eats has more concentrated nutrition and it has a more efficeint digestive system. During the wet season, food is abundant and giraffes disperse widely, but during the dry season they need to congragate around evergreen trees and bushes. As a ruminant, it first chews its food, then swallows for processing and then visibly regurgitates the semi-digested cud up their necks and back into the mouth, in order to chew again. This process is usually repeated several times for each mouthful. The giraffe can surivive without water for extended periods. A giraffe will clean off any bugs that appear on its face with its extremely long tongue (about ). Sleeping The giraffe has one of the shortest sleep requirements of any mammal, which is between ten minutes and two hours in a 24-hour period, averaging 1.9 hours per day. Male giraffe making a cough-like mating call at the Roger Williams Park Zoo, Providence, Rhode Island Communication Although generally quiet and not vocal, giraffes have been heard to make various sounds. Courting males will emit loud coughs. Females will call their young by whistling or bellowing. Calves will bleat, moo, or make mewing sounds. In addition, giraffes will grunt, snort, hiss, or make strange flute-like sounds. Recent research has shown evidence that the animal communicates at an infrasound level. Stereotypic behavior Many animals when kept in captivity, such as in zoos, display abnormal behaviours. Such unnatural behaviours are known as stereotypic behaviours. Jentz, D.C. & A.B. Gull 1978. Towards a definition of abnormal activity: stereotypic behaviours in captive primates. Mamm. Ecol. 12: 145–154. In particular, giraffes show distinct patterns of stereotypic behaviours when removed from their natural environment. Due to a subconscious response to suckle milk from their mother, something which many human-reared giraffes and other captive animals do not experience, giraffes resort instead to excessive tongue use on inanimate objects. Harrison, J.C, Q.F. George & C.C. Cronk 2001. Stereotypic behaviour in zoo animals. J. Zoo Sc. 23: 71–86. Due to the obvious social and cultural discomfort associated with the addition of milk delivery devices, animal enclosures are often enriched with other stimuli, such as food and mental distractions (toys, scent markings etc.). This operates as a distraction, removing the giraffe’s focus from its instinctual tendencies towards suckling, resulting in tongue lolling and licking of objects in close proximity. Human interactions Conservation Lone giraffe at Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya. Overall, the giraffe is regarded as "Least Concern" from a conservation perspective by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). However, at least one subspecies, the West African or Nigerian Giraffe (G. c. peralta), has been classified as endangered. Giraffes are hunted for their tails, hides and meat. The tails are used as good luck charms, thread and flyswatters. In addition, habitat destruction also hurts the giraffe. In the Sahel trees are cut down for firewood and to make way for livestock. Normally, giraffes are able to cope with livestock since they feed in the trees above their heads. The giraffe population is shrinking in West Africa. However, the populations in eastern and southern Africa are stable and, due to the popularity of privately-owned game ranches and sanctuaries (i.e. Bour-Algi Giraffe Sanctuary), are expanding. The giraffe is a protected species in most of its range. The total African giraffe population has been estimated to range from 110,000 to 150,000. Kenya (45,000), Tanzania (30,000), and Botswana (12,000), have the largest national populations. East, R. 1998, in: African Antelope Database 1998. IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group Report. Scientific inspiration Giraffes have been used as examples for introducing ideas in evolution, especially to illustrate the ideas of Lamarck. Lamarck believed that the giraffe's long neck developed as a result of ancestral giraffe's reaching to browse on the leaves of tall trees. The coat patterns of several species of giraffe have been modelled using reaction-diffusion mechanisms. Walter, Marcelo; Fournier,, Alain and Menevaux, Daniel (2001) Integrating shape and pattern in mammalian models in SIGGRAPH '01: Proceedings of the 28th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques. pp. 317-326 In art and culture Painting of a giraffe taken to China from Africa during the Ming Dynasty Giraffes can be seen in paintings, including the famous painting of a giraffe which was taken from Africa to China in 1414. The giraffe was placed in a Ming Dynasty zoo. The Medici giraffe was a giraffe presented to Lorenzo de' Medici in 1486. It caused a great stir on its arrival in Florence, being reputedly the first living giraffe to be seen in Italy since the days of Ancient Rome. Another famous giraffe, called Zarafa, was brought from Africa to Paris in the early 1800s and kept in a menagerie for 18 years. Giraffe is a novel by the author J. M. Ledgard. The work concerns a true incident in which 49 giraffes were slaughtered in the Czech Republic (then Czechoslovakia) in 1975 following the suspected outbreak of disease amongst the group. The novel contains extensive information about the species, including the long history of European fascination with the beast and its captivity in zoos. Notable fictional giraffes include: Toys "R" Us mascot Geoffrey the Giraffe. He was originally portrayed as a cartoon giraffe but in the 2001 commercials he was portrayed as a real-life giraffe who talks; an animatronic version of Geoffrey the Giraffe (created by Stan Winston Studios), was voiced by Jim Hanks in commercials for radio and television. Longrack of the Transformers universe Girafarig from the Pokémon franchise Melman from ''Madagascar References External links Video - Giraffe birth at the San Francisco Zoo Skull of a giraffe Giraffes: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation ARKive - images and movies of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis). Animal Diversity Web - Giraffa camelopardalis Giraffe Central web directory PBS Nature: Tall Blondes (Giraffes) Matt's World of Wicked Giraffes Giraffe Info Sheet be-x-old:Жырафа | Giraffe |@lemmatized giraffe:115 giraffa:8 camelopardalis:7 african:11 even:2 toed:1 ungulate:1 mammal:5 tall:12 land:2 living:2 animal:13 specie:16 large:9 ruminant:2 cover:3 irregular:2 patch:2 yellow:1 black:1 fur:1 separate:6 white:4 dark:3 yellowish:3 brown:5 background:4 average:4 mass:2 adult:5 male:23 female:13 approximately:2 although:5 record:1 stand:2 almost:1 relate:2 deer:2 cattle:1 place:4 family:3 giraffidae:2 consist:1 closest:1 relative:1 okapi:2 range:14 extends:1 chad:1 central:4 africa:9 south:5 usually:3 inhabit:1 savanna:1 grassland:1 open:1 woodland:1 however:7 food:5 scarce:1 venture:1 area:4 denser:1 vegetation:2 prefer:2 plenty:1 acacia:4 growth:1 drink:3 quantity:1 water:2 available:1 enable:1 live:4 extended:1 period:3 dry:2 arid:1 etymology:1 name:2 camelopard:2 derive:1 early:5 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7,051 | Frederik_Pohl | Frederik George Pohl, Jr. (born November 26, 1919) is an American science fiction writer, editor and fan, with a career spanning over seventy years. From about 1959 until 1969, Pohl edited Galaxy magazine and its sister magazine if, winning the Hugo for if three years in a row. His writing also won him three Hugos and multiple Nebula Awards. He became a Nebula Grand Master in 1993. Early life and family Pohl is the son of Frederik George Pohl (a salesman) and Anna Jane Pohl. Pohl Sr. held a number of jobs, and the Pohls lived in such wide-flung locations as Texas, California, New Mexico and the Panama Canal Zone. The family settled in Brooklyn when Pohl was around seven. He attended the prestigious Brooklyn Tech high school, but due to the Great Depression, Pohl dropped out of school at the age of 14 to work. While still a teenager, he co-founded the New York-based Futurians fan group, and began lifelong friendships with Donald Wollheim, Isaac Asimov, and others who would go on to become important writers and editors. In 1936, Pohl joined the Young Communist League, an organization in favor of trade unions and against racial prejudice and Hitler and Mussolini. He became president of the local Flatbush III Branch of the YCL in Brooklyn. Pohl has said that after the Stalin-Hitler pact in 1939, the party line changed and he could no longer support it, at which point he left. Pohl has been married five times. His first wife, Leslie Perri, was another Futurian; they were married in August 1940 but divorced in 1944. He then married Dorothy LesTina in Paris in August 1945 while both were serving in Europe; the marriage ended in 1947. In 1948, he married Judith Merril; they divorced in 1952. From 1953–1983 he was married to Carol M. Ulf Stanton, with whom he collaborated on several books. Since 1984, he has been married to science fiction expert and academic Elizabeth Anne Hull, PhD. He fathered five children: Ann (m. Walter Weary), Karen (m. Robert Dixon), Frederik III (deceased), Frederik IV and Kathy. Contemporary Authors Online, Gale, 2009. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Gale, 2009. Document Number: H1000078817 Grandchildren include writer Emily Pohl-Weary. Since 1984, he has lived in Palatine, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. He was previously a resident of Red Bank, New Jersey. Career Pohl's writing career began in the late 1930s. For the first fifteen years of his writing career, he used pseudonyms: Pohl's first published piece was a poem in the October, 1937 issue of Amazing Stories credited to "Elton Andrews." From 1939 to 1943, Pohl was the editor of two pulp magazines - Astonishing Stories and Super Science Stories. Stories by Pohl often appeared in these magazines, but never under his own name. Work written in collaboration with Cyril M. Kornbluth was credited to S.D. Gottesman or Scott Mariner; other collaborative work (with any combination of Kornbluth, Dirk Wylie or Robert A.W. Lownes) was credited to Paul Dennis Lavond. For Pohl's solo work, stories were credited to James MacCreigh (or, for one story only, Warren F. Howard.) In his own autobiography, Pohl says that he stopped editing the two magazines at roughly the time of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. Regardless, works by "Gottesman", "Lavond" and "MacCreigh" continued to appear in various SF pulp magazines throughout the 1940s. During World War II, Pohl served in the U.S. Army from April 1943 until November 1945, rising to sergeant as an air corps weatherman. After training in Illinois, Oklahoma, and Colorado, he primarily was stationed in Italy. Pohl started his career as a literary agent in 1937, but it was a sideline for him until after WWII, when he began doing it full time. He ended up "representing more than half the successful writers in science fiction"--for a short time, he was the only agent Isaac Asimov ever had--though, in the end it was a failure for him as his agenting business went bankrupt in the early 1950s. Pohl began publishing material under his own name in the early 1950s. He collaborated with friend and fellow Futurian Cyril M. Kornbluth, co-authoring a number of short stories and several novels, including a dystopian satire of a world ruled by the advertising agencies, The Space Merchants (a belated sequel, The Merchants' War [1984] was written by Pohl alone, after Kornbluth's death). This should not to be confused with Pohl's The Merchants of Venus, an unconnected 1972 novella which includes biting satire on runaway free market capitalism and first introduced the Heechee. Though the pen-names of "Gottesman", "Lavond" and "MacCreigh" were retired by the early 1950s, Pohl still occasionally used pseudonyms even after he began to publish work under his real name. These occasional pseudonyms, all of which date from the early 1950s to the early 1960s, included Charles Satterfield, Paul Flehr, Ernst Mason, Jordan Park (two collaborative novels with Kornbluth) and Edson McCann (one collaborative novel with Lester del Rey). From the late 1950s until 1969, Pohl served as editor of Galaxy and if magazines, taking over at some point from the ailing H. L. Gold. Under his leadership, if won the Hugo Award for Best Professional Magazine for 1966, 1967 and 1968. Judy-Lynn del Rey was his assistant editor at Galaxy and if. In the mid-1970s, Pohl acquired and edited novels for Bantam Books, published as "Frederik Pohl Selections"; the most notable were Samuel R. Delany's Dhalgren and Joanna Russ's The Female Man. Also in the 1970s, Pohl reemerged as a novel writer in his own right, with books such as Man Plus and the Heechee series. He won back-to-back Nebula awards with Man Plus in 1976 and Gateway, the first Heechee novel, in 1977. Gateway also won the 1978 Hugo Award for Best Novel. Two of his stories have also earned him Hugo awards: "The Meeting" (with Kornbluth) tied in 1973 and "Fermi and Frost" won in 1986. Another notable late novel is Jem (1980), winner of the National Book Award. Pohl continues to write and had a new story, "Generations", published in September 2005. A novel begun by Arthur C. Clarke called "The Last Theorem" was finished by Pohl and published on August 5, 2008. His works include not only science fiction but also articles for Playboy and Family Circle. For a time, he was the official authority for the Encyclopædia Britannica on the subject of Emperor Tiberius. (He wrote a book on the subject of Tiberius, as "Ernst Mason".) A number of his short stories were notable for a satirical look at consumerism and advertising in the 1950s and 1960s: "The Wizard of Pung's Corners", where flashy, over-complex military hardware proved useless against farmers with shotguns, and "The Tunnel Under the World", where an entire community is held captive by advertising researchers. He was a frequent guest on Long John Nebel's radio show, from the 1950s to the early 1970s. He was the eighth President of Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, taking office in 1974. He is a member of the all-male literary banqueting club the Trap Door Spiders, which served as the basis of Isaac Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers the Black Widowers. Pohl has been announced as the recipient of the second Eaton Lifetime Achievement Award, presented by the University of California, Riverside. The 2009 Eaton Science Fiction Conference Press Release, University of California, Riverside, September, 19, 2008. Works Series Undersea Trilogy (with Jack Williamson) Undersea Quest (1954) Undersea Fleet (1956) Undersea City (1958) Heechee The Merchants of Venus (1972) (novella in The Gold at the Starbow's End) Gateway (1977) (winner of the Hugo Award and Nebula Award) Beyond the Blue Event Horizon (1980) Heechee Rendezvous (1984) Annals of the Heechee (1987) The Gateway Trip (1990) The Boy Who Would Live Forever: A Novel of Gateway (2004) Eschaton trilogy The Other End of Time (1996) The Siege of Eternity (1997) The Far Shore of Time (1999) Mars Man Plus (1975) (Winner of Nebula Award) Mars Plus (1994) (with Thomas T. Thomas) Saga of Cuckoo (with Jack Williamson) Farthest Star (1975) Wall Around A Star (1983) Starchild Trilogy (with Jack Williamson) The Reefs of Space (1964) Starchild (1965) Rogue Star (1969) Space Merchants The Space Merchants (1953) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth) The Merchants' War (1984) (published together with The Space Merchants under the title VENUS, INC.) Other novels (not part of a series) Search the Sky (1954) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth) Gladiator-At-Law (1955) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth) Preferred Risk (1955) (with Lester Del Rey) Slave Ship (1956) Wolfbane (1957) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth) Presidential Year (1958) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth) Drunkard's Walk (1960) A Plague of Pythons (1964) (also called Demon in the Skull) The Age of the Pussyfoot (1965) Critical Mass (1977) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth) Jem (1980) The Cool War (1981) Syzygy (1981) Starburst (1982) The Years of the City (1984) Black Star Rising (1985) The Coming of the Quantum Cats (1986) Terror (1986) Chernobyl (1987) Land's End (1988) (with Jack Williamson) The Day The Martians Came (1988) Narabedla Ltd. (1988) Homegoing (1989) The World at the End of Time (1990) Outnumbering the Dead (1990) Stopping at Slowyear (1991) The Singers of Time (1991) (with Jack Wiliamson) Mining the Oort (1992) The Voices of Heaven (1994) O Pioneer! (1998) The Last Theorem (2008) (with Arthur C. Clarke) Collections Alternating Currents (1956) The Case Against Tomorrow (1957) Tomorrow Times Seven (1959) The Man Who Ate the World (1960) Turn Left At Thursday (1961) The Wonder Effect (1962) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth) The Abominable Earthman (1963) Digits and Dastards (1966) The Frederik Pohl Omnibus (1966) Day Million (1970) The Gold at the Starbow's End (1972) 'The Gold at the Starbow's End', 1972 'Sad Solarian Screenwriter Sam', 1972 'Call Me Million', 1970 'Shaffery among the Immortals', 1972 'The Merchants of Venus', 1972 The Best of Frederik Pohl (1975) In The Problem Pit (1976) The Early Pohl (1976): 'Elegy for a Dead Planet: Luna,' 1937, (writing as Elton Andrews) [a poem, his first published piece] 'The Dweller in the Ice,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh) 'The King's Eye,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh) 'It's a Young World,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh) 'Daughters of Eternity,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh) 'Earth, Farewell!,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh) 'Conspiracy on Callisto,' 1943, (writing as James MacCreigh) 'Highwayman of the Void,' 1943, (writing under Dirk Wylie's name) 'Double-Cross,' 1943, (writing as James MacCreigh) Survival Kit (1979) This Is My Best (1981) Planets Three, 1982 (a collection of 3 novellas written as James MacCreigh): 'Figurehead' 'Red Moon of Danger' 'Donovan Had a Dream' Midas World (1983) Pohlstars (1984) 'The Sweet, Sad Queen of the Grazing Isles' 'The High Test', 1983 'Spending a Day at the Lottery Fair', 1983 'Second Coming', 1983 'Enjoy, Enjoy', 1974 'Growing Up in Edge City', 1975 'We Purchased People', 1974 'Rem the Rememberer', 1974 'The Mother Trip', 1975 'A Day in the Life of Able Charlie', 1976 'The Way It Was', 1977 'The Wizard-Masters of Peng-Shi Angle (né The Wizards of Pung's Corners)', original story 1958, retranslation 1984. BiPohl (1987) Our Best: The Best of Frederik Pohl and C.M. Kornbluth (1987) (with C.M. Kornbluth) Platinum Pohl (2005) Autobiography The Way the Future Was (1978) Non-fiction Tiberius (1960) (writing as Ernst Mason) Practical Politics 1972 (1971) Science Fiction Studies in Film (1981) (with Frederik Pohl IV) Our Angry Earth (1991) (with Isaac Asimov) Chasing Science: Science as Spectator Sport'' (2000) References External links Frederik Pohl Home Page The Way the Future Blogs, Pohl's blog Frederik Pohl entry at IMDB.Com Frederik Pohl entry at NNDB Frederik Pohl Bibliography an Interview with Pohl, ca. 2005 Locus Interview with Pohl, 2000 Interview with Pohl, May 2006 Interview with Pohl, 2006 Library of Congress Webcast of Pohl Speaking,October 2004 Frederik Pohl Manuscripts Collection, The Department of Special Collections, The University of South Florida Tampa Library | Frederik_Pohl |@lemmatized frederik:14 george:2 pohl:48 jr:1 born:1 november:2 american:1 science:10 fiction:8 writer:6 editor:5 fan:2 career:5 spanning:1 seventy:1 year:5 edit:3 galaxy:3 magazine:8 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7,052 | Cantor_Fitzgerald | Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. is a global financial services firm specializing in bond trading, as well as investment banking, asset management, market data and brokerage services. It was founded in 1945 by Bernard Gerald Cantor and John Fitzgerald as a limited partnership and remains so today. Cantor Fitzgerald is one of seventeen primary dealers who trade U.S. government securities directly with the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. "Primary Dealers List", Federal Reserve Bank of New York Subsidiaries, departments, and services BGC Partners On October 1, 2004, it spun off its inter-dealer voice brokerage business into a separate partnership, BGC Partners (named after Bernard Gerald Cantor), in order to refocus their business on institutional sales and trading. BGC filed for an IPO on February 8, 2007. BGC no longer plans on listing as a separate stock as it merged with eSpeed. eSpeed The firm created its subsidiary eSpeed, an electronic trading network, and brought it public in 1999. eSpeed is a marketplace technology provider for the financial capital markets of the world, and has offices in North America, Europe, and Asia. Thousands of traders at hundreds of global financial institutions conduct transactions worth over $45 trillion annually in eSpeed's multiple buyer/multiple seller markets. eSpeed is listed on the Nasdaq under the ticker symbol "BGCP." http://finance.yahoo.com/q?d=t&s=espd CantorCO2e Environmental Brokerage CantorCO2e a subsidiary of Cantor, is the world's longest standing environmental brokerage created to serve companies in a carbon constrained economy. CantorCO2e are brokers of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions allowances and reduction credits under the Kyoto Protocol and EU Emission Trading Scheme legislation. CantorCO2e is also active domestically in the US in markets concerned with NOx, SOx, VOC, PM10, CO, and Global warming issues and brokerage services related to greenhouse gases, renewable energy, and emissions offsets, and other environmental products. http://www.cantorco2e.com/ Cantor Entertainment Business Group On June 11, 2007 Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P. announced the creation of Cantor Entertainment and the appointment of Andrew L. Wing as its President and Chief Executive Officer. Mr. Wing, who is based in the firm’s Los Angeles office, will drive Cantor’s growth and expansion in developing information, marketing, advisory and financial services for the entertainment industry. Currently, Cantor’s core business in the sector is the Hollywood Stock Exchange (“HSX”), the leading virtual market and predictive service for the entertainment industry. Cantor.com - Cantor Fitzgerald Establishes Entertainment Business Group - Cantor Fitzgerald Cantor Fitzgerald Telecom Services, LLC Cantor Fitzgerald Telecom Services, LLC is a limited liability company that provides secure telecommunications services (both wireline and wireless) for financial and entertainment marketplaces that supports the global trading infrastructure for Cantor Fitzgerald and its subsidiaries and clients. Cantor Market Data Cantor Market Data provides real-time, end-of-day, and historical fixed income and derivative pricing data. Cantor first pioneered live pricing data for fixed income markets 30 years ago, and now provides data priced from over $265 billion in daily fixed income transactions. Cantor Equity Research Cantor U.S. Equity Research provides institutional equity research across a number of sectors. The research product is fundamental, bottom up analysis that focuses on small and mid-cap companies. Cantor Fitzgerald Spectrum & Tower Exchange & Marketplace Cantor Fitzgerald Spectrum & Tower Exchange & Marketplace is a Web-based service that deals with offering, finding, pricing and executing transfer of wireless spectrum rights, tower assets, and tower/rooftop space. Cantor Gaming Cantor Gaming deals with mobile gaming and was instrumental in lobbying the Nevada state government for the passage of mobile gaming legislation. The firm and several of its executives were granted the first-ever license to manufacturer, distribute, and operate mobile gaming systems by the Nevada Gaming Commission. Cantor Index Ltd Cantor Index Ltd provides financial spread betting services. September 11, 2001 attacks Cantor Fitzgerald's New York City office, on the 101st-105th floors of One World Trade Center (2-6 floors above the impact zone of a hijacked airliner), was destroyed during the September 11, 2001 attacks. Cantor Fitzgerald lost 658 employees (all of the employees in the office that day), or about two-thirds of its workforce, considerably more than any other of the World Trade Center tenants or the New York City Police Department and New York City Fire Department. The company was able to bring its trading markets back online within a week, and CEO and chairman Howard Lutnick, whose brother was among those killed, vowed to keep the company alive. On September 19, Cantor Fitzgerald made a pledge to distribute 25 percent of the firm's profits for the next five years, and committed to paying for ten years of health care, for the benefit of the families of its 658 former Cantor Fitzgerald, eSpeed, and TradeSpark employees (profits which would otherwise have been distributed to the Cantor Fitzgerald partners). In 2006 the company completed its promise, having paid a total of $180 million (and an additional $17 million from a relief fund run by Lutnick's sister, Edie). Before the attacks, Cantor handled about one-quarter of the daily transactions in the multi-trillion dollar treasury security market. Cantor has since rebuilt its infrastructure and now has its headquarters in midtown Manhattan. The company's effort to regain its footing is the subject of Tom Barbash's 2003 book On Top of the World: Cantor Fitzgerald, Howard Lutnick, and 9/11: A Story of Loss and Renewal. On September 2, 2004, Cantor filed a civil lawsuit against the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, one of a number of organizations to do so. WTC agency sues Saudis over 9/11, BBC News Online, 11th September 2004 It was later joined in the suit by the Port Authority of New York. Port Authority to Join Suit Against Saudi Arabia Over 9/11 Attack, Associated Press, 13th September 2004 References External links Official Cantor Fitzgerald web site Official BGC Partners web site Official eSpeed web site Official Cantor Market Data web site Ellen Comes Out on Television; It'd Be a Tougher Trick on Wall Street TheStreet.com, April 30, 1997, By Cory Johnson Cantor Families Memorial Cantor Relief Fund Memorial wiki tribute to Cantor Fitzgerald On Top of the World: Cantor Fitzgerald, Howard Lutnick, and 9/11: A Story of Loss and Renewal Worst-Hit Firm Faults Fairness of Sept. 11 Aid, The New York Times, September 17, 2002 | Cantor_Fitzgerald |@lemmatized cantor:42 fitzgerald:20 l:3 p:2 global:4 financial:6 service:11 firm:6 specialize:1 bond:1 trading:6 well:1 investment:1 banking:1 asset:2 management:1 market:11 data:7 brokerage:5 found:1 bernard:2 gerald:2 john:1 limited:2 partnership:2 remain:1 today:1 one:4 seventeen:1 primary:2 dealer:3 trade:3 u:3 government:2 security:2 directly:1 federal:2 reserve:2 bank:2 new:7 york:7 list:2 subsidiary:4 department:3 bgc:5 partner:4 october:1 spin:1 inter:1 voice:1 business:5 separate:2 name:1 order:1 refocus:1 institutional:2 sale:1 file:2 ipo:1 february:1 longer:1 plan:1 listing:1 stock:2 merge:1 espeed:8 create:2 electronic:1 network:1 bring:2 public:1 marketplace:4 technology:1 provider:1 capital:1 world:6 office:4 north:1 america:1 europe:1 asia:1 thousand:1 trader:1 hundred:1 institution:1 conduct:1 transaction:3 worth:1 trillion:2 annually:1 multiple:2 buyer:1 seller:1 nasdaq:1 ticker:1 symbol:1 bgcp:1 http:2 finance:1 yahoo:1 com:4 q:1 espd:1 environmental:3 long:1 stand:1 serve:1 company:7 carbon:2 constrain:1 economy:1 broker:1 dioxide:1 emission:3 allowance:1 reduction:1 credit:1 kyoto:1 protocol:1 eu:1 scheme:1 legislation:2 also:1 active:1 domestically:1 concern:1 nox:1 sox:1 voc:1 co:1 warming:1 issue:1 relate:1 greenhouse:1 gas:1 renewable:1 energy:1 offset:1 product:2 www:1 entertainment:6 group:2 june:1 announce:1 creation:1 appointment:1 andrew:1 wing:2 president:1 chief:1 executive:2 officer:1 mr:1 base:2 los:1 angeles:1 drive:1 growth:1 expansion:1 develop:1 information:1 marketing:1 advisory:1 industry:2 currently:1 core:1 sector:2 hollywood:1 exchange:3 hsx:1 lead:1 virtual:1 predictive:1 establish:1 telecom:2 llc:2 liability:1 provide:5 secure:1 telecommunication:1 wireline:1 wireless:2 support:1 infrastructure:2 client:1 real:1 time:2 end:1 day:2 historical:1 fixed:3 income:3 derivative:1 pricing:3 first:2 pioneer:1 live:1 year:3 ago:1 price:1 billion:1 daily:2 equity:3 research:4 across:1 number:2 fundamental:1 bottom:1 analysis:1 focus:1 small:1 mid:1 cap:1 spectrum:3 tower:4 web:5 deal:2 offering:1 find:1 execute:1 transfer:1 right:1 rooftop:1 space:1 game:5 mobile:3 gaming:1 instrumental:1 lobby:1 nevada:2 state:1 passage:1 several:1 grant:1 ever:1 license:1 manufacturer:1 distribute:3 operate:1 system:1 commission:1 index:2 ltd:2 spread:1 betting:1 september:7 attack:4 city:3 floor:2 center:2 impact:1 zone:1 hijacked:1 airliner:1 destroy:1 lost:1 employee:3 two:1 third:1 workforce:1 considerably:1 tenant:1 police:1 fire:1 able:1 back:1 online:2 within:1 week:1 ceo:1 chairman:1 howard:3 lutnick:4 whose:1 brother:1 among:1 kill:1 vow:1 keep:1 alive:1 make:1 pledge:1 percent:1 profit:2 next:1 five:1 commit:1 pay:2 ten:1 health:1 care:1 benefit:1 family:2 former:1 tradespark:1 would:1 otherwise:1 complete:1 promise:1 total:1 million:2 additional:1 relief:2 fund:2 run:1 sister:1 edie:1 handle:1 quarter:1 multi:1 dollar:1 treasury:1 since:1 rebuild:1 headquarters:1 midtown:1 manhattan:1 effort:1 regain:1 footing:1 subject:1 tom:1 barbash:1 book:1 top:2 story:2 loss:2 renewal:2 civil:1 lawsuit:1 kingdom:1 saudi:2 arabia:2 organization:1 wtc:1 agency:1 sue:1 saudis:1 bbc:1 news:1 later:1 join:2 suit:2 port:2 authority:2 associated:1 press:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:4 site:4 ellen:1 come:1 television:1 tough:1 trick:1 wall:1 street:1 thestreet:1 april:1 cory:1 johnson:1 memorial:2 wiki:1 tribute:1 worst:1 hit:1 fault:1 fairness:1 sept:1 aid:1 |@bigram cantor_fitzgerald:19 ticker_symbol:1 carbon_dioxide:1 dioxide_emission:1 kyoto_protocol:1 global_warming:1 greenhouse_gas:1 renewable_energy:1 http_www:1 los_angeles:1 stock_exchange:1 limited_liability:1 health_care:1 midtown_manhattan:1 saudi_arabia:2 bbc_news:1 external_link:1 |
7,053 | Alexander_II_of_Epirus | Alexander II was a king of Epirus, and the son of Pyrrhus and Lanassa, the daughter of the Sicilian tyrant Agathocles. Reign Illustration of silver coin of Alexander. He succeeded his father as king in 272 BC, and continued the war which his father had begun with Antigonus II Gonatas, whom he succeeded in driving from the kingdom of Macedon. He was, however, dispossessed of both Macedon and Epirus by Demetrius II of Macedon, the son of Antigonus; upon which he took refuge amongst the Acarnanians. By their assistance and that of his own subjects, who entertained a great attachment for him, he recovered Epirus. It appears that he was in alliance with the Aetolians. He married his sister Olympias, by whom he had two sons, Pyrrhus and Ptolemaeus, and a daughter, Phthia. On the death of Alexander, around 242 BC, Olympias assumed the regency on behalf of her sons, and married Phthia to Demetrius. Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of Biography and Mythology, by Joseph Thomas - 1908 - page 90 There are extant silver and copper coins of this king. The former bear a youthful head covered with the skin of an elephant's head. The reverse represents Pallas holding a spear in one hand and a shield in the other, and before her stands an eagle on a thunderbolt. Justin, xvii. 1, xxvi. 2, 3, xxviii. 1 Polybius, ii. 45, ix. 34 Plutarch, Pyrrhus 9 Relations with India Alexander is apparently mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka, as one of the recipients of the Indian Emperor Ashoka's Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remains. "The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika). References Sources Connop Thirlwall, History of Greece, vol. viii Johann Gustav Droysen, Hellenismus Benediktus Niese, Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten Karl Julius Beloch, Griechische Geschichte vol. iii. | Alexander_II_of_Epirus |@lemmatized alexander:5 ii:4 king:5 epirus:3 son:4 pyrrhus:3 lanassa:1 daughter:2 sicilian:1 tyrant:1 agathocles:1 reign:1 illustration:1 silver:2 coin:2 succeed:2 father:2 bc:2 continue:1 war:1 begin:1 antigonus:2 gonatas:1 drive:1 kingdom:1 macedon:3 however:1 dispossess:1 demetrius:2 upon:1 take:1 refuge:1 amongst:1 acarnanians:1 assistance:1 subject:1 entertain:1 great:1 attachment:1 recover:1 appear:1 alliance:1 aetolians:1 marry:2 sister:1 olympia:2 two:1 ptolemaeus:1 phthia:2 death:1 around:1 assume:1 regency:1 behalf:1 universal:1 pronounce:1 dictionary:1 biography:1 mythology:1 joseph:1 thomas:1 page:1 extant:1 copper:1 former:1 bear:1 youthful:1 head:2 cover:1 skin:1 elephant:1 reverse:1 represent:1 pallas:1 hold:1 spear:1 one:2 hand:1 shield:1 stand:1 eagle:1 thunderbolt:1 justin:1 xvii:1 xxvi:1 xxviii:1 polybius:1 ix:1 plutarch:1 relation:1 india:1 apparently:1 mention:1 edict:3 ashoka:3 recipient:1 indian:1 emperor:1 buddhist:1 proselytism:1 although:1 western:1 historical:1 record:1 event:1 remain:1 conquest:1 dharma:1 win:1 border:1 even:1 six:1 hundred:1 yojanas:1 km:1 away:1 greek:1 antiochos:1 rule:2 beyond:1 four:1 name:1 ptolemy:1 antigonos:1 magas:1 likewise:1 south:1 among:1 cholas:1 pandyas:1 far:1 tamraparni:1 sri:1 lanka:1 rock:1 dhammika:1 reference:1 source:1 connop:1 thirlwall:1 history:1 greece:1 vol:2 viii:1 johann:1 gustav:1 droysen:1 hellenismus:1 benediktus:1 niese:1 geschichte:2 der:1 griechischen:1 und:1 makedonischen:1 staaten:1 karl:1 julius:1 beloch:1 griechische:1 iii:1 |@bigram edict_ashoka:2 sri_lanka:1 geschichte_der:1 der_griechischen:1 |
7,054 | Garrison_Keillor | Gary Edward "Garrison" Keillor (born August 7, 1942) is an American author, storyteller, humorist, columnist, musician, satirist, and radio personality. He is known as host of the Minnesota Public Radio show A Prairie Home Companion (also known as Garrison Keillor's Radio Show on United Kingdom's BBC 7, as well as on Australia's ABC and in Ireland). Biography and personal life Keillor was born in Anoka, Minnesota, the son of Grace Ruth (née Denham) and John Philip Keillor, who was a carpenter and postal worker. Where all the rooms are above average / Garrison Keillor's home not a little house on the prairie Lands' End He was raised in a family belonging to the Plymouth Brethren, a fundamentalist Christian denomination he has since left. He is six feet, three inches (1.9 m) tall Salon Books | Hot sex with the ex and has Scottish ancestry. Keillor is a member of the Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party. He is currently an Episcopalian, prairiehome.publicradio.org but has been a Lutheran. christianitytoday.com His religious roots are frequently worked into his material: he often remarks that most Minnesotans, being of Scandinavian descent, are Lutherans. He graduated from the University of Minnesota with a bachelor's degree in English in 1966. While there, he began his broadcasting career on the student-operated radio station known today as Radio K. Keillor has been married three times: To Mary Guntzel, from 1965 to 1976. The couple has one son, Jason, born in 1969. To Ulla Skaerved (a former exchange student from Denmark at Keillor's high school whom he famously reencountered at a class reunion), from 1985 to 1990. To violinist Jenny Lind Nilsson (b. 1958), who is from his hometown of Anoka, since 1995. They have one daughter, Maia, born in December 1997. Between his first two marriages he was also romantically involved with Margaret Moos, who worked as a producer of A Prairie Home Companion. Garrison Keillor The Keillors maintain homes on the Upper West Side of New York City and in Saint Paul, Minnesota. One of his brothers, the historian Steven Keillor, is also an author. On February 3, 2008, Keillor endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 Democratic Primary. In a letter to the Obama campaign, Keillor stated "I'm happy to support your candidacy, which is so full of promise for our country." Ancestors Keillor has many noteworthy ancestors, including Joseph Crandall, who made progress in the studies of Native American languages and was also an associate of Roger Williams (who founded the first American Baptist church as well as Rhode Island) and Prudence Crandall (who founded the first African-American women's school in America). Career Radio Garrison Keillor started his radio career in November 1969 with Minnesota Educational Radio (MER), now Minnesota Public Radio (MPR), and distributing programs under the American Public Media (APM) brand. He hosted The Morning Program in the weekday drive time-slot of eclectic music (a major divergence from the station's classical music format), 6 am to 9 am, on KSJR 90.1 FM at St. John's University in Collegeville, which the station called "A Prairie Home Entertainment." During this time he also began submitting fiction to The New Yorker, where his first story, "Local Family Keeps Son Happy," appeared September 19, 1970. Lee, J. Y. Garrison Keillor: A Voice of America, pages 29-30. University Press of Mississippi, 1991. Keillor resigned from The Morning Program in February 1971 to protest what he considered an attempt to interfere with his musical programming. The show became A Prairie Home Companion when he returned in October. Garrison Keillor, page 30. University Press of Mississippi, 1991. Keillor has attributed the idea for the live Saturday night radio program to his 1973 assignment to write about the Grand Ole Opry for The New Yorker, but he had already begun showcasing local musicians on the morning show, despite limited studio space for them, and in August 1973 The Minneapolis Tribune reported MER's plans for a Saturday night version of A Prairie Home Companion with live musicians. Garrison Keillor, page 32. University Press of Mississippi, 1991. "Keillor to Quit Daily Show, Others Leave KSJN, Minneapolis Tribune, 1973-08-24, 14B. Keillor doing a live radio broadcast in the rain. A Prairie Home Companion debuted as an old-style variety show before a live audience on July 6, 1974, featuring guest musicians and a cadre cast doing musical numbers and comic skits replete with elaborate live sound effects. The show was punctuated by spoof commercial spots from such fictitious sponsors as Jack's Auto Repair ("All tracks lead to Jack's where the bright shining lights lead the way to complete satisfaction") and Powdermilk Biscuits, which "give shy persons the strength to get up and do what needs to be done." Garrison Keillor, pages 35, 85. University Press of Mississippi, 1991. Later imaginary sponsors have included Ralph's Pretty Good Grocery ("If you can't find it at Ralph's, you can probably get along Pretty Good without it"), Bertha's Kitty Boutique, the Catchup Advisory Board prairiehome.publicradio.org (which touted "the natural mellowing agents of ketchup"), the American Duct Tape Council, and Bebop-A-Reebop Rhubarb Pie ("sweetening the sour taste of failure through the generations"). The show also contains parodic serial melodramas, such as The Adventures of Guy Noir, Private Eye and The Lives of the Cowboys. After the show's intermission, Keillor reads clever and often humorous greetings to friends and family at home submitted by members of the theater audience, in exchange for an honorarium. Also in the second half of the show, the broadcasts showcase a weekly monologue by Keillor entitled News from Lake Wobegon. The town is based in part on Keillor's own hometown of Anoka, Minnesota, and in part on small towns near Holdingford, Minnesota where he lived in the early 1970s. Lake Wobegon is a quintessential but fictional Midwestern small town "where all the women are strong, all the men are good-looking, and all the children are above average." A Prairie Home Companion ran until 1987, when Keillor decided to end it; he worked on other projects, including another live radio program, "The American Radio Company of the Air"--which was virtually identical in format to "A Prairie Home Companion"--for several years. In 1993 he began producing A Prairie Home Companion again, with nearly identically-formatted programs, and has done so since. prairiehome.publicradio.org On A Prairie Home Companion, Keillor receives no billing or credit (except "written by Sarah Bellum", a joking reference to his own brain); his name is not mentioned unless a guest addresses him by his first name or the initials "G. K." However, some sketches do feature Keillor as his alter ego, Carson Wyler, which is a play on his name. Keillor is also the host of The Writer's Almanac which, like A Prairie Home Companion, is produced and distributed by American Public Media. The Writer's Almanac is also available online The Writer's Almanac with Garrison Keillor | Analysis of Baseball by May Swenson and via daily e-mail installments by subscription. mail.publicradio.org Writing Garrison Keillor at the Miami Book Fair International of 1985 Keillor has written many magazine and newspaper articles, and nearly a dozen books for adults as well as children. In addition to his time as a writer for The New Yorker, he has written for The Atlantic Monthly and Salon.com. He also authored an advice column on Salon.com titled "Mr. Blue." Following a heart operation, he resigned on September 4, 2001, in an article entitled "Every dog has his day": salon.com Illness offers the chance to think long thoughts about the future (praying that we yet have one, dear God), and so I have, and so this is the last column of Mr. Blue, under my authorship, for Salon. Over the years, Mr. Blue's strongest advice has come down on the side of freedom in our personal lives, freedom from crushing obligation and overwork and family expectations and the freedom to walk our own walk and be who we are. And some of the best letters have been addressed to younger readers trapped in jobs like steel suits, advising them to bust loose and go off and have an adventure. Some of the advisees have written back to inform Mr. Blue that the advice was taken and that the adventure changed their lives. This was gratifying. So now I am simply taking my own advice. Cut back on obligations: Promote a certain elegant looseness in life. Simple as that. Winter and spring, I almost capsized from work, and in the summer I had a week in St. Mary's Hospital to sit and think, and that's the result. Every dog has his day and I've had mine and given whatever advice was mine to give (and a little more). It was exhilarating to get the chance to be useful, which is always an issue for a writer (What good does fiction do?), and Mr. Blue was a way to be useful. Nothing human is beneath a writer's attention; the basic questions about how to attract a lover and what to do with one once you get one and how to deal with disappointment in marriage are the stuff that fiction is made from, so why not try to speak directly? And so I did. And now it's time to move on. In 2004 Keillor published a collection of political essays called Homegrown Democrat, and in June 2005 he began a syndicated newspaper column called "The Old Scout," which often addresses political issues. The column also runs at salon.com. Keillor wrote the screenplay for the 2006 movie version of A Prairie Home Companion, which was directed by Robert Altman. (Keillor also appears in the movie.) Bookselling On November 1, 2006, Keillor opened an independent bookstore in the historic Cathedral Hill area of Saint Paul, Minnesota. "Common Good Books, G. Keillor, Prop." Common Good Books, G. Keillor, Prop." is located at the southwest corner of Selby and N. Western Avenues (in the Blair Arcade Building, Suite 14, in the basement, below Nina's Coffee Cafe). Cathedral Hill is in the Summit-University neighborhood. Summit-University The bookstore opening was covered by the St. Paul Pioneer Press. twincities.com Awards and other recognition In 1994, Keillor was inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame. museum.tv "Welcome to Minnesota" markers in interstate rest areas near the state's borders include statements such as "Like its neighbors, the thirty-second state grew as a collection of small farm communities, many settled by immigrants from Scandinavia and Germany. Two of the nation's favorite fictional small towns -- Sinclair Lewis's Gopher Prairie and Garrison Keillor's Lake Wobegon -- reflect that heritage." Welcome to Minnesota - Minnesota Historical Markers on Waymarking.com In 2007, The Moth, a NYC-based not-for-profit storytelling organization, awarded Garrison Keillor with the first The Moth Award - Honoring the Art of the Raconteur at the annual Moth Ball. The Moth - Annual Moth Ball Controversies In 2005, Keillor's attorneys sent a cease-and-desist letter to MNSPeak.com regarding their production of a T-Shirt bearing the inscription "A Prairie Ho Companion." Sean Higgins on Garrison Keillor & Internet on National Review Online In 2006, after a visit to a United Methodist Church in Highland Park, Texas, Keillor created a local controversy with his remarks about the event, The United Methodist Portal including the rhetorical suggestion of a connection between event attendees and supporters of torture and a statement creating an impression of political intimidation: "I walked in, was met by two burly security men ... and within 10 minutes was told by three people that this was the Bushes's church and that it would be better if I didn't talk about politics." The security detail is purportedly routine for the venue, and according to attendees Keillor did not interact with any audience members between his arrival and his lecture. Dallas Morning News | News for Dallas, Texas | Columnist Jacquielynn Floyd | Dallas-Fort Worth News Prior to Keillor's remarks, participants in the event had considered the visit to have been cordial and warm. GuideLive.com | Arts/Entertainment News and Events | Dallas-Fort Worth | The Dallas Morning News | Books In 2007, Keillor wrote a column which, in part, criticized "stereotypical" gay parents, who he said were "sardonic fellows with fussy hair who live in over-decorated apartments with a striped sofa and a small weird dog and who worship campy performers." chicagotribune.com In response to the strong reactions of many readers, Keillor said I live in a small world -- the world of entertainment, musicians, writers -- in which gayness is as common as having brown eyes.... And in that small world, we talk openly and we kid each other a lot. But in the larger world, gayness is controversial...and so gay people feel besieged to some degree and rightly so.... My column spoke as we would speak in my small world and it was read by people in the larger world and thus the misunderstanding. salon.com In 2008, Keillor created a controversy in St. Paul when he filed a lawsuit against his neighbors' plans to build an addition on their home, citing his need for "light and air" and a view of "open space and beyond". Keillor's home is significantly larger than others in his neighborhood and would still be significantly larger than his neighbors' planned addition. Katherine Kersten » Blog Archive » Mr. Keillor’s Unneighborly Ways Keillor came to an undisclosed settlement with his neighbors shortly after the story became public. Mediation ends Keillor's feud with neighbor In May 2008, Keillor wrote a controversial article entitled "The Roar of Hollow Patriotism", criticizing the "Rolling Thunder" parade in Washington, D.C. on Memorial Day. The roar of hollow patriotism - chicagotribune.com </blockquote> The “Rolling Thunder” parade is an event that honors and commemorates all United States veterans, and is sponsored by Rolling Thunder, Inc. - a 501(c)(4) non-profit organization that participates in veterans charities and legislation lobbying for military veterans and personnel. Rolling Thunder - National Organization Headquarters </blockquote> The article depicts the biker subculture with negative imagery. He describes the participating bikers as "fat men with ponytails on Harleys" and further depicts them as "grown men playing soldier, making a great hullaballoo without exposing themselves to danger, other than getting drunk and falling off a bike".</blockquote> Voiceover work Due to his distinctive voice, Keillor is often used as a voiceover actor. Some notable appearances include: Voiceover artist for Honda UK's "the Power of Dreams" campaign. The campaign's most memorable advert is the 2003 Honda Accord commercial entitled "Cog", which features a Rube Goldberg Machine made entirely of car parts. The commercial ends with Keillor asking, "Isn't it nice when things just work?" creativeclub.co.uk Since then, Keillor has voiced the tagline for most if not all Honda UK advertisements, and even sang the voiceover in the 2004 Honda Diesel commercial entitled "Grr". youtube Grr Commercial His most recent advert was a reworking of an existing commercial with digitally added England flags to tie in with the World Cup. Keillor's tagline was "Come on England, keep the dream alive". Voice of the Norse god Odin in an episode of the Disney animated series "Hercules." Voice of Walt Whitman and other historical figures in Ken Burns's documentary series The Civil War. Cultural references His style, particularly his speaking voice, is often the subject of parody. The Simpsons parodies Keillor in an episode where Homer is shown watching a Keillor-like monologist on television, and upon hitting the set, exclaiming "Stupid TV! Be more funny!", which has become one of The Simpsons' oft-quoted catchphrases. snpp.com One Boston radio critic likens Keillor and his "down comforter voice" to "a hypnotist intoning, 'You are getting sleepy now'", while noting that Keillor does play to listeners' intelligence. boston.com Keillor rarely reads his monologue from a script. In the bonus DVD material for the album Venue Songs by band They Might Be Giants, John Hodgman delivers a fictitious newscast in which he explains that "The Artist Formerly Known as Public Radio Host Garrison Keillor" and his "legacy of Midwestern pledge-drive funk" inspired the band's first "venue song." youtube.com Fellow Minnesotan, radio host, comedian, actor, and politician Al Franken, defending his decision to leave Minnesota for a career in show business, commented during a speech in February 2004 in Manchester, New Hampshire that "we can't all be Garrison Keillor." Pennsylvanian singer-songwriter Tom Flannery wrote a song in 2003 entitled, "I Want a Job Like Garrison Keillor's." "I Want a Job Like Garrison Keillor" at songaweek.com Bibliography Keillor's work in print includes: Lake Wobegon Lake Wobegon Days (1985), ISBN 0-14-013161-2; a recorded version of this won a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word or Non-musical Album in 1988 Leaving Home (1987; collection of Lake Wobegon stories), ISBN 0-670-81976-X We Are Still Married (1989; collection including some Lake Wobegon stories), ISBN 0-670-82647-2 Wobegon Boy (1997), ISBN 0-670-87807-3 Lake Wobegon Summer 1956 (2001), ISBN 0-571-21014-7 Pontoon: A Novel of Lake Wobegon (2007), ISBN 0-670-06356-8 Liberty: A Novel of Lake Wobegon (2008), ISBN 0-670-01991-7 Other Happy to be Here (1982), ISBN 0-06-811201-7 WLT: A Radio Romance, (1991), ISBN 0-670-81857-7 A Visit to Mark Twain's House audio (1992), ISBN 0-942110-82-X The Book of Guys (1993), ISBN 0-670-84943-X The Sandy Bottom Orchestra (with Jenny Lind Nilsson, 1996), ISBN 0-7868-1250-8 Me, by Jimmy "Big Boy" Valente (1999), ISBN 0-670-88796-X Good Poems (2002), ISBN 0-670-03126-7 Love Me (2003), ISBN 0-670-03246-8 Homegrown Democrat (2004), ISBN 0-670-03365-0 Good Poems for Hard Times (2005), ISBN 0-670-03436-3 Contributions to The New Yorker Title Department Volume/Part Date Page(s) Subject(s) Notes and Comment The Talk of the Town 60/47 7 January 1985 17-18 A friend's visit to San Francisco and Stinson Beach, California. References Keillor, Garrison. In search of Lake Wobegon. National Geographic. December 2000. Lee, Judith Yaross. Garrison Keillor: A Voice of America. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991. ISBN 978-0878054572. "Lights! Camera! Retake!". Telegraph (2003). Retrieved 2005-06-07. See also Bill McGlaughlin External links A Prairie Home Companion radio website Garrison Keillor's public radio show A Prairie Home Companion movie website The movie written by Garrison Keillor and directed by Robert Altman Minnesota Zen Master - a detailed profile of Garrison Keillor, published in The Guardian, March 6, 2004. Kingdom of the Frown - A feature article from The Reykjavík Grapevine on Garrison Keillor. At Home With Garrison Keillor: Where All the Rooms Are Above Average New York Times June 1, 2006 Garrison Keillor to Open Bookstore The Book Standard September 14, 2006 Garrison Keillor Biography Garrison Keillor Charlie Rose'' interviews Garrison Keillor at City Arts & Lecture on Fora.tv An interview with Garrison Keillor (www.everydayyeah.com) | Garrison_Keillor |@lemmatized gary:1 edward:1 garrison:30 keillor:80 bear:5 august:2 american:8 author:3 storyteller:1 humorist:1 columnist:2 musician:5 satirist:1 radio:20 personality:1 know:4 host:5 minnesota:14 public:7 show:13 prairie:17 home:21 companion:14 also:13 united:4 kingdom:2 bbc:1 well:3 australia:1 abc:1 ireland:1 biography:2 personal:2 life:5 anoka:3 son:3 grace:1 ruth:1 née:1 denham:1 john:3 philip:1 carpenter:1 postal:1 worker:1 room:2 average:3 little:2 house:2 land:1 end:4 raise:1 family:4 belonging:1 plymouth:1 brother:2 fundamentalist:1 christian:1 denomination:1 since:4 leave:4 six:1 foot:1 three:3 inch:1 tall:1 salon:7 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7,055 | First_National | First National was an association of independent theater owners in the United States that expanded from exhibiting movies to distributing them, and eventually to producing them as a movie studio. It later merged with Warner Bros. Early History The First National Exhibitors' Circuit was founded in 1917 by the merger of 26 of the biggest first run cinema chains in the United States of America, eventually controlling over 600 cinemas, more than 200 of them so-called "first run" houses (as opposed to the "second run" neighborhood theaters to which films moved when their first run boxoffice receipts dwindled). First National was the brainchild of Thomas L. Tally, who was reacting to the overwhelming influence of Paramount Pictures, which dominated the market. In 1912, he thought that a conglomorate of theaters throughout the nation could buy and/or produce and distribute their own films. Tally was soon partnered with West Virginian James Dixon Williams, and they formed First National Exhibitors Circuit. Among the more than two dozen exhibitors who attended the first meeting held in New York on April 25, 1917, were Frederick Dahnken of the Turner and Dahnken Circuit in San Francisco, Harry O. Schwalbe of Philadelphia, Samuel Roxy Rothafel of New York, Earl H. Hulsey of Dallas and Nathan H. Gordon of Boston. Between 1917 and 1918, they made contracts with Mary Pickford and Charlie Chaplin, the first million-dollar deals in the history of film. Rivalry With Paramount Adolph Zukor of Paramount Pictures was threatened by First National's financial power and its control over the lucrative first run theaters and decided to enter the cinema business as well. With a $10 million dollar investment, Paramount built their own chain of first-run movie theaters after a secret plan to merge with First National failed. Ironically, this led to the foundation of United Artists by Douglas Fairbanks, D. W. Griffith, Pickford, and Chaplin, and to the loss of First National's biggest stars. First National Exhibitors' Circuit was reincorporated in 1919 as Associated First National Pictures, Inc. and its subsidiary Associated First National Theatres, Inc., with 5,000 independent theater owners as members. "New Incorporations", The New York Times, November 18, 1919, p. 25. "Picture Plays and People", The New York Times, February 1, 1920, p. XX4. In the early twenties, Paramount attempted a hostile takeover, buying several of First National's member firms. Associated First National Pictures expanded from only distributing films to producing them in 1924, and changed its corporate name to First National Pictures, Inc. "New Incorporations", The New York Times, May 6, 1924, p. 36. It built its 62-acre (0.25 km2) studio lot in Burbank in 1926. "First National Properties", The Wall Street Journal, May 21, 1926, p. 16. The Motion Picture Theatre Owners of America and the Independent Producers' Association declared war in 1925 on what they termed a common enemy — the "film trust" of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount, and First National, which they claimed dominated the industry by not only producing and distributing motion pictures, but by entering into exhibition as well. "Theatre Owners Open War on Hays", The New York Times, May 12, 1925, p. 14. Merger With Warner Brothers With the success of The Jazz Singer and The Singing Fool, Warner Bros. purchased a majority interest in First National in September 1928. Warner Bros. held 42,000 shares of common stock out of 72,000 outstanding shares, while Fox Pictures held 21,000 shares, and 12,000 shares were publicly held. "Warner Buys First National", The Wall Street Journal, September 27, 1928, p. 3. Fox sold its shares of First National to Warner Bros. in November 1929. "Fox Holdings in First National Pictures Sold", The Washington Post, November 4, 1929, p. 3. Warner Bros. acquired access to the First National's affiliated chain of theaters, while First National acquired access to Vitaphone sound equipment. But the trademarks were kept separate, and films by First National continued to be credited solely to "First National Pictures" until 1936. Although both studios produced "A" and "B" budget pictures, generally the prestige productions, costume dramas, and musicals were made by Warner Bros., while First National specialized in modern comedies, dramas, and crime stories. In July 1936, stockholders of First National Pictures, Inc. (primarily Warner Bros.) voted to dissolve the corporation and distribute its assets among the stockholders, in line with a new tax law which provided for tax-free consolidations between corporations. "Film Concern Dissolves", The New York Times, July 12, 1936, p. F1. From 1941 to 1958, most Warner Bros. films bore the combined trademarks "A Warner Bros.-First National Picture." American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures, volumes F4 and F5. In 2002, Warner Bros. sold the name's rights to Ryan Kugler of Distribution Video & Audio (DV&A), a company specializing in acquiring excess inventory and close-out properties. The resurrected First National Pictures name will be used to brand no-frills digital releases of children's, documentary, and special interest titles. Notable First National Productions Made before the merger with Warner Brothers So Big (1924) The Lost World (1925) Irene (1926) Camille (1926) Her Wild Oat (1927) The Divine Lady (1929) The Dawn Patrol (1930) Kismet (1930) Five Star Final (1931) Little Caesar (1931) Cabin in the Cotton (1932) Doctor X (1932) The Dark Horse (1932) Silver Dollar (1932) 20,000 Years in Sing Sing (1932) Two Seconds (1932) Union Depot (1932) Convention City (1933) The Little Giant (1933) The World Changes (1933) Wonder Bar (1934) References External links A History of First National Pictures About Us Accessed October 8, 2005 Press Releases Accessed October 8, 2005 | First_National |@lemmatized first:36 national:29 association:2 independent:3 theater:7 owner:4 united:3 state:2 expand:2 exhibit:1 movie:3 distribute:5 eventually:2 produce:5 studio:3 later:1 merge:2 warner:13 bros:10 early:2 history:3 exhibitor:4 circuit:4 found:1 merger:3 big:3 run:6 cinema:3 chain:3 america:2 control:2 call:1 house:1 oppose:1 second:2 neighborhood:1 film:9 move:1 boxoffice:1 receipt:1 dwindle:1 brainchild:1 thomas:1 l:1 tally:2 react:1 overwhelming:1 influence:1 paramount:6 picture:17 dominate:2 market:1 think:1 conglomorate:1 throughout:1 nation:1 could:1 buy:3 soon:1 partner:1 west:1 virginian:1 james:1 dixon:1 williams:1 form:1 among:2 two:2 dozen:1 attend:1 meeting:1 hold:4 new:10 york:7 april:1 frederick:1 dahnken:2 turner:1 san:1 francisco:1 harry:1 schwalbe:1 philadelphia:1 samuel:1 roxy:1 rothafel:1 earl:1 h:2 hulsey:1 dallas:1 nathan:1 gordon:1 boston:1 make:3 contract:1 mary:1 pickford:2 charlie:1 chaplin:2 million:2 dollar:3 deal:1 rivalry:1 adolph:1 zukor:1 threaten:1 financial:1 power:1 lucrative:1 decide:1 enter:2 business:1 well:2 investment:1 build:2 secret:1 plan:1 fail:1 ironically:1 lead:1 foundation:1 artist:1 douglas:1 fairbanks:1 w:1 griffith:1 loss:1 star:2 reincorporated:1 associate:3 inc:4 subsidiary:1 theatre:3 member:2 incorporation:2 time:5 november:3 p:8 play:1 people:1 february:1 twenty:1 attempt:1 hostile:1 takeover:1 several:1 firm:1 change:2 corporate:1 name:3 may:3 acre:1 lot:1 burbank:1 property:2 wall:2 street:2 journal:2 motion:3 producer:1 declare:1 war:2 term:1 common:2 enemy:1 trust:1 metro:1 goldwyn:1 mayer:1 claim:1 industry:1 exhibition:1 open:1 hay:1 brother:2 success:1 jazz:1 singer:1 singing:1 fool:1 purchase:1 majority:1 interest:2 september:2 share:5 stock:1 outstanding:1 fox:3 publicly:1 sell:3 holding:1 washington:1 post:1 acquire:3 access:4 affiliate:1 vitaphone:1 sound:1 equipment:1 trademark:2 kept:1 separate:1 continue:1 credit:1 solely:1 although:1 b:1 budget:1 generally:1 prestige:1 production:2 costume:1 drama:2 musical:1 specialize:2 modern:1 comedy:1 crime:1 story:1 july:2 stockholder:2 primarily:1 vote:1 dissolve:2 corporation:2 asset:1 line:1 tax:2 law:1 provide:1 free:1 consolidation:1 concern:1 bore:1 combined:1 american:1 institute:1 catalog:1 volume:1 right:1 ryan:1 kugler:1 distribution:1 video:1 audio:1 dv:1 company:1 excess:1 inventory:1 close:1 resurrect:1 use:1 brand:1 frill:1 digital:1 release:2 child:1 documentary:1 special:1 title:1 notable:1 lose:1 world:2 irene:1 camille:1 wild:1 oat:1 divine:1 lady:1 dawn:1 patrol:1 kismet:1 five:1 final:1 little:2 caesar:1 cabin:1 cotton:1 doctor:1 x:1 dark:1 horse:1 silver:1 year:1 sing:2 union:1 depot:1 convention:1 city:1 giant:1 wonder:1 bar:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 u:1 october:2 press:1 |@bigram warner_bros:10 paramount_picture:2 san_francisco:1 mary_pickford:1 charlie_chaplin:1 douglas_fairbanks:1 hostile_takeover:1 motion_picture:3 metro_goldwyn:1 goldwyn_mayer:1 external_link:1 |
7,056 | Kim_Stanley_Robinson | Kim Stanley Robinson (born March 23 1952) is an American science fiction writer, probably best known for his award-winning Mars trilogy. His work delves into ecological and sociological themes regularly, and many of his novels appear to be the direct result of his own scientific fascinations, such as the 15 years of research and lifelong fascination with Mars, which culminated in his most famous work. Because of his fascination with that planet, he became a member of the Mars Society. Robinson's work has been labeled by reviewers as literary science fiction. SignOnSanDiego.com > News > Features—Robinson explores what-if of the future Robinson will be an instructor at the Clarion Workshop in 2009. In 2010, Robinson will be the guest of honor at the 68th World Science Fiction Convention, which will be held in Melbourne, Australia. Biography Kim Stanley Robinson was born in Waukegan, Illinois, but grew up in Southern California. In 1974 he earned a B.A. in literature from the University of California, San Diego. In 1975, he earned a M.A. in English from Boston University. Then in 1982, he earned a Ph.D. in English from the University of California, San Diego. His doctoral thesis, The Novels of Philip K. Dick, was published in 1984. Robinson is an enthusiastic mountain climber and mountain climbing appears in several of his works, most notably Antarctica, the Mars trilogy, "Green Mars" (a short story found in The Martians), and Forty Signs of Rain. In 1982 he married Lisa Howland Nowell, an environmental chemist, and they have two sons. Robinson has lived in Washington, D.C.; California; and during some of the 1980s in Switzerland. He now lives in Davis, California. He identified himself as a green socialist in an interview, as well as an admirer of Noam Chomsky. Important works Three Californias This trilogy is also referred to as the Orange County trilogy. The component books are titled The Wild Shore (1984), The Gold Coast (1988) and Pacific Edge (1988). It is not a trilogy in the traditional sense; rather than telling a single story, the books present three different future Californias. The Wild Shore portrays a California struggling to return to civilization after having been crippled, along with the rest of America, by a nuclear war. The Gold Coast portrays an over-industrialized California increasingly obsessed with and dependent on technology and torn apart by the struggles between arms manufacturers and terrorists. The Pacific Edge presents a California in which ecologically sane, manageable practices have become the norm and the scars of the past are slowly being healed. Though they initially appear unconnected, the three books actually work together to present a unified statement. The first shows humanity crippled by a lack of technology, the second humanity swamped and almost completely dehumanized by too much technology (along with the attendant environmental damage), and the third a workable, livable compromise between the two. Although the third is, in effect, a Utopian novel, there is still conflict, sadness, and tragedy. The stories all contain a common character, whose circumstances serve to put the three alternatives in perspective. The Mars trilogy This trilogy is Robinson's best-known work. It is an extended work of hard science fiction that deals with the first settlement of the planet Mars by a group of scientists and engineers. Its three volumes are Red Mars, Green Mars, and Blue Mars, the titles of which mark the changes that the planet undergoes over the course of the saga. The tale begins with the first colonists leaving Earth for Mars in 2027 and covers the next 200 years of future history. By the conclusion of the story, Mars is heavily populated and terraformed, with a flourishing and complex political and social dimension. Many threads of different characters' lives are woven together in the Mars Trilogy. The reader may come to sympathize with one particular character as a protagonist, only to have the story line switch focus so that another character whom the reader might begin to perceive as antagonistic is then presented in a protagonistic manner. Science, sociology, and politics are all covered in great detail, evolving realistically over the course of the narrative. Robinson's fascination with science and technology is clear, although he balances this with a strong streak of humanity. Robinson's personal interests, including ecological sustainability, sexual dimorphism, and the scientific method, come through strongly. His passion for mountain climbing also shows through clearly. The Martians Billed as a companion piece, The Martians (1999) is a collection of short stories that involves many of the same characters and settings introduced in the Mars trilogy. Some stories occur before, during, or instead of the events of the trilogy; some expand on existing characters, and others introduce new ones. It also includes the Constitution of Mars and poetry written in character by a Martian citizen. Antarctica Antarctica (1997) follows very closely in the footsteps of the Mars trilogy, and it covers much of the same ground despite the differences in setting. It is set on the icy continent of the title, much closer to the present day, but it evokes many of the same themes, dealing as it does with scientists in an isolated environment, the effect that this has on their personalities and interactions, and economic systems. It even evokes the same sense of beauty and wonder in a bleak, hostile environment. As with all of Robinson's later work, ecological sustainability is a major theme in Antarctica. Much of the action is catalysed by the recent expiration of the Antarctic Treaty and the threat of invasion and despoiling of the near-pristine environment by corporate interests. The Years of Rice and Salt The Years of Rice and Salt (2002) is an epic work of alternate history that concerns a world in which the Black Plague wiped out 99 percent of the European population (instead of the actual generally estimated 30 percent), leaving the world free for Asian expansion. It covers ten generations of history, focusing on the successive reincarnations of the same few characters as they pass through varying genders, social classes, and, in one notable example, species. The Years of Rice and Salt features Muslim, Chinese, and Hindu cultures and philosophies. Not only because of the long time scale, but because of its realistic Utopian elements and the frequent reflections about human nature, The Years of Rice and Salt resembles the Mars books brought to Earth. Science in the Capital series The Science in the Capital series encompasses three novels: Forty Signs of Rain (2004), Fifty Degrees Below (2005), and Sixty Days and Counting (2007). This series explores the consequences of global warming, both on a global level and as it affects the main characters—several employees of the National Science Foundation and those close to them. A recurring theme of Robinson's that returns in this series is that of Buddhist philosophy, which is represented in the series by the agency of ambassadors from Khembalung, a fictional Buddhist micro-state located on an offshore island in the Ganges delta. Their state is threatened by rising sea levels, and the reaction of the Khembalis is compared to that of the Washingtonians. Other novels Icehenge (1984) tells the story of the discovery of a monument in the style of Stonehenge found carved from ice on Pluto and the subsequent investigation into its origin. The setting of this novel bears strong resemblances of the Mars trilogy, albeit with darker, more dystopian undertones. The Memory of Whiteness''' (1985) deals with a fantastic, unique musical instrument and the trials faced by its newest master as he tours the solar system; how it is described seems to contain the beginnings of many of the ideas later put to use in the Mars trilogy, although it is set centuries later.A Short, Sharp Shock' (1990) one of Robinson's few fantasy stories, dealing with an amnesiac man travelling through a mysterious land in pursuit of a woman who features in his first memories.Galileo's Dream (forthcoming, August 2009) Short stories KSR published his first two short stories in Orbit 18 in 1976. Most are collected in The Planet on the Table (1986), Remaking History (1991), and Vinland the Dream (2001). Four humorous novellas featuring American expatriates in Nepal are collected in Escape from Kathmandu (1989). The Martians (1999), discussed above, further explores the world of the Mars Trilogy'. Selected story bibliography "A History of the Twentieth Century, with Illustrations" (in: Vinland the Dream, originally published in Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine, 1991, revised for Remaking History) "A Martian Childhood" "A Martian Romance" (in The Martians) "A Sensitive Dependence on Initial Conditions" (in Vinland the Dream) "A Transect" "An Argument for the Deployment of All Safe Terraforming Technologies" (in The Martians), "Arthur Sternbach Brings the Curveball to Mars" (in The Martians), "Before I Wake" "Big Man in Love" (in The Martians) "Black Air" (in Vinland the Dream; originally published in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, 1983) "Coming Back to Dixieland" (in Vinland the Dream; originally published in Orbit 18) "Coyote Makes Trouble" (in The Martians) "Coyote Remembers" (in The Martians) "Discovering Life" (in Vinland the Dream and in The Martians) "Down and Out in the Year 2000" "Enough is as Good as a Feast" (in The Martians', "Escape from Kathmandu" (in Escape from Katmandu) "Exploring Fossil Canyon" (in The Martians) "Festival Night" "Four Teleological Trails" (in The Martians) "Glacier" "Green Mars" (in The Martians) "If Wang Wei Lived on Mars and Other Poems" (in The Martians) "Jackie on Zo" (in The Martians) "Keeping the Flame" (in The Martians) "Maya and Desmond" (in The Martians) "Mercurial" (in Vinland the Dream; originally published in Universe 15), "Michel in Antarctica" (in The Martians) "Michel in Provence" (in The Martians) "Mother Goddess of the World" (in Escape from Katmandu) "Muir on Shasta" (in Vinland the Dream) "Odessa" (in The Martians) "On the North Pole of Pluto" "Our Town" "Purple Mars" (in The Martians) "Remaking History" (in Remaking History and Vinland the Dream originally published in What Might Have Been, edited by Gregory Benford and Martin H. Greenberg) "Ridge Running" (in Vinland the Dream; originally published in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, 1984 edition) "Salt and Fresh" (in The Martians) "Saving Noctis Dam" (in The Martians) "Sax Moments" (in The Martians) "Selected Abstracts from The Journal of Aerological Studies" (in The Martians) "Sexual Dimorphism" (in The Martians) "Some Work Notes and Commentary on the Constitution by Charlotte Dorsa Brevia" (in The Martians) "Stone Eggs" (in Vinland the Dream; originally published in Universe 13) "The Archaeae Plot" (in The Martians) "The Blind Geometer" "The Constitution of Mars" (in The Martians) "The Disguise" (in Vinland the Dream; originally published in Orbit 19), "The Kingdom Underground" (in Escape from Katmandu) "The Lucky Strike" (in Vinland the Dream; originally published in Universe 14) "The Lunatics" "The Memorial" "The Part of Us That Loves" "The Return from Rainbow Bridge" "The Translator" "The True Nature of Shangri-La" (in Escape from Katmandu) "The Way the Land Spoke to Us" (in The Martians) "To Leave a Mark" "Venice Drowned" (in Vinland the Dream; originally published in Universe 11) "Vinland the Dream" (in Vinland the Dream; originally published in Remaking History) "What Matters" (in The Martians) "Whose 'Failure of Scholarship'?" "Zürich" Non-fiction Robinson's doctoral thesis was on The Novels of Philip K. Dick (1984). A hardcover version was published by UMI Research Press. Robinson also edited and wrote the introduction of the anthology Future Primitive: The New Ecotopias (1994). Major themes Ecological sustainability Virtually all of Robinson's novels have an ecological component; sustainability would have to be counted among his primary themes. (A strong contender for the primary theme would be the nature of a plausible utopia.) The Orange County trilogy is about the way in which the technological intersects with the natural, highlighting the importance of keeping the two in balance. In the Mars trilogy, one of the principal divisions among the population of Mars is based on dissenting views on terraforming; It is heavily debated whether or not the seemingly barren Martian landscape has a similar ecological or spiritual value to a living ecosphere like Earth's. Forty Signs of Rain is entirely ecologically themed, taking as it does global warming for its principal theme. Economic and social justice Robinson's work often explores alternatives to modern capitalism. In the Mars trilogy, it is argued that capitalism is an outgrowth of feudalism, which could be replaced in the future by a more democratic economic system. Worker ownership and cooperatives figure prominently in Green Mars and Blue Mars as a replacement for traditional corporations. The Orange County trilogy explores similar arrangements; Pacific Edge includes the idea of attacking the legal framework behind corporate domination to promote social egalitarianism. Robinson's work often portrays characters struggling to preserve and enhance the world around them in an environment characterized by individualism and entrepreneurialism, often facing the political and economic authoritarianism of corporate power acting within this environment. Robinson has been described as anti-capitalist, and his work often portray a form of frontier capitalism that promotes ideals that closely resemble anarcho-syndicalist and socialist systems, and faced with a capitalism that is staunched by entrenched hegemonic corporations. In particular, his Martian Constitution draws upon social democratic ideals explicitly emphasising a community-participation element in political and economic life, Some Worknotes and Commentary on the Constitution by Charlotte Dorsa-Brevia, in The Martians pp. 233–239 while a persistent threat to social democracy is embodied by transnational corporations, the characteristics of which resemble those predicted by institutionalist and socialist economists such as Ted Wheelwright and Karl Marx. Robinson's works often portray the worlds of tomorrow as in a similar way to the mythologized American Western frontier, showing a sentimental affection for the freedom and wildness of the frontier. This aesthetic includes a preoccupation with competing models of political and economic organization. The environmental, economic, and social themes in Robinson's oeuvre stand in marked contrast to the Libertarian streak prevalent in much of science fiction (Robert A. Heinlein, Poul Anderson, Larry Niven, and Jerry Pournelle being prominent examples), and his work has been called the most successful attempt to reach a mass audience with an anti-capitalist utopian vision since Ursula K. Le Guin's 1974 novel, The Dispossessed. Utopic Fiction and the Mars Novels of Kim Stanley Robinson - R A I N T A X I o n l i n e Scientists as citizens Robinson's work often features scientists as heroes. They are portrayed in a mundane way compared to most work featuring scientists: rather than being adventurers or action heroes, Robinson's scientists become critically important because of research discoveries, networking and collaboration with other scientists, political lobbying, or becoming public figures. The Mars trilogy and The Years of Rice and Salt rely heavily on the idea that scientists must take responsibility for ensuring public understanding and responsible use of their discoveries. Robinson's scientists often emerge as the best people to direct public policy on important environmental and technological questions, on which politicians are often ignorant. Awards Robinson's novels have won 11 major science fiction awards, and have been nominated on 29 occasions. Robinson won the Hugo Award for Best Novel with Green Mars (1994) and Blue Mars (1997); the Nebula Award for Best Novel with Red Mars (1993) ; the Nebula Award for Best Novella with The Blind Geometer (1986); the World Fantasy Award with Black Air (1983); a John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel with Pacific Edge (1991); and Locus Awards for The Wild Shore (1985), A Short, Sharp Shock (1991), Green Mars (1994), Blue Mars (1997), The Martians (2000), and The Years of Rice and Salt (2003). Many more of Robinson's works have been nominated for leading science-fiction awards over the years. References External links A podcast episode featuring Kim Stanley Robinson discussing his novel Sixty Days and Counting Short descriptions of K.S. Robinson's novels An interview with K.S. Robinson All of Kim Stanley Robinson's audio interviews on the podcast The Future And You (in which he describes his expectations of the future) The Kim Stanley Robinson Encyclopedia: a new wiki project Author's IBList.com Entry Guardian interview with K.S. Robinson "Comparative Planetology: an Interview with Kim Stanley Robinson" at BLDGBLOG Audio interview from IT Conversations - recorded 2006-01-01 covering the Science in the Capital series Complete list of sci-fi award wins and nominations by novel Interview on the SciFiDimensions Podcast | Kim_Stanley_Robinson |@lemmatized kim:7 stanley:7 robinson:36 bear:3 march:1 american:3 science:17 fiction:13 writer:1 probably:1 best:7 know:2 award:11 win:4 mar:37 trilogy:19 work:19 delve:1 ecological:6 sociological:1 theme:10 regularly:1 many:6 novel:16 appear:3 direct:2 result:1 scientific:2 fascination:4 year:10 research:3 lifelong:1 culminate:1 famous:1 planet:4 become:4 member:1 society:1 label:1 reviewer:1 literary:1 signonsandiego:1 com:2 news:1 feature:6 explore:6 future:7 instructor:1 clarion:1 workshop:1 guest:1 honor:1 world:8 convention:1 hold:1 melbourne:1 australia:1 biography:1 waukegan:1 illinois:1 grow:1 southern:1 california:10 earn:3 b:1 literature:1 university:3 san:2 diego:2 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7,057 | Definition_of_music | How to define music has long been the subject of debate; philosophers, musicians, and, more recently, various social and natural scientists have argued about what constitutes music. The definition has varied through history, in different regions, and within societies. Definitions vary as music, like art, is a subjectively perceived phenomenon. Its definition has been tackled by philosophers of art, lexicographers, composers, music critics, musicians, semioticians or semiologists, linguists, sociologists, and neurologists. Music may be defined according to various criteria including organization, pleasantness, intent, social construction, perceptual processes and engagement, universal aspects or family resemblances, and through contrast or negative definition. Etymology The word music comes from the Greek mousikê (tekhnê) by way of the Latin musica. It is ultimately derived from mousa, the Greek word for muse. In ancient Greece, the word mousike was used to mean any of the arts or sciences governed by the Muses. Later, in Rome, ars musica embraced poetry as well as instrument-oriented music. In the European Middle Ages, musica was part of the mathematical quadrivium: arithmetics, geometry, astronomy and musica. The concept of musica was split into three major kinds by the fifth century philosopher, Boethius: musica universalis, musica humana, and musica instrumentalis. Of those, only the last—musica instrumentalis—referred to music as performed sound. Musica universalis or musica mundana referred to the order of the universe, as God had created it in "measure, number and weight". The proportions of the spheres of the planets and stars (which at the time were still thought to revolve around the earth) were perceived as a form of music, without necessarily implying that any sound would be heard—music refers strictly to the mathematical proportions. From this concept later resulted the romantic idea of a music of the spheres. Musica humana, designated the proportions of the human body. These were thought to reflect the proportions of the Heavens and as such, to be an expression of God's greatness. To Medieval thinking, all things were connected with each other—a mode of thought that finds its traces today in the occult sciences or esoteric thought—ranging from astrology to believing certain minerals have certain beneficiary effects. Musica instrumentalis, finally, was the lowliest of the three disciplines and referred to the manifestation of those same mathematical proportions in sound—be it sung or played on instruments. The polyphonic organization of different melodies to sound at the same time was still a relatively new invention then, and it is understandable that the mathematical or physical relationships in frequency that give rise to the musical intervals as we hear them, should be foremost among the preoccupations of Medieval musicians. Translations The languages of many cultures do not include a word for or that would be translated as music. Inuit and most North American Indian languages do not have a general term for music. Among the Aztecs, the ancient Mexican theory of rhetorics, poetry, dance, and instrumental music, used the Nahuatl term In xochitl-in kwikatl to refer a complex mix of music and other poetic verbal and non-verbal elements, and reserve the word Kwikakayotl (or cuicacayotl) only for the sung expressions (Leon-Portilla 2007, 11). In Africa there is no term for music in Tiv, Yoruba, Igbo, Efik, Birom, Hausa, Idoma, Eggon or Jarawa. Many other languages have terms which only partly cover what Europeans mean by the term music (Schafer). The Mapuche of Argentina do not have a word for music, but they do have words for instrumental versus improvised forms (kantun), European and non-Mapuche music (kantun winka), ceremonial songs (öl), and tayil (Robertson 1976, 39). Some languages in West Africa have no term for music but the speakers do have the concept (Nettl 1989,). Musiqi is the Persian word for the science and art of music, muzik being the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983, ), though some things European influenced listeners would include, such as Quran chanting, are excluded. Actually, there are varying degrees of "musicness"; Quran chanting and Adhan is not considered music, but classical improvised song, classical instrumental metric composition, and popular dance music are. Definitions Organized sound An often-cited definition of music, coined by Edgard Varèse, is that it is "organized sound" (Goldman 1961, 133). The fifteenth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica describes that "while there are no sounds that can be described as inherently unmusical, musicians in each culture have tended to restrict the range of sounds they will admit." "Organization" also seems necessary because it implies purposeful and thus human organization. This human organizing element seems crucial to the common understanding of music. Sounds produced by non-human agents, such as waterfalls or birds, are often described as "musical", but rarely as "music". See zoomusicology. Additionally, Schaeffer (1968, 284) describes that the sound of classical music "has decays; it is granular; it has attacks; it fluctuates, swollen with impurities—and all this creates a musicality that comes before any 'cultural' musicality." Yet the definition according to the esthesic level does not allow that the sounds of classical music are complex, are noises, rather they are regular, periodic, even, musical sounds. Nattiez (1990, 47—48): "My own position can be summarized in the following terms: just as music is whatever people choose to recognize as such, noise is whatever is recognized as disturbing, unpleasant, or both." (see "music as social construct" below)'''Language Many definitions of music implicitly hold that music is a communicative activity which conveys to the listener moods, emotions, thoughts, impressions, or philosophical, sexual, or political concepts or positions. "Musical language" may be used to mean style or genre, while music may be treated as language without being called such, as in Fred Lerdahl or others' analysis of musical grammar. Levi R. Bryant defines music not as a language, but as a marked-based, problem-solving method such as mathematics (Ashby 2004, 4). Subjective experience This view of music is most heavily criticized by proponents of the view that music is a social construction (directly below), defined in opposition to "unpleasant" "noise", though this view may be subsumed in the one below in that a listener's idea of pleasant sounds may be considered socially constructed. A subjective definition of music need not, however, be limited to traditional ideas of music as pleasant or melodious. This approach to the definition focuses not on the construction but on the experience of music. Thus, music could include "found" sound structures—produced by natural phenomena or algorithms—as long as they are interpreted by means of the aesthetic cognitive processes involved in music appreciation. This approach permits the boundary between music and noise to change over time as the conventions of musical interpretation evolve within a culture, to be different in different cultures at any given moment, and to vary from person to person according to their experience and proclivities. It is further consistent with the subjective reality that even what would commonly be considered music is experienced as nonmusic if the mind is concentrating on other matters and thus not perceiving the sound's essence as music (Clifton 1983, 9). Social construct Post-modern and other theories argue that, like all art, music is defined primarily by social context. According to this view, music is what people call music, whether it is a period of silence, found sounds, or performance. Cage, Kagel, Schnebel, and others, according to Nattiez (1987, 43), "perceive [certain of their pieces] (even if they do not say so publicly) as a way of "speaking" in music about music, in the second degree, as it were, to expose or denounce the institutional aspect of music's functioning."Cultural background is a factor in determining music from noise or unpleasant experiences. The experience of only being exposed to a particular type of music influences perception of any music. Cultures of European descent are largely influenced by music making use of the Diatonic scale. It might be added that as well as cultural background, historical era is also a determining factor in what is regarded as music. What would today be accepted as music in the west without the blinking of an eye, would have been ridiculed in the 17th century. would almost certainly not have been music to William Congreve, who wrote that, "Musick has Charms to sooth a savage Beast" (The Mourning Bride, 1697). Many people do, however, share a general idea of music. The Websters definition of music is a typical example: "the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity" (Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, online edition). There are a number of potential objections to such a definition. The composer John Cage challenged traditional ideas about music in his 4' 33", which is notated as three movements, each marked Tacet (that is, "do not play"). Musical universals Often a definition of music lists the aspects or elements that make up music under that definition (see Definition of music#As musical universals). However, in addition to a lack of consensus, Jean Molino (1975, 43) also points out that "any element belonging to the total musical fact can be isolated, or taken as a strategic variable of musical production." Nattiez gives as examples Mauricio Kagel's Con Voce [with voice], where a masked trio silently mimes playing instruments. Following Wittgenstein, cognitive psychologist Eleanor Rosch proposes that categories are not clean cut but that something may be more or less a member of a category (Rosch 1973, 328). As such the search for musical universals would fail and would not provide one with a valid definition (Levitin 2006, 136–39). Specific definitions Clifton In his 1983 book, Music as Heard, which sets out from the phenomenological position of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, and Ricœur, Thomas Clifton defines music as "an ordered arrangement of sounds and silences whose meaning is presentative rather than denotative. . . . This definition distinguishes music, as an end in itself, from compositional technique, and from sounds as purely physical objects." More precisely, "music is the actualization of the possibility of any sound whatever to present to some human being a meaning which he experiences with his body—that is to say, with his mind, his feelings, his senses, his will, and his metabolism" (Clifton 1983, 1). It is therefore "a certain reciprocal relation established between a person, his behavior, and a sounding object" (Clifton 1983, 10). Clifton accordingly differentiates music from nonmusic on the basis of the human behavior involved, rather than on either the nature of compositional technique or of sounds as purely physical objects. Consequently, the distinction becomes a question of what is meant by musical behavior: "a musically behaving person is one whose very being is absorbed in the significance of the sounds being experienced." However, "It is not altogether accurate to say that this person is listening to the sounds. First, the person is doing more than listening: he is perceiving, interpreting, judging, and feeling. Second, the preposition 'to' puts too much stress on the sounds as such. Thus, the musically behaving person experiences musical significance by means of, or through, the sounds" (Clifton 1983, 2). In this framework, Clifton finds that there are two things that separate music from nonmusic: (1) musical meaning is presentative, and (2) music and nonmusic are distinguished in the idea of personal involvement. "It is the notion of personal involvement which lends significance to the word ordered in this definition of music" (Clifton 1983, 3–4). This is not to be understood, however, as a sanctification of extreme relativism, since "it is precisely the 'subjective' aspect of experience which lured many writers earlier in this century down the path of sheer opinion-mongering. Later on this trend was reversed by a renewed interest in 'objective,' scientific, or otherwise nonintrospective musical analysis. But we have good reason to believe that a musical experience is not a purely private thing, like seeing pink elephants, and that reporting about such an experience need not be subjective in the sense of it being a mere matter of opinion" (Clifton 1983, 8–9). Clifton's task, then, is to describe musical experience and the objects of this experience which, together, are called "phenomena," and the activity of describing phenomena is called "phenomenology" (Clifton 1983, 9). It is important to stress that this definition of music says nothing about aesthetic standards. Music is not a fact or a thing in the world, but a meaning constituted by human beings. . . . To talk about such experience in a meaningful way demands several things. First, we have to be willing to let the composition speak to us, to let it reveal its own order and significance. . . . Second, we have to be willing to question our assumptions about the nature and role of musical materials. . . . Last, and perhaps most important, we have to be ready to admit that describing a meaningful experience is itself meaningful. (Clifton 1983, 5–6) Nattiez "Music, often an art/entertainment, is a total social fact whose definitions vary according to era and culture," according to Jean Molino (1975, 37). It is often contrasted with noise. According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez: "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be" (Nattiez 1990, 47–8 and 55). Given the above demonstration that "there is no limit to the number or the genre of variables that might intervene in a definition of the musical," (Molino, 1987, 42) an organization of definitions and elements is necessary. Nattiez (1990, 17; see sign (semiotics)) describes definitions according to a tripartite semiological scheme similar to the following: Poietic ProcessEsthesic ProcessComposer (Producer) →Sound (Trace) ←Listener (Receiver) There are three levels of description, the poietic, the neutral, and the esthesic: " By 'poietic' I understand describing the link among the composer's intentions, his creative procedures, his mental schemas, and the result of this collection of strategies; that is, the components that go into the work's material embodiment. Poietic description thus also deals with a quite special form of hearing (Varese called it 'the interior ear'): what the composer hears while imagining the work's sonorous results, or while experimenting at the piano, or with tape." "By 'esthesic' I understand not merely the artificially attentive hearing of a musicologist, but the description of perceptive behaviors within a given population of listeners; that is how this or that aspect of sonorous reality is captured by their perceptive strategies." (Nattiez 1990, 90) The neutral level is that of the physical "trace", (Saussere's sound-image, a sonority, a score), created and interpreted by the esthesic level (which corresponds to a perceptive definition; the perceptive and/or "social" construction definitions below) and the poietic level (which corresponds to a creative, as in compositional, definition; the organizational and social construction definitions below). Table describing types of definitions of music (Nattiez 1990, 46): poietic level(choice of the composer) neutral level(physical definition) esthesic level(perceptive judgment) music musical sound sound of theharmonicspectrum agreeable sound nonmusic noise(nonmusical) noise(complex sound) disagreeablenoise Because of this range of definitions, the study of music comes in a wide variety of forms. There is the study of sound and vibration or acoustics, the cognitive study of music, the study of music theory and performance practice or music theory and ethnomusicology and the study of the reception and history of music, generally called musicology. Xenakis Composer Iannis Xenakis in "Towards a Metamusic" (chapter 7 of Xenakis 1971) defined music in the following way: It is a sort of comportment necessary for whoever thinks it and makes it. It is an individual plemora, a realization. It is a fixing in sound of imagined virtualities (cosmological, philosophical, . . . , arguments) It is normative, that is, unconsciously it is a model for being or for doing by sympathetic drive. It is catalytic: its mere presence permits internal psychic or mental transformations in the same way as the crystal ball of the hypnotist. It is the gratuitous play of a child. It is a mystical (but atheistic) asceticism. Consequently expressions of sadness, joy, love and dramatic situations are only very limited particular instances. (Xenakis 1971, 181)</blockquote> Sources Ashby, Arved, ed. 2004. The Pleasure of Modernist Music: Listening, Meaning, Intention, Ideology. Eastman Studies in Music 29. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. ISBN 1-58046-143-3. Clifton, Thomas. 1983. Music as Heard: A Study in Applied Phenomenology. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02091-0 Goldman, Richard Franko. 1961. “Varèse: Ionisation; Density 21.5; Intégrales; Octandre; Hyperprism; Poème Electronique. Instrumentalists, cond. Robert Craft. Columbia MS 6146 (stereeo)” (in Reviews of Records). Musical Quarterly 47, no. 1. (January):133–34. Leon-Portilla, Miguel. 2007. "La música de los aztecas / Music Among Aztecs", Pauta, no. 103:7–19. Levitin, Daniel J. 2006. This Is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0525949690. List, George. 1985. "Hopi Melodic Concepts". Journal of the American Musicological Society 38, no. 1 (Spring): 143–52. Molino, Jean. 1975. "Fait musical et sémiologue de la musique", Musique en Jeu, no. 17:37–62. Nattiez, Jean-Jacques. 1990. Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music . Translated by Carolyn Abbate. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09136-6. Nettl, Bruno. 1989. Blackfoot Musical Thought: Comparative Perspectives. Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-370-2 Robertson-De Carbo, C. E. 1976. "Tayil as Category and Communication among the Argentine Mapuche: A Methodological Suggestion", Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council 8:35–42. Rosch, Eleanor. 1973. "Natural Categories". Cognitive Psychology 4, no. 3 (May): 328–50. Sakata, Lorraine. 1983. Music in the Mind, The Concepts of Music and Musicians in Afghanistan. Kent: Kent State University Press. Schafer, R. Murray. 1996. "Music and the Soundscape," in Classic Essays on Twentieth-Century Music: A Continuing Symposium, edited by Richard Kostelanetz and Joseph Darby, with Matthew Santa. New York: Schirmer Books; London: Prentice Hall International. ISBN 0-02-864581-2 (pbk) Xenakis, Iannis. 1971. Formalized Music: Thought and Mathematics in Composition''. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press. See also External links What is Music? 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7,058 | Demographics_of_Italy | Italy has the fifth-highest population density in Europe — about 196 persons per square kilometer (490 per square mile). Population In October 2007, Italy officially reached more than 59.5 million Statistiche demografiche ISTAT: persons. Italy currently has the fourth largest population in the European Union, and the 23rd largest population in the world. Italy's population density at 196.1 persons per kilometre is the fifth highest in the European Union. The highest density is in Northern Italy, as one third of the country contains almost half of the Italian population. After World War II, Italy saw an economic boom which led to rural population moving to the cities, and in the same time it turned from a nation characterized by massive emigration to a net immigrant-receiving country. High fertility persisted until the 1970s when it plunged below replacement so as of 2007, one in five Italians was pensioners. Despite this, thanks mainly to the immigration of 1980s and 1990s, in 2000s Italy saw natural population growth for the first time in years. Statistiche demografiche ISTAT: Families: 23,907,410 (58,802,902 Italians in a familiar status, 2.5 Italians per family) Most populated comune (residents) Rome Least populated comune (residents) Morterone (LC) 33 Greatest human density (residents per km²) Portici (NA) 13,032.1 Greatest comune territory (km²) Rome (RM) 1,285.30 Smallest comune territory (km²) Fiera di Primiero (TN) 0.15 Metropolitan areas According to the OECD, the largest metropolitan areas are: Metropolitan areaPopulation Milan 7.4 million Rome 3.7 million Naples 3.1 million Turin 2.2 million Cities ranked by population Population figures within the limits of the city proper, from the December 2004 Istat report (www.istat.it): Name Population RegionRome 2,553,873 LazioMilan 1,299,439 LombardyNaples 1,071,744 CampaniaTurin 902,255 PiedmontPalermo 675,277 SicilyGenoa 605,084 LiguriaBologna 374,425 Emilia-RomagnaFlorence 368,059 TuscanyBari 328,458 PugliaCatania 305,773 SicilyVenice 271,251 VenetoVerona 259,068 VenetoMessina 247,592 SicilyPadua 210,821 VenetoTrieste 207,069 Friuli-Venezia GiuliaTaranto 199,012 PugliaBrescia 192,164 LombardyPrato 185,757 TuscanyReggio di Calabria 183,041 CalabriaModena 180,110 Emilia-RomagnaParma 174,471 Emilia-RomagnaCagliari 161,465 SardegnaLivorno 155,986 ToscanaPerugia 157,842 UmbriaReggio nell'Emilia 155,191 Emilia-RomagnaFoggia 154,780 PugliaRavenna 146,989 Emilia-RomagnaSalerno 135,818 CampaniaRimini 134,700 Emilia-RomagnaFerrara 131,907 Emilia-RomagnaSassari 124,929 SardegnaSyracuse 123,332 SicilyPescara 122,577 AbruzzoMonza 122,263 LombardyBergamo 116,510 LombardyVicenza 113,483 VenetoLatina 111,946 LazioForlì 111,495 Emilia-RomagnaTrento 110,142 Trentino-Alto Adige/SüdtirolTerni 108,999 UmbriaGiugliano in Campania 105,951 CampaniaNovara 102,746 PiedmontAncona 101,797 Marche Immigration Traditionally a country of emigrants, in the last 20 years Italy has become a country of immigration, with about 4.9% of the population fitting that description. 156,179 foreigners were counted in the 1971 census, (Source: Italian Caritas); according to the last figure (Caritas est. 2006 http://www.caritasroma.it/Prima%20pagina/Download/Dossier2006/scheda%20di%20sintesi%202006.pdf ), 3.7 million immigrants live legally in Italy, while estimates for undocumented immigrants vary from 0.8 million to 2 million. Italy has periodically legalized unauthorized foreigners in the past. Officially, at the end of 2006, foreigners comprised 5% of the population or 2,938,922 persons, Statistiche demografiche ISTAT an increase of 270,000 since the previous year. In some Italian cities, such as Brescia, Milan, Padua, and Prato, immigrants total more than 10% of the population. The most recent wave of migration has been from surrounding European nations, particularly Eastern Europe, replacing North Africans as a major source of migrants. Around 500,000 Romanians are officially registered as living in Italy, but unofficial estimates put the actual number at double that figure or perhaps even more. BIRN As of 2006, migrants came from other parts of Europe (47.75%), North Africa (17.77%), Asia (17.43%), Latin America (8.90%). Smaller groups came from sub-Saharan Africa, and North America. Many illegal immigrants from Africa and Eastern Europe work as day laborers in the agriculture of Southern Italy, especially in the citrus and olive groves of Calabria and the tomato factories of Puglia. African immigrants typically pay smugglers in Libya for a transit to the Italian island of Lampedusa. From there they are transferred to detention camps in mainland Italy and eventually released; their deportation orders are not enforced. Working conditions are poor, and in 2006 Médecins sans Frontières opened free clinics for undocumented migrants in Calabria. Bitter harvest, The Guardian, 19 December 2006 Emigrants by ethnicity in 2008: Group % Romanians 15.1% Moroccans 10.5% Albanians 10.3% Ukrainians 5,3%Source: Corriere della Sera, http://www.corriere.it/english/articoli/2007/10_Ottobre/30/migrants.shtml. Languages The official and common language is Italian. Officially recognized minority language groups are: Group Population Native language Region Sardinian 1,269,000 Sardinian Sardinia Friulian 526,000 Friulian Friuli-Venezia Giulia Albanian 348,813 istat.it - see page 6 Albanian southern Italy, Sicily Tyrolean 290,000 German Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Occitan 178,000 Occitan Piedmont, Liguria, Calabria Roma/Sinti 130,000 Romany the whole country Sard.Sassarese 125,000 Sassarese North-west Sardinia Corsican 100,000 Gallurese North-east Sardinia Franco-Provençal 90,000 Franco-Provençal Piedmont, Aosta Valley, Apulia Slovenian 80,000 Slovenian Friuli-Venezia Giulia Ladin 55,000 Ladin Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Veneto French 20,000 French Aosta Valley Greek 20,000 Griko (Greek) Calabria, Apulia Catalan 18,000 Alguerese (Catalan) Sardinia Croatian 2,600 Croatian Molise Carinthian 2,000 German Friuli-Venezia Giulia Carnian 1,400 Friulian Friuli-Venezia GiuliaSource: Ministero degli Interni del Governo Italiano. Official status: German is co-official in the province of Bolzano-Bozen, where in 1991 there were 287,503 German and 116,914 Italian speaking people. Standard French is co-official in the Aosta Valley, but the spoken dialects of this region, and of some northern valleys of Piedmont, are more precisely Franco-Provençal, which boasts some differences from standard French. Religion Roman Catholicism is by far the largest religion in the country, although the Catholic Church is no longer officially the state religion. 87.8% of Italians identified as Roman Catholic, Italia, quasi l'88% si proclama cattolico although only about one-third of these described themselves as active members (36.8%). Other Christian groups in Italy include more than 700,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians, including 470,000 newcomers and some 180,000 Greek Orthodox, 550,000 Pentecostals and Evangelicals (0.8%), of whom 400,000 are members of the Assemblies of God, 235,685 Jehovah's Witnesses (0.4%), Le religioni in Italia: I Testimoni di Geova: 30,000 Waldensians, Chiesa Evangelica Valdese - Unione delle chiese Metodiste e Valdesi: 25,000 Seventh-day Adventists, 22,000 Mormons, 15,000 Baptists (plus some 5,000 Free Baptists), 7,000 Lutherans, 5,000 Methodists (affiliated to the Waldensian Church). The country's oldest religious minority is the Jewish community, comprising roughly 45,000 people (0.06%). It is no longer the largest non-Christian group. As a result of significant immigration from other parts of the world, some 825,000 Muslims BBC NEWS | Europe | Muslims in Europe: Country guide: (1.4% of the total population) live in Italy, though only 50,000 are Italian citizens. In addition, there are 110,000 Buddhists (0.2%), Unione Buddhista Italiana: l'Ente SGI-ITALIA.ORG: L'Istituto Buddista Italiano Soka Gakkai: 70,000 Sikhs, Etnomedia and 70,000 Hindus (0.1%) in Italy. Demographic statistics from the CIA World Factbook The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population estimate 61, 020, 000 (Istat,January 1st 2009) Age structure 0-14 years: 14.03% (male 4,302,487; female 4,064,556) (2008) 15-64 years: 65.93% (male 19,647,451; female 19,658,810) (2008) 65 years and over: 20.04% (male 4,999,809; female 6,946,177) (2008) Median age total: 42.2 years male: 40.7 years female: 43.7 years (2004 est.) Birth rate 9.66 births/1,000 population (Istat 2009) Death rate 9.66 deaths/1,000 population (Istat 2009) Net imgration rate 2.06 imgrant(s)/1,000 population (Istat 2005) Sex ratio at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2004 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 5.83 deaths/1,000 live births male: 6.42 deaths/1,000 live births female: 5.19 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 79.81 years male: 76.88 years female: 82.94 years (2005) Total fertility rate 1.47 children born/woman (2009) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate 0.5% (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS 140,000 (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - deaths less than 1,000 (2003 est.) Nationality noun: Italian(s) adjective: Italian Ethnic groups Italian: 94%, other European (mostly Albanian, Romanian, Ukrainian and others) 3%, African (mostly North African berber) 1.3%, others 1.7% Statistiche demografiche ISTAT Religious groups Roman Catholic: 87%, other Christians: 3%, Muslim: 1.8%, Atheist or Agnostic: 6% Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98.6% male: 99% female: 98.3% (2003 est.) Genetic In a very recent and thorough study (2007) which analysed 699 Italian individuals from 12 different regions in continental Italy, Y chromosome genetic variation in the Italian peninsula is clinal and supports an admixture model for the Mesolithic-Neolithic encounter, Capelli et al. 2007 the most common Y-dna haplogroups observed were : R1b (40%) J (22 %) E1b1b (12.6 %) G (10.8 %) I (7.5 %) K (3.7%) R1a (2.8%) See also List of Italians Italian diaspora References External links Demographic page Demographic Profile Italy Allianz Knowledge | Demographics_of_Italy |@lemmatized italy:19 fifth:2 high:4 population:23 density:4 europe:6 person:4 per:5 square:2 kilometer:1 mile:1 october:1 officially:5 reach:1 million:8 statistiche:4 demografiche:4 istat:11 currently:1 fourth:1 large:5 european:4 union:2 world:5 kilometre:1 northern:2 one:3 third:2 country:8 contain:1 almost:1 half:1 italian:18 war:1 ii:1 saw:2 economic:1 boom:1 lead:1 rural:1 move:1 city:4 time:2 turn:1 nation:2 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7,059 | Military_technology | see also Military technology and equipment Military technology a broad concept that deals with a range of systems which is distinctly not civilian in application. It is distinctly military in nature usually due to being either impractical in application, or dangerous in use without appropriate military training. It is common for the technology to have been developed specifically for use by armed forces by military scientists. These technologies include, in chronological order of appearance: Combat armouring Close order formation as an organisational technology Complex masting and sail systems found on warships during the Age of Sail Gunnery Rockets Automatic firearms Turrets in fortifications, armoured vehicles, and warships Submarines Mine warfare (land and naval) Aircraft bombing (as opposed to thrown bombs) Vehicle armouring (tanks and APCs) Missile guidance Logistic standardisation GPS guidance in guidance weapons Militaries use a significant number of technologies which were originally developed and designed for civilian use and consumption, and which are used by troops with sometimes minor or no modifications at all. | Military_technology |@lemmatized see:1 also:1 military:6 technology:6 equipment:1 broad:1 concept:1 deal:1 range:1 system:2 distinctly:2 civilian:2 application:2 nature:1 usually:1 due:1 either:1 impractical:1 dangerous:1 use:5 without:1 appropriate:1 training:1 common:1 develop:2 specifically:1 armed:1 force:1 scientist:1 include:1 chronological:1 order:2 appearance:1 combat:1 armour:3 close:1 formation:1 organisational:1 complex:1 masting:1 sail:2 find:1 warship:2 age:1 gunnery:1 rocket:1 automatic:1 firearm:1 turret:1 fortification:1 vehicle:2 submarine:1 mine:1 warfare:1 land:1 naval:1 aircraft:1 bombing:1 oppose:1 throw:1 bomb:1 tank:1 apc:1 missile:1 guidance:3 logistic:1 standardisation:1 gps:1 weapon:1 significant:1 number:1 originally:1 design:1 consumption:1 troop:1 sometimes:1 minor:1 modification:1 |@bigram automatic_firearm:1 |
7,060 | Map | A map is a visual representation of an area—a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, regions, and themes. Many maps are static two-dimensional, geometrically accurate (or approximately accurate) representations of three-dimensional space, while others are dynamic or interactive, even three-dimensional. Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent any space, real or imagined, without regard to context or scale; e.g. Brain mapping, DNA mapping, and extraterrestrial mapping. Geographic maps A celestial map from the 17th century, by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit. Cartography, or map-making is the study, and often practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat surface (see History of cartography), and one who makes maps is called a cartographer. Road maps are perhaps the most widely used maps today, and form a subset of navigational maps, which also include aeronautical and nautical charts, railroad network maps, and hiking and bicycling maps. In terms of quantity, the largest number of drawn map sheets is probably made up by local surveys, carried out by municipalities, utilities, tax assessors, emergency services providers, and other local agencies. Many national surveying projects have been carried out by the military, such as the British Ordnance Survey (now a civilian government agency internationally renowned for its comprehensively detailed work). In addition to location information maps may also be used to portray contour lines (isolines) indicating constant values of elevation, temperature, rainfall etc. Orientation of maps The Hereford Mappa Mundi, about 1300, Hereford Cathedral, England. A classic "T-O" map with Jerusalem at centre, east toward the top, Europe the bottom left and Africa on the right. The term orientation refers to the relationship between directions on a map and compass directions. The word orient is derived from oriens, meaning east. In the Middle Ages many maps, including the T and O maps, were drawn with east at the top. Today the most common, but far from universal, cartographic convention is that North is at the top of a map. Examples of maps not oriented to north are: Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion maps are based on a projection of the Earth's sphere onto an icosahedron. The resulting triangular pieces may be arranged in any order or orientation. Many maps used in the Society for Creative Anachronism show the west at the top, in honour of the Society starting in California. Maps from non-Western traditions are oriented a variety of ways. Old maps of Edo show the Japanese imperial palace as the "top", but also at the centre, of the map. Labels on the map are oriented in such a way that you cannot read them properly unless you put the imperial palace above your head. Medieval European T and O maps such as the Hereford Mappa Mundi were centred on Jerusalem with east at the top. Indeed, prior to the reintroduction of Ptolemy's Geography to Europe around 1400, there was no single convention in the West. Portolan charts, for example, are oriented to the shores they describe. Polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centred on the pole, in which case the direction north would be towards or away from the centre of the map, respectively. Reversed maps, also known as Upside-Down maps or South-Up maps, which generally show Australia and New Zealand at the top of the map instead of the bottom. Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe. Scale and accuracy Many, but not all, maps are drawn to a scale, expressed as a ratio such as 1:10,000, meaning that 1 of any unit of measurement on the map corresponds exactly, or approximately, to 10,000 of that same unit on the ground. The scale statement may be taken as exact when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature of the Earth to be neglected, for example in a town planner's city map. Over larger regions where the curvature cannot be ignored we must use map projections from the curved surface of the Earth (sphere or ellipsoid) to the plane. The impossibility of flattening the sphere to the plane implies that no map projection can have constant scale: on most projections the best we can achieve is accurate scale on one or two lines (not necessarily straight) on the projection. Thus for map projections we must introduce the concept of point scale, which is a function of position, and strive to keep its variation within narrow bounds. Although the scale statement is nominal it is usually accurate enough for all but the most precise of measurements. Large scale maps, say 1:10,000, cover relatively small regions in great detail and small scale maps, say 1:10,000,000, cover large regions such as nations, continents and the whole globe. The large/small terminology arose from the practice of writing scales as numerical fractions: 1/10000 is larger than 1/10000000. There is no exact dividing line between large and small but 1/100000 might well be considered as a medium scale. Examples of large scale maps are the 1:25000 maps produced for hikers; on the other hand maps intended for motorists at 1:250,000 or 1:1,000,000 are small scale. It is important to recognize that even the most accurate maps sacrifice a certain amount of accuracy in scale to deliver a greater visual usefulness to its user. For example the width of roads and small streams are exaggerated when they are too narrow to be shown on the map at true scale; that is, on a printed map they would be narrower than could be perceived by the naked eye. The same applies to computer maps where the smallest unit is the pixel. A narrow stream say must be shown to have the width of a pixel even if at the map scale it would be a small fraction of the pixel width. Cartogram: The EU distorted to show population distributions. Sometimes the scale of a map is distorted deliberately. For example the map of Europe shown here has been distorted to show population distributions. Clearly the basic scale is approximately uniform for the rough shape of the continent is still visible. This is an example of a cartogram. Another example of distorted scale is the famous London Underground map. The basic geographical structure is respected but the tube lines (and the River Thames) are smoothed to clarify the relationships between stations. Near the centre of the map stations are spaced out more than near the edges of map. Further inaccuracies may be deliberate. For example cartographers may simply omit military installations or remove features solely in order to enhance the clarity of the map. For example, a road map may or may not show railroads, smaller waterways or other prominent non-road objects, and even if it does, it may show them less clearly (e.g. dashed or dotted lines/outlines) than the highways. Known as decluttering, the practice makes the subject matter that the user is interested in easier to read, usually without sacrificing overall accuracy. Software-based maps often allow the user to toggle decluttering between ON, OFF and AUTO as needed. In AUTO the degree of decluttering is adjusted as the user changes the scale being displayed. World maps and projections Map of large underwater features. (1995, NOAA) Maps of the world or large areas are often either 'political' or 'physical'. The most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial borders; the purpose of the physical is to show features of geography such as mountains, soil type or land use. Geological maps show not only the physical surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock, fault lines, and subsurface structures. Maps that depict the surface of the Earth also use a projection, a way of translating the three-dimensional real surface of the geoid to a two-dimensional picture. Perhaps the best-known world-map projection is the Mercator projection, originally designed as a form of nautical chart. Airplane pilots use aeronautical charts based on a Lambert conformal conic projection, in which a cone is laid over the section of the earth to be mapped. The cone intersects the sphere (the earth) at one or two parallels which are chosen as standard lines. This allows the pilots to plot a great-circle route approximation on a flat, two-dimensional chart. Azimuthal or Gnomonic map projections are often used in planning air routes due to their ability to represent great circles as straight lines. Richard Edes Harrison produced a striking series of maps during and after World War II for Fortune magazine. These used "bird's eye" projections to emphasize globally strategic "fronts" in the air age, pointing out proximities and barriers not apparent on a conventional rectangular projection of the world. Electronic maps A USGS digital raster graphic. From the last quarter of the 20th century, the indispensable tool of the cartographer has been the computer. Much of cartography, especially at the data-gathering survey level, has been subsumed by Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The functionality of maps has been greatly advanced by technology simplifying the superimposition of spatially located variables onto existing geographical maps. Having local information such as rainfall level, distribution of wildlife, or demographic data integrated within the map allows more efficient analysis and better decision making. In the pre-electronic age such superimposition of data led Dr. John Snow to discover the cause of cholera. Today, it is used by agencies as diverse as wildlife conservationists and militaries around the world. Even when GIS is not involved, most cartographers now use a variety of computer graphics programs to generate new maps. Interactive, computerised maps are commercially available, allowing users to zoom in or zoom out (respectively meaning to increase or decrease the scale), sometimes by replacing one map with another of different scale, centred where possible on the same point. In-car global navigation satellite systems are computerised maps with route-planning and advice facilities which monitor the user's position with the help of satellites. From the computer scientist's point of view, zooming in entails one or a combination of: replacing the map by a more detailed one enlarging the same map without enlarging the pixels, hence showing more detail by removing less information compared to the less detailed version enlarging the same map with the pixels enlarged (replaced by rectangles of pixels); no additional detail is shown, but, depending on the quality of one's vision, possibly more detail can be seen; if a computer display does not show adjacent pixels really separate, but overlapping instead (this does not apply for an LCD, but may apply for a cathode ray tube), then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail. A variation of this method is interpolation. For example: Typically (2) applies to a Portable Document Format (PDF) file or other format based on vector graphics. The increase in detail is, of course, limited to the information contained in the file: enlargement of a curve may eventually result in a series of standard geometric figures such as straight lines, arcs of circles or splines. (2) may apply to text and (3) to the outline of a map feature such as a forest or building. (1) may apply to the text (displaying labels for more features), while (2) applies to the rest of the image. Text is not necessarily enlarged when zooming in. Similarly, a road represented by a double line may or may not become wider when one zooms in. The map may also have layers which are partly raster graphics and partly vector graphics. For a single raster graphics image (2) applies until the pixels in the image file correspond to the pixels of the display, thereafter (3) applies. See also Webpage (Graphics), PDF (Layers), MapQuest, Google Maps, Google Earth, OpenStreetMap or Yahoo! Maps. Labeling To communicate spatial information effectively, features such as rivers, lakes, and cities need to be labeled. Over centuries cartographers have developed the art of placing names on even the densest of maps. Text placement or name placement can get mathematically very complex as the number of labels and map density increases. Therefore, text placement is time-consuming and labor-intensive, so cartographers and GIS users have developed automatic label placement to ease this process. Imhof, E., “Die Anordnung der Namen in der Karte,” Annuaire International de Cartographie II, Orell-Füssli Verlag, Zürich, 93-129, 1962. Freeman, H.,, Map data processing and the annotation problem, Proc. 3rd Scandinavian Conf. on Image Analysis, Chartwell-Bratt Ltd. Copenhagen, 1983. Footnotes References David Buisseret, ed., Monarchs, Ministers and Maps: The Emergence of Cartography as a Tool of Government in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 0-226-07987-2 Denis E. Cosgrove (ed.) Mappings. Reaktion Books, 1999 ISBN 1-86189-021-4 Freeman, Herbert, Automated Cartographic Text Placement. White paper. Ahn, J. and Freeman, H., “A program for automatic name placement,” Proc. AUTO-CARTO 6, Ottawa, 1983. 444-455. Freeman, H., “Computer Name Placement,” ch. 29, in Geographical Information Systems, 1, D.J. Maguire, M.F. Goodchild, and D.W. Rhind, John Wiley, New York, 1991, 449-460. Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps, ISBN 0-226-53421-9 O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson, The History of Cartography. Scotland : St. Andrews University, 2002. See also General Atlas Automatic label placement Cartography Geography Globe Map design and types Aeronautical chart Cartogram Compass rose Contour map Dymaxion map Estate map Floor plan Geologic map Map design Nautical chart Pictorial maps Planform Plat Reversed map Road atlas Street map Thematic map Topographic map World map Modern maps Censorship of maps Google Maps Japanese map symbols List of online map services MapQuest Maps of the UK and Ireland Map of the United States NASA World Wind Map history Early world maps George Bradshaw, including maps of the British railway network, first published in 1839 History of cartography Ordnance Survey UK map agency Sanborn Maps - detailed American fire insurance maps Related Topics Aerial landscape art Aerial photography Automatic label placement Geographic coordinate system Geography Cup Map database management National Mine Map Repository Orthophoto External links Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide, by the staff of the U.S. Library of Congress. Historical Maps from the Hargrett Library Collection (University of Georgia) - browse over 1000 maps from as early as 1544. DjVu format; requires free plugin or JAVA Homemade Atlas of the World Mapping History Project - University of Oregon Mapping the World The Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division at The New York Public Library Online map collections at the Library of Congress John H.W. Stuckenberg Map Digital Collection at Gettysburg College 3planeta.com - maps utilits. [Google maps embedded. Determine the co-ordinates of the object on the Earth (longitude and latitude).] Wikipedia:WikiProject Maps, use of maps on Wikipedia be-x-old:Мапа | Map |@lemmatized map:129 visual:2 representation:3 area:2 symbolic:1 depiction:1 highlight:1 relationship:3 element:1 space:4 object:3 region:6 theme:1 many:5 static:1 two:5 dimensional:6 geometrically:1 accurate:5 approximately:3 three:3 others:1 dynamic:1 interactive:2 even:6 although:2 commonly:1 use:13 depict:2 geography:6 may:16 represent:3 real:2 imagine:1 without:3 regard:1 context:1 scale:23 e:5 g:2 brain:1 mapping:4 dna:1 extraterrestrial:1 geographic:3 celestial:1 century:3 dutch:1 cartographer:7 frederik:1 de:2 wit:1 cartography:7 making:2 study:1 often:4 practice:3 craft:1 earth:9 upon:1 flat:2 surface:5 see:4 history:5 one:8 make:3 call:1 road:7 perhaps:2 widely:1 today:3 form:2 subset:1 navigational:1 also:8 include:3 aeronautical:3 nautical:3 chart:7 railroad:2 network:2 hiking:1 bicycling:1 term:2 quantity:1 large:10 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7,061 | Adversarial_system | The adversarial system (or adversary system) of law is the system of law that relies on the skill of each advocate representing his or her party's positions and involves an impartial person, usually a jury, trying to determine the truth of the case. As opposed to that, the inquisitorial system has a judge (or a group of judges who work together) whose task is to investigate the case. The adversarial system is generally adopted in common law countries. An exception, for instance in the U.S., may be made for minor violations, such as traffic offences. On the continent of Europe among some civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from Roman law or the Napoleonic Code) the inquisitorial system may be used for some types of cases. The adversarial system is the two-sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate that pits the prosecution against the defense. Justice is done when the most effective adversary is able to convince the judge or jury that his or her perspective on the case is the correct one. History of the adversarial process Some writers trace the process to the medieval mode of trial by combat Kirsten DeBarba 2002. Maintaining the adversarial system: The practice of allowing jurors to question witnesses during trial. Vanderbilt Law Review 55, no. 5 (October 1): 1521-1548. http://www.proquest.com/ (accessed August 15, 2007). Anne Strick, Injustice for All (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1977): 21. , in which some litigants, notably women, were allowed a champion to represent them. The use of the jury in the common law system seems to have fostered the adversarial system and provides the opportunity of both sides to argue their point of view. Basic features As an accused is not compelled to give evidence in a criminal adversarial proceeding, he may not be questioned by prosecutor or judge unless he chooses to do so. However, should he decide to testify, he is subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. As the election to maintain an accused person's right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person's position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer's manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge. By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give a statement, this statement is not subject to cross-examination and not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain his side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition. Judges in an adversarial system are impartial in ensuring the fair play of due process, or fundamental justice. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what evidence is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing judicial discretion would actually pave the way to a biased decision rendering obsolete the judicial process in question—rule of law being illicitly subordinated by rule of man under such discriminating circumstances. The rules of evidence are also developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the trier of fact which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence he/she believes is not trustworthy or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand. Peter Murphy in his Practical Guide to Evidence recounts an instructive example. A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, 'Am I never to hear the truth?' 'No, my lord, merely the evidence', replied counsel. The name adversary system may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversary and inquisitiorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states. The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in 1836 that England allowed suspects of felonies to have legal counsel (the Prisoners' Counsel Act). In the United States, however, personally retained counsel have had a right to appear in all federal criminal cases since the adoption of the Constitution (a response to the English practice of barring counsel from felony cases) and in state cases at least since the end of the Civil War, although nearly all provided this right in their state constitutions or laws much earlier. Appointment of counsel for indigent defendants was nearly universal in federal felony cases, though it varied considerably in state cases CRS/LII Annotated Constitution Sixth Amendment . It was not until 1963 that the U.S. Supreme Court declared that legal counsel must be provided at the expense of the state for indigent felony defendants, under the federal Sixth Amendment, in state courts. See Gideon v. Wainwright, . One of the most significant differences between the adversary system and the inquisitorial system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversary system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have allocution of her or his crime, a false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitiorial system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for plea bargaining in adversary systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains. Another difference is in the rules of evidence. Because the adversarial system assumes that the evidence is to be presented to laymen rather than to jurists, the rules of evidence are considerably more strict. Rules on hearsay are much stricter in most adversarial systems than in inquisitorial systems; though often lower tribunals are allowed some flexibility in applying the strict rules of common law evidence such as in domestic relations courts or in small claims proceedings where the parties are often unrepresented by lawyers and the judge functions as more of an inquisitor to protect the interests of children than a neutral arbiter of justice. In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused's failure to face cross-examination or to answer a particular question. This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defence. In England the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 allowed such inferences to be made for the first time in England and Wales (It was already possible in Scotland under the rule of criminative circumstances). This change was disparaged by critics as an end to the 'right to silence', though in fact an accused still has the right to remain silent and cannot be compelled to take the stand. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant's invocation of his right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests. Comparisons with the inquisitorial approach In many jurisdictions the approaches of each system are often formal differences in the way cases are reviewed. It is questionable that the results would be different if cases were conducted under the differing approaches; in fact no statistics exist that can show that these systems do not come to the same result. However, these approaches are often a matter of national pride and there are opinions amongst jurists about the merits of the differing approaches and their drawbacks as well. Proponents of the adversarial system often argue that the system is more fair and less prone to abuse than the inquisitional approach, because it allows less room for the state to be biased against the defendant. It also allows most private litigants to settle their disputes in an amicable manner through discovery and pre-trial settlements in which non-contested facts are agreed upon and not dealt with during the trial process. In addition, adversarial procedure defenders argue that the inquisitorial court systems are overly institutionalized and removed from the average citizen. The common law trial lawyer has ample opportunity to uncover the truth in a laboratory called the courtroom. Most cases that go to trial are carefully prepared through a discovery process that aids in the review of evidence and testimony before it is presented to judge or jury. The lawyers involved have a very good idea of the scope of agreement and disagreement of the issues to present at trial which develops much in the same way as the role of investigative judges. It has also been argued that a trial by a jury of one's peers may be more impartial than any government paid inquisitor and a panel of his peers. In the United States the right to a trial by a jury of one's peers who are common citizens is guaranteed by the United States Constitution. Proponents of inquisitorial justice dispute these points. They point out that most cases in adversarial systems are actually resolved by plea bargain and settlement. Plea bargain as a system does not exist in inquisitorial system. Most legal cases in these systems do not go to trial; this can lead to great injustice when the defendant has an unskilled or overworked attorney, which is likely to be the case when the defendant is poor. In addition, proponents of inquisitorial systems argue that the plea bargain system causes the participants within the system to act in perverse ways, in that it encourages prosecutors to bring charges far in excess of what is warranted and defendants to plead guilty even when they believe that they are not. Furthermore, proponents of inquisitorial systems also argue that the power of the judge is limited by the use of lay assessors and that a panel of judges may not necessarily be more biased than a jury. The adversarial system has also been attacked for failing to accurately resolve complex technical issue such as science, technology, or tax or accounting regulation. In the adversarial system, juries encounter such complex technical cases for the first time. This would lead to unjust outcomes for one or both of the litigating parties due to the lack of understanding of the evidence presented. In the inquisitorial system, the judge, though not an expert in each technical subject, would have gone through similar tax, forensic, or accounting related issues countless times, and is thus unlikely to be confused or manipulated. Disadvantages of using a Jury on criminal matters can include: Expensive to operate and extends the time taken to hear cases Jury service imposes an unfair economic and mental burden on those chosen to serve Competence of non-professions is questionable as they are considered ‘amateurs’ in the face of the law Jurors can be unduly influenced by media coverage of their case Easily persuaded by good counsel Do not give reasons for their decisions (process is secret – no debate) Jurors have difficulty in assessing damages and analysing complex evidence This is not an exhaustive list. 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7,062 | Louis_the_Pious | Louis the Pious (778 – 20 June 840), also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, , or , or , or . was the King of Aquitaine from 781. He was also King of the Franks and co-Emperor (as Louis I) with his father, Charlemagne, from 813. As the only surviving adult son of Charlemagne, he became the sole ruler of the Franks after his father's death in 814, a position which he held until his death, save for the period 833–34, during which he was deposed. During his reign in Aquitaine Louis was charged with the defence of the Empire's southwestern frontier. He reconquered Barcelona from the Muslims in 801 and re-asserted Frankish authority over Pamplona and the Basques south of the Pyrenees in 813. As emperor he included his adult sons—Lothair, Pepin, and Louis—in the government and sought to establish a suitable division of the realm between them. The first decade of his reign was characterised by several tragedies and embarrassments, notably the brutal treatment of his nephew Bernard of Italy, for which Louis atoned in a public act of self-debasement. In the 830s his empire was torn by civil war between his sons, only exacerbated by Louis's attempts to include his son Charles by his second wife in the succession plans. Though his reign ended on a high note, with order largely restored to his empire, it was followed by three years of civil war. Louis is generally compared unfavourably to his father, though the problems he faced were of a distinctly different sort. Birth and rule in Aquitaine Louis was born while his father Charlemagne was on campaign in Spain, at the Carolingian villa of Cassinogilum, according to Einhard and the anonymous chronicler called Astronomus; the place is usually identified with Chasseneuil, near Poitiers. Einhard gives the name of his birthplace as Cassanoilum. In addition to Chasseneuil near Poitiers, scholars have suggested that Louis may have been born at Casseneuil (Lot et Garonne) or at Casseuil on the Garonne near La Réole, where the Dropt flows into the Garonne. He was the third son of Charlemagne by his wife Hildegard. Louis was crowned king of Aquitaine as a child in 781 and sent there with regents and a court. Charlemagne constituted the sub-kingdom in order to secure the border of his kingdom after his devastating defeat at the hands of Basques in Roncesvalles in (778). In 794, Charlemagne settled four former Gallo-Roman villas on Louis, in the thought that he would take in each in turn as winter residence: Doué-la-Fontaine in today's Anjou, Ebreuil in Allier, Angeac-Charente, and the disputed Cassinogilum. Charlemagne's intention was to see all his sons brought up as natives of their given territories, wearing the national costume of the region and ruling by the local customs. Thus were the children sent to their respective realms at so young an age. Each kingdom had its importance in keeping some frontier, Louis's was the Spanish March. In 797, Barcelona, the greatest city of the Marca, fell to the Franks when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against Córdoba and, failing, handed it to them. The Umayyad authority recaptured it in 799. However, Louis marched the entire army of his kingdom, including Gascons with their duke Sancho I of Gascony, Provençals under Leibulf, and Goths under Bera, over the Pyrenees and besieged it for two years, wintering there from 800 to 801, when it capitulated. The sons were not given independence from central authority, however, and Charlemagne ingrained in them the concepts of empire and unity by sending them on military expeditions far from their home bases. Louis campaigned in the Italian Mezzogiorno against the Beneventans at least once. Louis was one of Charlemagne's three legitimate sons to survive infancy, and, according to Frankish custom, Louis had expected to share his inheritance with his brothers, Charles the Younger, King of Neustria, and Pepin, King of Italy. In the Divisio Regnorum of 806, Charlemagne had slated Charles the Younger as his successor as emperor and chief king, ruling over the Frankish heartland of Neustria and Austrasia, while giving Pepin the Iron Crown of Lombardy, which Charlemagne possessed by conquest. To Louis's kingdom of Aquitaine, he added Septimania, Provence, and part of Burgundy. But in the event, Charlemagne's other legitimate sons died — Pepin in 810 and Charles in 811 — and Louis alone remained to be crowned co-emperor with Charlemagne in 813. On his father's death in 814, he inherited the entire Frankish kingdom and all its possessions (with the sole exception of Italy, which remained within Louis's empire, but under the direct rule of Bernard, Pepin's son). Charlemagne crowns Louis the Pious Emperor He was in his villa of Doué-la-Fontaine, Anjou, when he received news of his father's passing. Hurrying to Aachen, he crowned himself and was proclaimed by the nobles with shouts of Vivat Imperator Ludovicus. In his first coinage type, minted from the start of his reign, he imitated his father Charlemagne's portrait coinage, giving an image of imperial power and prestige in an echo of Roman glory S. Coupland, "Money and coinage under Louis the Pious", Francia 17.1 (1990), p 25. . He quickly enacted a "moral purge", in which he sent all of his unmarried sisters to nunneries, forgoing their diplomatic use as hostage brides in favour of the security of avoiding the entanglements that powerful brothers-in-law might bring. He spared his illegitimate half-brothers and tonsured his father's cousins, Adalard and Wala, shutting them up in Noirmoutier and Corbie, respectively, despite the latter's initial loyalty. His chief councillors were Bernard, margrave of Septimania, and Ebbo, whom, born a serf, Louis would raise to the archbishopric of Rheims but who would ungratefully betray him later. He retained some of his father's ministers, such as Elisachar, abbot of St Maximin near Trier, and Hildebold, Archbishop of Cologne. Later he replaced Elisachar with Hildwin, abbot of many monasteries. He also used Benedict of Aniane (the Second Benedict), a Septimanian Visigoth and monastic founder, to help him reform the Frankish church. One of Benedict's primary reforms was to ensure that all religious houses in Louis' realm adhered to the Rule of St Benedict, named for its creator, the First Benedict, Benedict of Nursia (480–550). In 816, Pope Stephen V, who had succeeded Leo III, visited Rheims and again crowned Louis. The Emperor thereby strengthened the papacy by recognising the importance of the pope in imperial coronations. Denarius of Louis. Ordinatio imperii On Maundy Thursday 817, Louis and his court were crossing a wooden gallery from the cathedral to the palace in Aachen when the gallery collapsed, killing many. Louis, having barely survived and feeling the imminent danger of death, began planning for his succession; three months later he issued an Ordinatio Imperii, an imperial decree that laid out plans for an orderly succession. In 815, he had already given his two eldest sons a share in the government, when he had sent his elder sons Lothair and Pepin to govern Bavaria and Aquitaine respectively, though without the royal titles. Now, he proceeded to divide the empire among his three sons and his nephew Bernard of Italy: Lothair was proclaimed and crowned co-emperor in Aix-la-Chapelle by his father. He was promised the succession to most of the Frankish dominions (excluding the exceptions below), and would be the overlord of his brothers and cousin. Bernard, the son of Charlemagne's son Pippin of Italy, was confirmed as King of Italy, a title he had been allowed to inherit from his father by Charlemagne. Pepin was proclaimed King of Aquitaine, his territory including Gascony, the march around Toulouse, and the counties of Carcassonne, Autun, Avallon and Nevers. Louis, the youngest son, was proclaimed King of Bavaria and the neighbouring marches. If one of the subordinate kings died, he was to be succeeded by his sons. If he died childless, Lothair would inherit his kingdom. In the event of Lothair dying without sons, one of Louis the Pious' younger sons would be chosen to replace him by "the people". Above all, the Empire would not be divided: the Emperor would rule supreme over the subordinate kings, whose obedience to him was mandatory. With this settlement, Louis tried to combine his sense for the Empire's unity, supported by the clergy, while at the same time providing positions for all of his sons. Instead of treating his sons equally in status and land, he elevated his first-born son Lothair above his younger brothers and gave him the largest part of the Empire as his share. Louis the Pious doing penance at Attigny in 822 Bernard's rebellion and Louis's penance The ordinatio imperii of Aachen left Bernard of Italy in an uncertain and subordinate position as king of Italy, and he began plotting to declare independence upon hearing of it. Louis immediately directed his army towards Italy, and betook himself to Chalon-sur-Saône. Intimidated by the emperor's swift action, Bernard met his uncle at Chalon, under invitation, and surrendered. He was taken to Aix-la-Chapelle by Louis, who there had him tried and condemned to death for treason. Louis had the sentence commuted to blinding, which was duly carried out; Bernard did not survive the ordeal, however, dying after two days of agony. Others also suffered: Theodulf of Orleans, in eclipse since the death of Charlemagne, was accused of having supported the rebellion, and was thrown into a monastic prison, where he died soon after - poisoned, it was rumoured. McKitterick, Rosamond, The New Cambridge Medieval History, 700-900 The fate of his nephew deeply marked Louis's conscience for the rest of his life. In 822, as a deeply religious man, Louis performed penance for causing Bernard's death, at his palace of Attigny near Vouziers in the Ardennes, before Pope Paschal I, and a council of ecclesiastics and nobles of the realm that had been convened for the reconciliation of Louis with his three younger half-brothers, Hugo whom he soon made abbot of St-Quentin, Drogo whom he soon made Bishop of Metz, and Theodoric. This act of contrition, partly in emulation of Theodosius I, had the effect of greatly reducing his prestige as a Frankish ruler, for he also recited a list of minor offences about which no secular ruler of the time would have taken any notice. He also made the egregious error of releasing Wala and Adalard from their monastic confinements, placing the former in a position of power in the court of Lothair and the latter in a position in his own house. Louis on a denarius from Sens, 818–823 Frontier wars At the start of Louis's reign, the many tribes — Danes, Obotrites, Slovenes, Bretons, Basques — which inhabited his frontierlands were still in awe of the Frankish emperor's power and dared not stir up any trouble. In 816, however, the Sorbs rebelled and were quickly followed by Slavomir, chief of the Obotrites, who was captured and abandoned by his own people, being replaced by Ceadrag in 818. Soon, Ceadrag too had turned against the Franks and allied with the Danes, who were to become the greatest menace of the Franks in a short time. A greater Slavic menace was gathering on the southeast. There, Ljudevit Posavski, duke of Pannonia, was harassing the border at the Drava and Sava rivers. The margrave of Friuli, Cadolah, was sent out against him, but he died on campaign and, in 820, his margarvate was invaded by Slovenes. In 821, an alliance was made with Borna, duke of the Dalmatia, and Ljudevit was brought to heel. In 824 several Slav tribes in the north-western parts of Bulgaria acknowledged Louis's suzerainity and after he was reluctant to settle the matter peacefully with the Bulgarian ruler Omurtag, in 827 the Bulgarians attacked the Franks in Pannonia and regained their lands. On the far southern edge of his great realm, Louis had to control the Lombard princes of Benevento whom Charlemagne had never subjugated. He extracted promises from Princes Grimoald IV and Sico, but to no effect. On the southwestern frontier, problems commenced early when, in 815, Séguin, duke of Gascony, revolted. He was defeated and replaced by Lupus III, who was dispossessed in 818 by the emperor. In 820 an assembly at Quierzy-sur-Oise decided to send an expedition against the Cordoban caliphate. The counts in charge of the army, Hugh, count of Tours, and Matfrid, count of Orléans, were slow in acting and the expedition came to naught. First civil war In 818, as Louis was returning from a campaign to Brittany, he was greeted by news of the death of his wife, Ermengarde. Ermengarde was the daughter of Ingerman, the duke of Hesbaye. Louis had been close to his wife, who had been involved in policymaking. It was rumoured that she had played a part in her nephew's death and Louis himself believed her own death was divine retribution for that event. It took many months for his courtiers and advisors to convince him to remarry, but eventually he did, in 820, to Judith, daughter of Welf, count of Altdorf. In 823 Judith gave birth to a son, who was named Charles. The birth of this son damaged the Partition of Aachen, as Louis's attempts to provide for his fourth son met with stiff resistance from his older sons, and the last two decades of his reign were marked by civil war. At Worms in 829, Louis gave Charles Alemannia with the title of king or duke (historians differ on this), thus enraging his son and co-emperor Lothair, Paired gold medallions of father and son had been struck on the occasion of the synod of Paris (825) that asserted Frankish claims as emperor, recently denigrated by the Byzantines; see Karl F. Morrison, "The Gold Medallions of Louis the Pious and Lothaire I and the Synod of Paris (825)" Speculum 36.4 (October 1961:592-599). whose promised share was thereby diminished. An insurrection was soon at hand. With the urging of the vengeful Wala and the cooperation of his brothers, Lothair accused Judith of having committed adultery with Bernard of Septimania, even suggesting Bernard to be the true father of Charles. Ebbo and Hildwin abandoned the emperor at that point, Bernard having risen to greater heights than either of them. Agobard, Archbishop of Lyon, and Jesse, bishop of Amiens, too, opposed the redivision of the empire and lent their episcopal prestige to the rebels. In 830, at Wala's insistence that Bernard of Septimania was plotting against him, Pepin of Aquitaine led an army of Gascons, with the support of the Neustrian magnates, all the way to Paris. At Verberie, Louis the German joined him. At that time, the emperor returned from another campaign in Brittany to find his empire at war with itself. He marched as far as Compiègne, an ancient royal town, before being surrounded by Pepin's forces and captured. Judith was incarcerated at Poitiers and Bernard fled to Barcelona. Then Lothair finally set out with a large Lombard army, but Louis had promised his sons Louis the German and Pepin of Aquitaine greater shares of the inheritance, prompting them to shift loyalties in favour of their father. When Lothair tried to call a general council of the realm in Nijmegen, in the heart of Austrasia, the Austrasians and Rhinelanders came with a following of armed retainers, and the disloyal sons were forced to free their father and bow at his feet (831). Lothair was pardoned, but disgraced and banished to Italy. Pepin returned to Aquitaine and Judith - after being forced to humiliate herself with a solemn oath of innocence - to Louis's court. Only Wala was severely dealt with, making his way to a secluded monastery on the shores of Lake Geneva. Though Hilduin, abbot of Saint Denis, was exiled to Paderborn and Elisachar and Matfrid were deprived of their honours north of the Alps; they did not lose their freedom. Second civil war The next revolt occurred a mere two years later (832). The disaffected Pepin was summoned to his father's court, where he was so poorly received he left against his father's orders. Immediately, fearing that Pepin would be stirred up to revolt by his nobles and desiring to reform his morals, Louis the Pious summoned all his forces to meet in Aquitaine in preparation of an uprising, but Louis the German garnered an army of Slav allies and conquered Swabia before the emperor could react. Once again the elder Louis divided his vast realm. At Jonac, he declared Charles king of Aquitaine and deprived Pepin (he was less harsh with the younger Louis), restoring the whole rest of the empire to Lothair, not yet involved in the civil war. Lothair was, however, interested in usurping his father's authority. His ministers had been in contact with Pepin and may have convinced him and Louis the German to rebel, promising him Alemannia, the kingdom of Charles. Soon Lothair, with the support of Pope Gregory IV, whom he had confirmed in office without his father's support, joined the revolt in 833. While Louis was at Worms gathering a new force, Lothair marched north. Louis marched south. The armies met on the plains of the Rothfeld. There, Gregory met the emperor and may have tried to sow dissension amongst his ranks. Soon much of Louis's army had evaporated before his eyes, and he ordered his few remaining followers to go, because "it would be a pity if any man lost his life or limb on my account." The resigned emperor was taken to Saint Médard at Soissons, his son Charles to Prüm, and the queen to Tortona. The despicable show of disloyalty and disingenuousness earned the site the name Field of Lies, or Lügenfeld, or Campus Mendacii, ubi plurimorum fidelitas exstincta est . On November 13 833, Ebbo of Rheims presided over a synod in the Church of Saint Mary in Soissons which deposed Louis and forced him to publicly confess many crimes, none of which he had, in fact, committed. In return, Lothair gave Ebbo the Abbey of Saint Vaast. Men like Rabanus Maurus, Louis' younger half-brothers Drogo and Hugh, and Emma, Judith's sister and Louis the German's new wife, worked on the younger Louis to make peace with his father, for the sake of unity of the empire. The humiliation to which Louis was then subjected at Notre Dame in Compiègne turned the loyal barons of Austrasia and Saxony against Lothair, and the usurper fled to Burgundy, skirmishing with loyalists near Châlons-sur-Saône. Louis was restored the next year, on 1 March 834. On Lothair's return to Italy, Wala, Jesse, and Matfrid, formerly count of Orléans, died of a pestilence and, on 2 February 835, the Synod of Thionville deposed Ebbo, Agobard, Bernard, Bishop of Vienne, and Bartholomew, Archbishop of Narbonne. Lothair himself fell ill; events had turned completely in Louis favour once again. In 836, however, the family made peace and Louis restored Pepin and Louis, deprived Lothair of all save Italy, and gave it to Charles in a new division, given at the diet of Crémieux. At about that time, the Vikings terrorised and sacked Utrecht and Antwerp. In 837, they went up the Rhine as far as Nijmegen, and their king, Rorik, demanded the wergild of some of his followers killed on previous expeditions before Louis the Pious mustered a massive force and marched against them. They fled, but it would not be the last time they harried the northern coasts. In 838, they even claimed sovereignty over Frisia, but a treaty was confirmed between them and the Franks in 839. Louis the Pious ordered the construction of a North Sea fleet and the sending of missi dominici into Frisia to establish Frankish sovereignty there. Louis on a sesquisolidus, essentially Roman in design. Medieval European Coinage by Philip Grierson, Mark Blackburn, Lucia Travaini, p.329 Third civil war In 837, Louis crowned Charles king over all of Alemannia and Burgundy and gave him a portion of his brother Louis's land. Louis the German promptly rose in revolt, and the emperor redivided his realm again at Quierzy-sur-Oise, giving all of the young king of Bavaria's lands, save Bavaria itself, to Charles. Emperor Louis did not stop there, however. His devotion to Charles knew no bounds. When Pepin died in 838, Louis declared Charles the new king of Aquitaine. The nobles, however, elected Pepin's son Pepin II. When Louis threatened invasion, the third great civil war of his reign broke out. In the spring of 839, Louis the German invaded Swabia, Pepin II and his Gascon subjects fought all the way to the Loire, and the Danes returned to ravage the Frisian coast (sacking Dorstad for a second time). Lothair, for the first time in a long time, allied with his father and pledged support at Worms in exchange for a redivision of the inheritance. By a final placitum issued there, Louis gave Bavaria to Louis the German and disinherited Pepin II, leaving the entire remainder of the empire to be divided roughly into an eastern part and a western. Lothair was given the choice of which partition he would inherit and he chose the eastern, including Italy, leaving the western for Charles. The emperor quickly subjugated Aquitaine and had Charles recognised by the nobles and clergy at Clermont-en-Auvergne in 840. Louis then, in a final flash of glory, rushed into Bavaria and forced the younger Louis into the Ostmark. The empire now settled as he had declared it at Worms, he returned in July to Frankfurt am Main, where he disbanded the army. The final civil war of his reign was over. Death Louis fell ill soon after his final victorious campaigns and went to his summer hunting lodge on an island in the Rhine, by his palace at Ingelheim. On 20 June 840, he died, in the presence of many bishops and clerics and in the arms of his half-brother Drogo, though Charles and Judith were absent in Poitiers. Soon dispute plunged the surviving brothers into a civil war that was only settled in 843 by the Treaty of Verdun, which split the Frankish realm into three parts, to become the kernels of France and Germany, with Burgundy and the Low Countries between them. The dispute over the kingship of Aquitaine was not fully settled until 860. Louis the Pious, along with his half-brother Drogo, were buried in Saint Pierre aux Nonnains Basilica in Metz. Marriage and issue By his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye (married ca 794-98), he had three sons and three daughters: Lothair (795–855), king of Middle Francia Pepin (797–838), king of Aquitaine Adelaide (b. c. 799) Rotrude (b. 800), married Gerard Hildegard (or Matilda) (b. c. 802), married Gerard, Count of Auvergne Louis the German (c. 805–875), king of East Francia By his second wife, Judith of Bavaria, he had a daughter and a son: Gisela, married Eberhard I of Friuli Charles the Bald, king of West Francia By Theodelinde of Sens, he had two illegitimate children: Arnulf of Sens Alpais Notes Sources Vita Hludovici Imperatoris , the main source for his reign, written c. 840 by an unknown author usually called "the Astronomer" Vita Hludowici Imperatoris by Thegan of Trier on-line Latin text Further reading Depreux, Philippe. Prosopographie de l'entourage de Louis le Pieux (781-840). Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1997. A useful prosopographical overview of Louis' household, court and other subordinates. Ganshof, F.L. The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy. 1971. Oman, Charles. The Dark Ages 476-918. London, 1914. Godman, Peter, and Roger Collins (eds.). Charlemagne's Heir. New perspectives on the reign of Louis the Pious (814-840). Oxford and New York: Clarendon Press, 1990. External links Cassinogilum: an argument for Casseneuil as Louis' birthplace Chasseneuil-du-Poitou and not Casseuil by Camille Jullian |- |- |- |- </center> | Louis_the_Pious |@lemmatized louis:90 pious:11 june:2 also:6 call:4 fair:1 debonaire:1 king:22 aquitaine:16 frank:7 co:4 emperor:21 father:21 charlemagne:20 survive:5 adult:2 son:34 become:3 sole:2 ruler:4 death:11 position:5 hold:1 save:3 period:1 depose:3 reign:10 charge:2 defence:1 empire:15 southwestern:2 frontier:4 reconquer:1 barcelona:3 muslim:1 asserted:1 frankish:12 authority:4 pamplona:1 basque:3 south:2 pyrenees:2 include:5 lothair:24 pepin:22 government:2 seek:1 establish:2 suitable:1 division:2 realm:9 first:7 decade:2 characterise:1 several:2 tragedy:1 embarrassment:1 notably:1 brutal:1 treatment:1 nephew:4 bernard:16 italy:13 atone:1 public:1 act:3 self:1 debasement:1 tear:1 civil:10 war:12 exacerbate:1 attempt:2 charles:20 second:5 wife:7 succession:4 plan:3 though:5 end:1 high:1 note:2 order:5 largely:1 restore:4 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7,063 | Iterative_method | In computational mathematics, an iterative method attempts to solve a problem (for example an equation or system of equations) by finding successive approximations to the solution starting from an initial guess. This approach is in contrast to direct methods, which attempt to solve the problem by a finite sequence of operations, and, in the absence of rounding errors, would deliver an exact solution (like solving a linear system of equations Ax = b by Gaussian elimination). Iterative methods are usually the only choice for nonlinear equations. However, iterative methods are often useful even for linear problems involving a large number of variables (sometimes of the order of millions), where direct methods would be prohibitively expensive (and in some cases impossible) even with the best available computing power. Attractive fixed points If an equation can be put into the form f(x) = x, and a solution x is an attractive fixed point of the function f, then one may begin with a point x1 in the basin of attraction of x, and let xn+1 = f(xn) for n ≥ 1, and the sequence {xn}n ≥ 1 will converge to the solution x. If the function f is continuously differentiable, a sufficient condition for convergence is that the spectral radius of the derivative is strictly bounded by one in a neighborhood of the fixed point. If this condition holds at the fixed point, then a sufficiently small neighborhood (basin of attraction) must exist. Linear systems In the case of a system of linear equations, the two main classes of iterative methods are the stationary iterative methods, and the more general Krylov subspace methods. Stationary iterative methods Stationary iterative methods solve a linear system with an operator approximating the original one; and based on a measurement of the error (the residual), form a correction equation for which this process is repeated. While these methods are simple to derive, implement, and analyse, convergence is only guaranteed for a limited class of matrices. Examples of stationary iterative methods are the Jacobi method and the Gauss–Seidel method. Krylov subspace methods Krylov subspace methods form an orthogonal basis of the sequence of successive matrix powers times the initial residual (the Krylov sequence). The approximations to the solution are then formed by minimizing the residual over the subspace formed. The prototypical method in this class is the conjugate gradient method (CG). Other methods are the generalized minimal residual method (GMRES) and the biconjugate gradient method (BiCG). Convergence Since these methods form a basis, it is evident that the method converges in N iterations, where N is the system size. However, in the presence of rounding errors this statement does not hold; moreover, in practice N can be very large, and the iterative process reaches sufficient accuracy already far earlier. The analysis of these methods is hard, depending on a complicated function of the spectrum of the operator. Preconditioners The approximating operator that appears in stationary iterative methods can also be incorporated in Krylov subspace methods such as GMRES (alternatively, preconditioned Krylov methods can be considered as accelerations of stationary iterative methods), where they become transformations of the original operator to a presumably better conditioned one. The construction of preconditioners is a large research area. History Probably the first iterative method for solving a linear system appeared in a letter of Gauss to a student of his. He proposed solving a 4-by-4 system of equations by repeatedly solving the component in which the residual was the largest. The theory of stationary iterative methods was solidly established with the work of D.M. Young starting in the 1950s. The Conjugate Gradient method was also invented in the 1950s, with independent developments by Cornelius Lanczos, Magnus Hestenes and Eduard Stiefel, but its nature and applicability were misunderstood at the time. Only in the 1970s was it realized that conjugacy based methods work very well for partial differential equations, especially the elliptic type. External links Templates for the Solution of Linear Systems Y. Saad: Iterative Methods for Sparse Linear Systems, 1st edition, PWS 1996 See also Krylov subspace Basin of attraction Newton's Method | Iterative_method |@lemmatized computational:1 mathematics:1 iterative:14 method:34 attempt:2 solve:7 problem:3 example:2 equation:9 system:10 find:1 successive:2 approximation:2 solution:6 start:2 initial:2 guess:1 approach:1 contrast:1 direct:2 finite:1 sequence:4 operation:1 absence:1 round:2 error:3 would:2 deliver:1 exact:1 like:1 linear:8 ax:1 b:1 gaussian:1 elimination:1 usually:1 choice:1 nonlinear:1 however:2 often:1 useful:1 even:2 involve:1 large:4 number:1 variable:1 sometimes:1 order:1 million:1 prohibitively:1 expensive:1 case:2 impossible:1 best:1 available:1 compute:1 power:2 attractive:2 fix:1 point:5 put:1 form:6 f:4 x:5 fixed:3 function:3 one:4 may:1 begin:1 basin:3 attraction:3 let:1 xn:3 n:5 converge:1 continuously:1 differentiable:1 sufficient:2 condition:3 convergence:3 spectral:1 radius:1 derivative:1 strictly:1 bound:1 neighborhood:2 hold:2 sufficiently:1 small:1 must:1 exist:1 two:1 main:1 class:3 stationary:7 general:1 krylov:7 subspace:6 operator:4 approximate:1 original:2 base:2 measurement:1 residual:5 correction:1 process:2 repeat:1 simple:1 derive:1 implement:1 analyse:1 guarantee:1 limited:1 matrix:2 jacobi:1 gauss:2 seidel:1 orthogonal:1 basis:2 time:2 minimize:1 prototypical:1 conjugate:2 gradient:3 cg:1 generalized:1 minimal:1 gmres:2 biconjugate:1 bicg:1 since:1 evident:1 converges:1 iteration:1 size:1 presence:1 statement:1 moreover:1 practice:1 reach:1 accuracy:1 already:1 far:1 earlier:1 analysis:1 hard:1 depend:1 complicated:1 spectrum:1 preconditioners:2 approximating:1 appear:2 also:3 incorporate:1 alternatively:1 precondition:1 consider:1 acceleration:1 become:1 transformation:1 presumably:1 well:2 construction:1 research:1 area:1 history:1 probably:1 first:1 letter:1 student:1 propose:1 repeatedly:1 component:1 theory:1 solidly:1 establish:1 work:2 young:1 invent:1 independent:1 development:1 cornelius:1 lanczos:1 magnus:1 hestenes:1 eduard:1 stiefel:1 nature:1 applicability:1 misunderstand:1 realize:1 conjugacy:1 partial:1 differential:1 especially:1 elliptic:1 type:1 external:1 link:1 template:1 saad:1 sparse:1 edition:1 pws:1 see:1 newton:1 |@bigram iterative_method:13 initial_guess:1 gaussian_elimination:1 prohibitively_expensive:1 continuously_differentiable:1 stationary_iterative:7 krylov_subspace:5 conjugate_gradient:2 partial_differential:1 differential_equation:1 external_link:1 |
7,064 | Frederick_Abel | Sir Frederick Augustus Abel, 1st Baronet FRS (17 July 1827–6 September 1902) was an English chemist. (The Chambers Biographical Dictionary gives his year of birth as 1826.) Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 3 Born in London, Abel studied chemistry for six years under A. W. von Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry, then became professor of chemistry at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich in 1851, and three years later was appointed chemist to the War Department and chemical referee to the government. During his tenure of this office, which lasted until 1888, he carried out a large amount of work in connection with the chemistry of explosives. One of the most important of his investigations had to do with the manufacture of guncotton, and he developed a process, consisting essentially of reducing the nitrated cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to be safely manufactured and at the same time yielded the product in a form that increased its usefulness. Abel by Frank Bramley This work to an important extent prepared the way for the "smokeless powders" which came into general use towards the end of the 19th century; cordite, the type adopted by the British government in 1891, was invented jointly by him and Sir James Dewar. He and Dewar were unsuccessfully sued by Alfred Nobel over infringement of Nobel's patent for a similar explosive called ballistite, the case finally being resolved in the House of Lords in 1895. He also extensively researched the behaviour of black powder when ignited, with the Scottish physicist Sir Andrew Noble. At the request of the British government, he devised the Abel test, a means of determining the flash point of petroleum products. His first instrument, the open-test apparatus, was specified in an Act of Parliament in 1868 for officially specifying petroleum products. It was superseded in August 1879 by the much more reliable Abel close-test instrument. Under the leadership of Sir Frederick Abel, first, Guncotton was developed at Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills, patented in 1865, then, the propellant Cordite, patented in 1889. In electricity Abel studied the construction of electrical fuses and other applications of electricity to warlike purposes, and his work on problems of steel manufacture won him in 1897 the Bessemer medal of the Iron and Steel Institute, of which from 1891 to 1893 he was president. He was president of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (then the Society of Telegraph Engineers) in 1877. He became a member of the Royal Society in 1860, and received a royal medal in 1887. He took an important part in the work of the Inventions Exhibition (London) in 1885, and in 1887 became organizing secretary and first director of the Imperial Institute, a position he held till his death in 1902. He was knighted in 1891, and created a baronet in 1893. He is buried in Nunhead Cemetery, one of London's Magnificent Seven cemeteries established in the early 19th century. Books Handbook of Chemistry (with C. L. Bloxam) Modern History of Gunpowder (1866) Gun-cotton (1866) On Explosive Agents (1872) Researches in Explosives (1875) Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes (1898) He also wrote several important articles in the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. 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7,065 | Bitola | Bitola (, ; known also by several alternative names) is a city in the southwestern part of the Republic of Macedonia. The city is an administrative, cultural, industrial, commercial, and educational centre. It is located in the southern part of the Pelagonia valley, surrounded by the Baba and Nidže mountains, 14 km north of the Medžitlija-Níki border crossing with Greece. It is an important junction connecting the south of the Adriatic Sea with the Aegean Sea and Central Europe. It is known from the Ottoman period as "the city of the consuls", as many European countries have consulates in Bitola. According to some sources, Bitola is the second largest town in the country, The Omri Annual Survey (1996): Forging ahead, falling behind, page 137 and to others the third. World Gazetteer: Macedonia - largest cities (per geographical entity) Bitola is also the centre of the Bitola Municipality. Etymology According to Adrian Room, the name Bitola is derived from the old Slavic word Obitel (monastery or abode), since the city was formerly noted for its monastery. When the meaning of the name was no longer understood, it lost its prefix "o". The name Bitola is mentioned in the Bitola inscription, related to the old city fortress built in 1015. Modern Slavic variants include the Macedonian Bitola (Битола), the Serbian Bitolj (Битољ) and Bulgarian Bitolya (Битоля). In Byzantine times, the name was hellenized to Voutélion (Βουτέλιον) or Vitólia (Βιτώλια), hence the names Butella by William of Tyre, Butili by the Arab geographer al-Idrisi). The Aromanian name Bituli is also derived from the Slavic name. Another Greek name of the city, which is currently in use, is Monastíri (Μοναστήρι), also meaning "monastery". The Turkish name Manastır () is derived from the Greek name, as is the Albanian Manastiri. Overview The Italian boutique "Gruppo Fiori", next to an old block. The Magaza, a gallery in the center of the city. The Catholic church "Holy Heart of Jesus", on the main street of Bitola. Architecture in Bitola Aerial view of central Bitola The city is dispersed along the banks of the Dragor river at an altitude of 2,019 ft (615 m) above sea level at the foot of Baba Mountain. Spreading on an area of 1,798 km². and with a population of 122,173 (1991), Bitola is an important industrial, agricultural, commercial, educational, and cultural center. It represents an important junction that connects the South of the Adriatic Sea with the Aegean Sea and Central Europe. Bitola has one of the oldest and most prestigious theaters in the country. Traditionally a strong trading center, Bitola is also known as the city of the consuls. At one time during the Ottoman rule, Bitola had consulates from twelve countries. During the same period, there were a number of prestigious schools in the city including a military academy that, among others, was attended by the famous Turkish reformer Kemal Atatürk. Bitola was also the headquarters of many cultural organizations that were established at that time. Baba Mountain overlooks Bitola from the east. Its magnificent Pelister mountain (2601 m) is a national park with exquisite flora and fauna, among which the rarest species of pine, known as Macedonian pine or pinus peuce, as well as a well-known ski resort. Demography As of 2002, the city has 74,550 inhabitants and the ethnic composition was the following: Macedonians - 66,038 (88.58%) Roma - 2,577 (3.46%) Albanians - 2,360 (3.17%) Turks - 1,562 (2.10%) Aromanians - 997 (1.34%) Serbs - 499 (0.66%) Bosniaks - 20 (0.02%) others - 497 (0.67%) History Prehistory The Bitola area is very rich in monuments from the prehistoric period. Two important ones are Velushka Tumba, and Tumba Bara near the village of Porodin. From the Copper Age there are the settlements of Tumba near the village of Crnobuki, Shuplevec near the village of Suvodol and Visok Rid near the village of Bukri. The Bronze Age is represented by the settlements of Tumba near the village of Kanino and the settlement with the same name near the village of Karamani. Ancient and early Byzantine periods There are important metal artifacts from the ancient period, from the necropolis of Crkvishte near the village of Beranci. A golden earring dating from the 4th century BC is depicted on the obverse of the Macedonian 10 denars banknote, issued in 1996. National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia. Macedonian currency. Banknotes in circulation: 10 Denars. – Retrieved on 30 March 2009. Heraclea Lyncestis ( Hammond, N. G. L., (1972), A History of Macedonia, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pg. 59 - City of Hercules upon the Land of the Lynx) was an important settlement from the Hellenistic period till the early Middle Ages. It was founded by Philip II of Macedon by the middle of the 4th century BC, and named after the Greek demigod Heracles, whom Philip considered his ancestor. As an important strategic point it became a prosperous city. The Romans conquered this part of Macedon in 148 BC and destroyed the political power of the city. The prosperity continued mainly due to the Roman Via Egnatia road which passed near the city. Several monuments from the Roman times remain in Heraclea, including a portico, thermae (baths), an amphitheater and a number of basilicas. The theatre was once capable to house around 3,000 people. In the early Byzantine period (4th to 6th centuries AD) Heraclea was an important episcopal centre. Some of its bishops have been noted in the acts of the Church Councils as bishop Evagrius of Heraclea in the Acts of the Sardica Council from 343 AD. A Small and a Great (Large) basilica, the bishop's residence, a Funeral basilica near the necropolis are some of the remains of this period. Three naves in the Great Basilica are covered with mosaics of very rich floral and figurative iconography; these well preserved mosaics are often regarded as fine examples of the early Christian art period. Other bishops from Heraclea are known between 4th and 6th century AD. The city was sacked by Ostrogothic forces, commanded by Theodoric the Great in 472 AD and, despite a large gift to him from the city's bishop, it was sacked again in 479 AD. It was restored in the late 5th and early 6th century. In the late 6th century the city suffered successive attacks by Slavic tribes and was gradually abandoned. Arrival of the Slavs In the 6th and 7th century AD the region around Monastiri experienced a demographic shift as more and more Slavic tribes settled in the area. In place of the deserted theater, several houses were built during that time. The Slavs also built a defence fortress around their settlement. Monastiri was conquered and remained part of the First Bulgarian Empire from late 8th to early 11th century. The spreading of Christianity was assisted by St. Clement of Ohrid and Naum of Preslav in the 9th and early 10th century. Many monasteries and churches were built in the city. In the 10th century, Monastiri was under the rule of tsar Samuil of Bulgaria. He built a castle in the town, later used by his successor Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria. The town is mentioned in several medieval sources. John Skylitzes's 11th century chronicle mentions that Emperor Basil II burned Gavril's castles in Monastiri, when passing through and ravaging Pelagonia. The second chrysobull (1019) of Basil II mentioned that the Bishop of Monastiri depended on the Bulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid. During the reign of Samuil, the city was an important centre in the Bulgarian state and the seat of the Monasir Bishopric. In many medieval sources, especially Western, the name Pelagonia was synonymous with the Monastir Bishopric, and in some of them Monastiri was known under the name of Heraclea due to the church tradition, namely the turning of Heraclea Bishopric into Pelagonian Metropolitan's Diocese. In 1015, tsar Gavril Radomir was killed by his cousin Ivan Vladislav, who declared himself tsar and rebuilt the city fortress. To celebrate the occasion, a stone inscription written in the Cyrillic alphabet was set in the fortress where the Slavic name of the city is mentioned: Bitol. Following battles with tsar Ivan Vladislav, Byzantine emperor Basil II recaptured Monastiri in 1015. The town is mentioned as an episcopal centre in 1019, in a record by Basil II. Two important uprisings against Byzantine rule took place in the Monastiri area in 1040 and 1072. After the Bulgarian state was restored in late 11th century, Bitola was incorporated under the rule of tsar Kaloyan of Bulgaria. It was conquered again by Byzantium at the end of the 13th century, but became part of Serbia in the first half of the 14th century, after the conquests of Stefan Dušan. As a military, political and cultural center, Monastiri played a very important role in the life of the medieval society in the region, prior to the Ottoman conquest in mid-14th century. On the eve of the Ottoman conquest, Monastiri (Monastir in Ottoman Turkish) experienced a great boom, having well-established trading links all over the Balkan Peninsula, especially with big economic centers like Constantinople, Thessalonica, Ragusa and Tarnovo. Caravans of various goods moved to and from Monastir. Ottoman rule Bitola in the 19th century From 1382 to 1912, Manastır (now Bitola) was part of the Ottoman Empire. Strong battles took place near the city during the arrival of Turkish forces. Turkish rule was completely established after the death of Prince Marko in 1395. For several centuries, Turks were a majority in this city, while the villages were populated mostly with Slavs. Evliya Çelebi says in his Book of Travels that the city had 70 mosques, several coffee-tea rooms, a bazaar (market) with iron gates and 900 shops. Manastır became a sanjak centre in the Rumeli eyalet (Ottoman province). After the Austro-Ottoman wars, the trade development and the overall thriving of the city was stifled. But in late 19th century, it again it became the second-biggest city in the wider southern Balkan region after Salonica. The city is also known as "city of consuls", because 12 diplomatic consuls resided here during the period 1878–1913. In 1864, Manastır became the center of Monastir eyalet which included the sanjaks of Debre, Serfiçe, Elbasan, Manastır (Bitola), Görice and towns of Kırcaova, Pirlepe, Florina, Kesriye and Grevena. There is opposing ethnographic data from that period, but it appears that no specific ethnic or religious group could claim an absolute majority of the population. According to the 1911 Ottoman census, Greeks were the largest Christian population in the vilayet, with 740,000 Greeks, 517,000 Bulgarians and 1,061,000 Muslims in the vilayets of Selanik (Thessaloniki) and Manastır. However it should be noted that basis of Ottoman censuses was the millet system. People were assigned to ethicity according which religion they belonged. So all Sunni Muslims were categorised as Turks, all members of Greek Orthodox church as Greeks although it included vaste majority of Aromanians and certain number of Macedonian Slavs, while rest being divided between Bulgarian and Serb Orthodox churches Ortaylı, İlber. "Son İmparatorluk Osmanlı (The Last Empire: Ottoman Empire)", İstanbul, Timaş Yayınları (Timaş Press), 2006. pp. 87–89. ISBN 975-263-490-7 . . But the Ottoman register of Bedel-I Askeriye Tax of 1873 says the Manastır vilayet had about 150 000 Bulgarian men (heads of households), 40 000 Muslim and only 700 Greek. Ottoman population data from 1901 counts 566 000 Slavs, 363 000 Turks and 260 000 Greeks in the Thessaloniki and Manastır vilayets.. In 1894, Manastır was connected with Selanik by train. The first motion picture made in the Balkans was recorded by the Aromanian Manakis brothers in Manastır in 1903. In their honour, the annual Manaki Brothers International Film Camera Festival is held in modern Bitola. The Manastır congress of 1908 which defined the modern Albanian alphabet was held in the city. Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising The Bitola region was a stronghold of the Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising. The uprising was started as decided in 1903 in Thessaloniki by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO). Gotse Delchev opposed the timing of the uprising, saying that the people were not ready. He was killed on 4 May 1903 near Banitza village (today in Greece). The uprising in the Bitola region was planned in Smilevo village in May 1903. The battles were fought in the villages of Bistrica, Rakovo, Buf, Skocivir, Paralovo, Brod, Novaci, Smilevo, Gjavato, Capari and others. Smilevo was defended by 600 rebels led by Dame Gruev and Georgi Sugarev, but when they were defeated, villages were burned. Balkan wars In 1912, Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece fought the Ottomans in the First Balkan War. According to the Treaty of Bucharest, 1913, the region of Macedonia was divided in 3 parts among Greeks, Serbs and Bulgarians. Bitola was to be in Bulgaria, according to a pre-war alliance agreement between Bulgaria and Serbia. But the Serbian army entered the city and refused to hand it to Bulgaria. From that moment, the city started to lose its importance and the population started rapidly decreasing, emigrating for Bulgaria and the New World. World War I During World War I Bitola was on the Thessaloniki front line. In 1915 Bulgarian forces took the city and the Serb forces were forced to either surrender or try a dangerous escape through the Albanian mountains. In 1916, Bitola was occupied by the Allied Powers which entered the city from the South fighting the Bulgarian army. Bitola was divided into French, Russian, Italian and Serbian regions, under the command of French general Maurice Sarrail. Until Bulgaria's surrender in late autumn 1918, Bitola remained a front line city and was almost every day bombarded by airplanes and battery and suffered almost total destruction. Between the two World Wars Macedonian partisans liberating the city of Bitola. After the end of World War I (1918) Bitola was included in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later called the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The city became a neglected border town, just 14 kilometres from Greece. Bitola's decline continued throughout this period, together with the general decline in Vardarska Banovina (Vardar Banovina), which remained one of the poorest regions in Yugoslavia. World War II During the World War II (1941-1945), the Germans and later Bulgarians took control of the city. But in September 1944, Bulgaria switched sides in the war and withdrew from Yugoslavia, and Bitola was freed by Macedonian Pro-Titoist Partisans. On 4 November, the 7th Macedonian Liberation Brigade entered Bitola victoriously. After the end of the war, a Macedonian state was established for the first time in modern history, within Yugoslavia. This had cost about 25.000 human lives. In 1945, the first Gymnasium (named "Josip Broz Tito") to use the Macedonian language, was opened in Bitola. Jewish Community After the Expulsion of 1492, Spanish-speaking Jews harassed and persecuted by the Inquisition, accepted by Sultan Bayezid II to the Ottoman territories and arrived in waves from the Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal). A majority settled in Salonika, but a large community grew in Monastir and made up over ten percent of the city's population in 1900. The local Jewish population referred to themselves as Monastirli, and a Monastirli synagogue exists to this day in modern Thessaloniki Families of Monastir . There was little evidence of anti-Semitism among other local communities. The Jews and the Aromanians were the only communities who did not make a national claim on Macedonian territory and were generally seen as neutral in these disputes. Most Jews of Monastir were murdered during the Holocaust, and at present none remain in the city "Last Century of a Sephardic Community, The Jews of Monastir, 1839-1943", by Mark Cohen . Historical buildings The city has many historical building dating from many historical periods. The most notable ones are from the Ottoman age, but there are some the more recent past. Clock Tower The clock tower in Bitola. It is unknown when Bitola's clock tower was built. Written sources from the 16th century mention a clock tower, but it is not clear if it is the same one. Some believe it was built at the same time as St. Dimitrija Church, in 1830. Legend says that the Ottoman authorities collected around 60,000 eggs from nearby villages and mixed them in the mortar to make the walls stronger. The Russian consulate and the Austrian library in the center of Bitola, with the clock tower in the background. The tower has a rectangular base and is about 30 meters high. Near the top is a rectangular terrace with an iron fence. On each side of the fence is an iron console construction which holds the lamps for lighting the clock. The clock is on the highest of three levels. The original clock was replaced during World War II with a working one, given by the Nazis because the city had maintained German graves from World War I. The massive tower is composed of walls, massive spiral stairs, wooden mezzanine constructions, pendentives (triangular pass from square to cupola) and cupola. During the construction of the tower, the facade was simultaneously decorated with simple stone plastic. St. Dimitrija Church The St. Dimitrija Church was built in 1830 with voluntary contributions of local merchants and craftsmen. It is plain on the outside, as all churches in the Ottoman Empire had to be, but of rare beauty inside, lavishly decorated with chandeliers, a carved bishop throne and an engraved iconostasis. According to some theories, the iconostasis is a work of the Miyak engravers. Its most impressive feature is the arc above the imperial quarters with modeled figures of Jesus and the apostles. Other engraved wood items include the bishop’s throne made in the spirit of Miyak engravers, several icon frames and five more-recent pillars shaped like thrones. The frescos originate from two periods: the end of the 19th century, and the end of World War I to the present. The icons and frescos were created thanks to voluntary contributions of local businessmen and citizens. The authors of many of the icons had a vast knowledge of iconography schemes of the New Testament. The icons show a great sense of color, dominated by red, green and ochra shades. The abundance of golden ornaments is noticeable and points to the presence of late-Byzantine artwork and baroque style. The icon of St. Dimitrij is signed with the initials "D. A. Z.", showing that it was made by iconographer Dimitar Andonov the zograph in 1889. There are many other items, including the putiri made by local masters, a darohranilka of Russian origin, and several paintings of scenes from the New Testament, brought from Jerusalem by pilgrims. The opening scenes of the film The Peacemaker were shot in the "St. Dimitrija" church in Bitola, as well as some Welcome to Sarajevo scenes. Ajdar-kadi mosque The Ajdar-kadi (Turkish judge) Mosque is one of the most attractive monuments of Islamic architecture in Bitola. It was built in the early 1560s, as the project of the famous architect Mimar Sinan, ordered by the Bitola kadija Ajdar-kadi. Over time, it was abandoned and heavily damaged, but recent restoration and conservation has restored to some extent its original appearance. Jeni mosque The Jeni mosque is located in the center of the city. It has a square base, topped with a cupola. Near the mosque is a minaret, 40 m high. Today, the mosque's rooms house permanent and temporary art exhibitions. Recent archaeological excavations have revealed that it has been built upon an old church. Ishak mosque The Ishak mosque is the inheritance of the famous kadi Ishak Çelebi. In its spacious yard are several tombs, attractive because of the soft, molded shapes of the sarcophagi. The old bazaar The old bazaar (Macedonian: Стара Чаршија) is mentioned in a description of the city from the 16th and the 17th century. The present bezisten does not differ much in appearance from the original one. The bezisten had 86 shops and 4 large iron gates. The shops used to sell textiles, and today sell food products. Deboj Bath The Deboj Bath is a Turkish bath (hamam). It is not known when exactly it was constructed. At one point, it was heavily damaged, but after repairs it regained its original appearance: beautiful facade, two large cupolas and several minor ones. Geography Bitola is located in the south-western part of Macedonia. The Dragor River flows through the city. Bitola is located at an elevation of 615 meters above sea level. Bitola today The headquarters of the Bitola-based bank, Stopanska Banka Bitola. The "glass building", a shopping center in the center of Bitola The "glass building" from the other side Bitola is the main economic and industrial center of southwestern Republic of Macedonia. Many of the largest companies in the Republic are based here. The Pelagonija agricultural combine is the largest producer of food in the country. The Streževo water system is the largest in the Republic of Macedonia and has the best technological facilities. The three thermoelectric power stations of REK Bitola produce nearly 80% of electricity in the state. The Frinko refrigerate factory was a leading electrical and metal company. Bitola also has significant capacity in the textile and food industries. Eleven countries have so far opened consulates in Bitola: Bulgaria Croatia France Great Britain Greece Montenegro Russia Slovenia Turkey Romania Serbia Media There are three Bitola Television Stations: TERA, Orbis and Medi, four regional radio stations: the state Radio Bitola, and the private Radio 105, Aktuel Bombarder and Radio Delfin as well as a local weekly newspaper — Bitolski Vesnik. Culture Heraclea Festival The "Heraclea Festival" or also known as "Heraclea Evenings" is a summer event that takes places throughout the whole summer and its main concentration is on theater, art, and music. At the moment, the Heraclea Festival is highly appraised European Festival with a determined future for its artistic conception and tendency for a new vision for the next millennium. Manaki Festival of Film and Camera In memories of the first cameramen on the Balkans, Milton Manaki, every September the Film and Photo festival "Brothers Manaki" takes place. It is a combination of documentary and full-length films that are being shown. The festival is a world class event and it is a must see. "Ilindenski Denovi" Every year, the traditional folk festival "Ilinden Days" takes place in Bitola. It is a 4-5 day festival of music, songs, and dances that is dedicated to the Ilinden Uprising against the Turks, where the main concentration is placed on the folk culture of Macedonia. Folk dances and songs are presented with many folklore groups and organizations taking part in it. "Small Monmartre of Bitola" In the last few years, the Art manifestation "Small Monmartre of Bitola" that is organized by the art studio "Kiril and Metodij" has turned into a successful children's art festival. Children from all over the world come to express their imagination through art, creating important and priceless art that is presented in the country and around the world. "Small Monmartre of Bitola" is a winner of numerous awards and nominations. "Serenada on Sirok-sokak" Bitola, Sirok-sokak, love, friends, singing, drinking.... remembering the old days in cosmopolitan Bitola, the most modern city since the time of the Consuls. This is the reason the festival "Serenada on Sirok sokak" was created by artist and musicians from Bitola and since then it is organized every year. About 25-30 songs are performed in 2 days, and what is significant about the festival is that artist perform live. Awards are given according to audience decision.The general manager of festival is Mile Serdenkov. Si-Do Every May, Bitola hosts the International children's song festival Si-Do, which in recent years has gained much popularity. Children from different countries all over Europe participate in this event which usually consists of about 20 songs. This festival is supported by ProMedia which organizes the event with new topic each year. Festival for Classical music Interfest It is an international festival dedicated mainly to classical music where many creative and reproductive artist from all over the world take place. In addition to the classical music concerts, there are also few nights for pop-modern music, theater plays, art exhibitions, and a day for literature presentation during the event. In the last few years there have been artists from Russia, Slovakia, Poland,and many other countries. For the reason of Bitola being called the city with most pianos, there is one night of the festival dedicated to piano competitions. One award is given for the best young piano player, and another for competitors under 30. Pop music festivals The festival "Interfest" for adults, and "Si-do" , for children is where the talent of Bitola in modern music is found. Artists from this category that come from Bitola are Karolina Goceva, Suzana Turundjieva and others. Education The Technical Faculty in Bitola, part of Bitola's University "St. Clement of Ohrid" St. Clement of Ohrid University of Bitola (. Климент Охридски — Битола) was founded in 1979, as a result of dispersed processes that occurred in education in the 1970s, and increasing demand of highly skilled professionals outside the country's capital. Since 1994, it has carried the name of the Slavic educator St. Clement of Ohrid. The university has institutes in Bitola, Ohrid, and Prilep, and headquarters in Bitola. With its additions in education and science, it has established itself, and cooperates with University of St. Cyril and Methodius from Skopje and other universities in the Balkans and Europe. The following institutes and scientific organizations are part of the university: Technical Faculty – Bitola Economical Faculty – Prilep Faculty of Tourism and Leisure management – Ohrid Teachers Faculty – Bitola Faculty of biotechnological sciences – Bitola Faculty of administration and management of information systems — Bitola Medical college – Bitola Tobacco institute – Prilep Hydro-biological institute – Ohrid Slavic cultural institute – Prilep The city also has seven high schools and ten primary schools. The ten Primary Schools in Bitola are: "Sv. Kiril i Metodij" "Sv. Kliment Ohridski" "Goce Delcev" "Elpida Karamandi" "Dame Gruev" "Todor Angelevski" "Kole Kaninski" "Trifun Panovski" "Stiv Naumov" "Gorgi Sugarev" People from Bitola Some notable people born in Bitola are: Nikolce Noveski, footballer Karolina Gočeva, singer Hristijan Spirovski, pianist Twin towns Hotel "Epinal" in the center of Bitola, named in honor of the French city Épinal, a twin town of Bitola. In return, a quarter in the city of Épinal is called Bitola, and a Macedonian flag is flown there. Bitola participates in town twinning to foster good international relations. Its current partners include: Pushkin, Russia Sister cities of Pushkin Épinal, France Rijeka, Croatia Bursa, Turkey Kranj, Slovenia Rockdale, NSW, Australia Kremenchuk, Ukraine Pleven, Bulgaria Zemun, Serbia Kaiserslautern, Germany Prizren, Kosovo Korçë, Albania Gallery References Bibliography Basil Gounaris, "From Peasants into Urbanites, from Village into Nation: Ottoman Monastir in the Early Twentieth Century", European History Quarterly 31:1 (2001), pp. 43–63. online copy External links Bitola Municipality Official Page A tourist info site about Bitola created with EU funds in cooperation with Dhimos Florinas, Greece Bitola - Gallery | Bitola |@lemmatized bitola:86 know:10 also:12 several:10 alternative:1 name:19 city:52 southwestern:2 part:11 republic:5 macedonia:9 administrative:1 cultural:5 industrial:3 commercial:2 educational:2 centre:6 locate:4 southern:2 pelagonia:3 valley:1 surround:1 baba:3 nidže:1 mountain:5 km:1 north:1 medžitlija:1 níki:1 border:2 cross:1 greece:6 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7,066 | Absalom | The Death of Absalom by Gustave Dore Absalom or Avshalom () was the third son of David, king of Israel with Maachah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur. () He had no sons. () describes him as the most handsome man in the kingdom. Absalom eventually rebelled against his father and was killed during the Battle of Ephraim Wood. 2 Samuel 14:25 Murder of Amnon After his sister Tamar is raped by David's eldest son, Amnon, Absalom, after waiting two years, avenged her by sending his servants to murder Amnon at a feast to which he had invited all the king's sons. () After this deed he fled to Talmai, "king" of Geshur () (see also or ), his maternal grandfather, and it was not until three years later that he was fully reinstated in his father's favour. () (see Joab) The revolt at Hebron Four years after this he raised a revolt at Hebron, the former capital. Absalom was now the eldest surviving son of David, and the present position of the narratives (15-20)--after the birth of Solomon and before the struggle between Solomon and Adonijah---may represent the view that the suspicion that he was not the destined heir of his father's throne excited the impulsive youth to rebellion. All Israel and Judah flocked to his side, and David, attended only by the Cherethites and Pelethites and some recent recruits from Gath, found it expedient to flee. The priests remained behind in Jerusalem, and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as his spies. Absalom reached the capital and took counsel with the renowned Ahithophel (sometimes Achitophel). The pursuit was continued and David took refuge beyond the Jordan River. However, David took the precaution of instructing a servant, Hushai, to infiltrate Absalom's court and subvert it. To that end, Hushai convinced the prince to ignore Ahithophel's advice to attack his father while he was on the run and instead to better prepare his forces for a major attack. This gave David critical time to prepare his own troops for the coming battle. The battle of Ephraim Wood Photo of Absalom's Tomb in Kidron Valley - 1860s A fateful battle was fought in the Wood of Ephraim (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan) and Absalom's army was completely routed. 2 Samuel 16-18 Absalom himself was caught by his head in the boughs of an oak-tree. David had charged his men to deal gently with Absalom but Joab, David's commander, killed Absalom by thrusting three spears through his heart as he struggled in the branches followed by his ten armor-bearers who came around and slew him. Memorial to Absalom Despite Absalom's revolt, David was overwhelmed with grief for his son's death and ordered a great heap of stones to be erected where he fell. Another monument near Jerusalem (not the modern "Absalom Tomb" - "Yad Avshalom" which is of later origin) was erected by Absalom in his lifetime to perpetuate his name (): "Now Absalom in his lifetime had taken and reared up for himself a monument, which is in the king's dale: for he said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance: and he called the pillar after his own name: and it is called unto this day, Absalom's monument." Absalom in Art Fiction Absalom, Absalom! is the title of a novel by William Faulkner, and refers to the return of Thomas Sutpen's son. Cry, the Beloved Country by Alan Paton. Absalom was the name of Stephen Kumalo's son in the novel. Like the historical Absalom, Absalom Kumalo was at odds with his father, the two fighting a moral and ethical battle of sorts over the course of some of the novel's most important events. Absalom kills and murders a man, and also meets an untimely death. Absalom, Absalom! by William Faulkner. Refers to the return of Thomas Sutpen's son. Ender's Shadow references the story of Absalom and King David's lament. Absalom is the name of a character in Eiichiro Oda's manga One Piece. Music Josquin Desprez composed the motet "Absalon, fili mi" on the occasion of the death of Juan Borgia. Leonard Cohen's poem "Prayer for Sunset" compares the setting sun to the raving Absalom, and asks whether another Joab will arrive tomorrow night to kill Absalom again. Heinrich SCHÜTZ (1585-1672) composed "Fili mi,Absalon" as part of his Sinfoniae Sacrae, op.6 The single verse, 2 Samuel 18:33, regarding David's grief at the loss of his son ("And the king was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept: and as he went, thus he said, O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!"), is the setting of several pieces of choral music, usually entitled When David Heard (Such as Eric Whitacre's When David Heard) although this does not appear in the actual scripture. "Absalom, Absalom" is the title of a song on the 1996 Compass CD "Making Light of It" by singer/songwriter Pierce Pettis, incorporating several elements of the biblical narrative. During the finale of the song Distant Early Warning by Canadian band Rush, Geddy Lee sings, "Absalom Absalom Absalom." Lyrics written by drummer Neil Peart. David Olney's 2000 CD Omar's Blues includes the song "Absalom." The song depicts David grieving over the death of his son. The story of Absalom is referred to several places in folk singer Adam Arcuragi's song "Always Almost Crying." The San Francisco-based band Om mentions Absalom in their song "Kapila's Theme" from their debut album "Variations on a Theme". The garage folk band David's Doldrums references Absalom in their song, "my name is Absalom." The song alludes to Absalom's feelings of solemnity and abandonment of love and hope. In "Every Kind Word" by Lackthereof, Danny Seim's project parallel to Menomena, Seim sings "...and your hair is long like Absalom." "Barach Hamelech" an Israeli song by Amos Etinger and Yosef Hadar. The grindcore band Discordance Axis references Absalom at the end of the track entitled 'Castration Rite'. The Progressive Metal band from Barranquilla, Colombia, Absalom has his name. http://karmametalcolombian.blogspot.com/2008/04/absalom-absalom-colombian-2003.html 2007 Ryland Angel Released "Absalom" on Ryland Angel - Manhattan Records http://www.rylandangel.com/ Painting by Albert Weisgerber Absalom - Albert Weisgerber The Banquet of Absalom - attributed to Bernardo Cavallino. Poetry "Absalom and Achitophel"--a political satire in verse by John Dryden Rainer Maria Rilke alludes to Absalom in his two poems "Absalom's Rebellion" and "Absalom's Abfall." Anglo-Jewish war poet Isaac Rosenberg alludes to Absalom in the poem 'Chagrin.' In the Ahrens and Flaherty musical The Glorious Ones (based on the historical novel by Francine Prose), Francesco Andreini sings a song called "Absalom", as a metaphor for his relationship with Flaminio Scala. "Absalom" is the title of the eighth section of Muriel Rukeyser's long narrative poem "The Book of the Dead," from her 1938 book "U.S. 1." The poem exposes and dwells on an industrial tragedy in West Virginia, that lead to hundreds of deaths among workers digging a tunnel. References | Absalom |@lemmatized death:6 absalom:60 gustave:1 dore:1 avshalom:2 third:1 son:18 david:17 king:7 israel:2 maachah:1 daughter:1 talmai:2 geshur:2 describe:1 handsome:1 man:2 kingdom:1 eventually:1 rebel:1 father:5 kill:4 battle:5 ephraim:3 wood:3 samuel:3 murder:3 amnon:3 sister:1 tamar:1 rap:1 eldest:2 wait:1 two:3 year:3 avenge:1 send:1 servant:2 feast:1 invite:1 deed:1 flee:2 see:2 also:2 maternal:1 grandfather:1 three:2 later:2 fully:1 reinstate:1 favour:1 joab:3 revolt:3 hebron:2 four:1 raise:1 former:1 capital:2 survive:1 present:1 position:1 narrative:3 birth:1 solomon:2 struggle:2 adonijah:1 may:1 represent:1 view:1 suspicion:1 destine:1 heir:1 throne:1 excite:1 impulsive:1 youth:1 rebellion:2 judah:1 flock:1 side:1 attend:1 cherethites:1 pelethites:1 recent:1 recruit:1 gath:1 find:1 expedient:1 priest:1 remain:1 behind:1 jerusalem:2 jonathan:1 ahimaaz:1 serve:1 spy:1 reach:1 take:4 counsel:1 renowned:1 ahithophel:2 sometimes:1 achitophel:2 pursuit:1 continue:1 refuge:1 beyond:1 jordan:2 river:1 however:1 precaution:1 instruct:1 hushai:2 infiltrate:1 court:1 subvert:1 end:2 convince:1 prince:1 ignore:1 advice:1 attack:2 run:1 instead:1 good:1 prepare:2 force:1 major:1 give:1 critical:1 time:1 troop:1 coming:1 photo:1 tomb:2 kidron:1 valley:1 fateful:1 fight:2 name:8 suggest:1 locality:1 west:2 army:1 completely:1 rout:1 catch:1 head:1 bough:1 oak:1 tree:1 charge:1 men:1 deal:1 gently:1 commander:1 thrust:1 spear:1 heart:1 branch:1 follow:1 ten:1 armor:1 bearer:1 come:1 around:1 slew:1 memorial:1 despite:1 overwhelm:1 grief:2 order:1 great:1 heap:1 stone:1 erect:2 fell:1 another:2 monument:3 near:1 modern:1 yad:1 origin:1 lifetime:2 perpetuate:1 rear:1 dale:1 say:2 keep:1 remembrance:1 call:3 pillar:1 unto:1 day:1 art:1 fiction:1 title:3 novel:4 william:2 faulkner:2 refers:2 return:2 thomas:2 sutpen:2 cry:2 beloved:1 country:1 alan:1 paton:1 stephen:1 kumalo:2 like:2 historical:2 odds:1 moral:1 ethical:1 sort:1 course:1 important:1 event:1 meet:1 untimely:1 ender:1 shadow:1 reference:4 story:2 lament:1 character:1 eiichiro:1 oda:1 manga:1 one:2 piece:2 music:2 josquin:1 desprez:1 compose:2 motet:1 absalon:2 fili:2 mi:2 occasion:1 juan:1 borgia:1 leonard:1 cohen:1 poem:5 prayer:1 sunset:1 compare:1 set:1 sun:1 rave:1 ask:1 whether:1 arrive:1 tomorrow:1 night:1 heinrich:1 schütz:1 part:1 sinfoniae:1 sacrae:1 op:1 single:1 verse:2 regard:1 loss:1 much:1 move:1 go:2 chamber:1 gate:1 wept:1 thus:1 would:1 god:1 die:1 thee:1 setting:1 several:3 choral:1 usually:1 entitle:2 heard:2 eric:1 whitacre:1 although:1 appear:1 actual:1 scripture:1 song:10 compass:1 cd:2 make:1 light:1 singer:2 songwriter:1 pierce:1 pettis:1 incorporate:1 element:1 biblical:1 finale:1 distant:1 early:1 warning:1 canadian:1 band:5 rush:1 geddy:1 lee:1 sings:2 lyric:1 write:1 drummer:1 neil:1 peart:1 olney:1 omar:1 blue:1 include:1 depict:1 grieving:1 refer:1 place:1 folk:2 adam:1 arcuragi:1 always:1 almost:1 san:1 francisco:1 base:2 om:1 mention:1 kapila:1 theme:2 debut:1 album:1 variation:1 garage:1 doldrums:1 allude:1 feeling:1 solemnity:1 abandonment:1 love:1 hope:1 every:1 kind:1 word:1 lackthereof:1 danny:1 seim:2 project:1 parallel:1 menomena:1 hair:1 long:2 barach:1 hamelech:1 israeli:1 amos:1 etinger:1 yosef:1 hadar:1 grindcore:1 discordance:1 axis:1 track:1 castration:1 rite:1 progressive:1 metal:1 barranquilla:1 colombia:1 http:2 karmametalcolombian:1 blogspot:1 com:2 colombian:1 html:1 ryland:2 angel:2 release:1 manhattan:1 record:1 www:1 rylandangel:1 painting:1 albert:2 weisgerber:2 banquet:1 attribute:1 bernardo:1 cavallino:1 poetry:1 political:1 satire:1 john:1 dryden:1 rainer:1 maria:1 rilke:1 alludes:2 abfall:1 anglo:1 jewish:1 war:1 poet:1 isaac:1 rosenberg:1 chagrin:1 ahrens:1 flaherty:1 musical:1 glorious:1 francine:1 prose:1 francesco:1 andreini:1 sing:1 metaphor:1 relationship:1 flaminio:1 scala:1 eighth:1 section:1 muriel:1 rukeyser:1 book:2 dead:1 u:1 expose:1 dwells:1 industrial:1 tragedy:1 virginia:1 lead:1 hundred:1 among:1 worker:1 dig:1 tunnel:1 |@bigram eldest_son:1 maternal_grandfather:1 absalom_absalom:7 william_faulkner:2 untimely_death:1 leonard_cohen:1 heinrich_schütz:1 singer_songwriter:1 geddy_lee:1 neil_peart:1 san_francisco:1 blogspot_com:1 http_www:1 rainer_maria:1 maria_rilke:1 |
7,067 | Empirical_research | Empirical research is research that bases its findings on direct or indirect observation as its test of reality. Such research may also be conducted according to hypothetico-deductive procedures, such as those developed from the work of R. A. Fisher. The researcher attempts to describe accurately the interaction between the instrument (or the human senses) and the entity being observed. If instrumentation is involved, the researcher is expected to calibrate her/his instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects. In practice, the accumulation of evidence for or against any particular theory involves planned research designs for the collection of empirical data, and academic rigor plays a large part of judging the merits of research design. Several typographies for such designs have been suggested, one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell and Stanley (1963). They are responsible for popularizing the widely cited distinction among pre-experimental, experimental, and quasi-experimental designs and are staunch advocates of the central role of randomized experiments in educational research. Scientific research Accurate correlations in scientific studies are of critical importance to determine the validity of empirical research. Statistical formulas such as uncertainty coefficient and chi square are fundamental to forming logical, valid conclusions. Empirical cycle Empirical cycle according to A.D. de Groot A.D. de Groot's empirical cycle: Observation: The collecting and organisation of empirical facts; Forming hypotheses. Induction: Formulating hypotheses. Deduction: Deducting consequenses of hypotheses as testable predictions. Testing: Testing the hypotheses with new empirical material. Evaluation: Evaluating the outcome of testing. Criticism Since all research involves the use of observation, the term can be easily taken out of context to describe any type of research, which hence makes the term meaningless. See also Empirical Scientific method External links Some Key Concepts for the Design and Review of Empirical Research | Empirical_research |@lemmatized empirical:10 research:11 base:1 finding:1 direct:1 indirect:1 observation:3 test:3 reality:1 may:1 also:2 conduct:1 accord:2 hypothetico:1 deductive:1 procedure:1 develop:1 work:1 r:1 fisher:1 researcher:2 attempt:1 describe:2 accurately:1 interaction:1 instrument:2 human:1 sens:1 entity:1 observe:1 instrumentation:1 involve:2 expect:1 calibrate:1 apply:2 know:1 standard:1 object:2 document:1 result:1 unknown:1 practice:1 accumulation:1 evidence:1 particular:1 theory:1 involves:1 plan:1 design:5 collection:1 data:1 academic:1 rigor:1 play:1 large:1 part:1 judge:1 merit:1 several:1 typography:1 suggest:1 one:1 popular:1 come:1 campbell:1 stanley:1 responsible:1 popularize:1 widely:1 cite:1 distinction:1 among:1 pre:1 experimental:3 quasi:1 staunch:1 advocate:1 central:1 role:1 randomized:1 experiment:1 educational:1 scientific:3 accurate:1 correlation:1 study:1 critical:1 importance:1 determine:1 validity:1 statistical:1 formula:1 uncertainty:1 coefficient:1 chi:1 square:1 fundamental:1 form:2 logical:1 valid:1 conclusion:1 cycle:3 de:2 groot:2 collecting:1 organisation:1 fact:1 hypothesis:4 induction:1 formulating:1 deduction:1 deducting:1 consequenses:1 testable:1 prediction:1 testing:1 new:1 material:1 evaluation:1 evaluate:1 outcome:1 criticism:1 since:1 use:1 term:2 easily:1 take:1 context:1 type:1 hence:1 make:1 meaningless:1 see:1 method:1 external:1 link:1 key:1 concept:1 review:1 |@bigram hypothetico_deductive:1 randomized_experiment:1 testable_prediction:1 external_link:1 |
7,068 | Dolmen | A dolmen (also known as cromlech (Welsh), anta, Hünengrab, Hunebed, Goindol, quoit, and portal dolmen) is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of three or more upright stones supporting a large flat horizontal capstone (table). Most date from the early Neolithic period (4000 to 3000 BC). Dolmens were usually covered with earth or smaller stones to form a barrow, though in many cases that covering has weathered away, leaving only the stone "skeleton" of the burial mound intact. Etymology "Dolmen" originates from the expression taol maen, which means "stone table" in Breton, and was first used archaeologically by Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne. The etymology of the German Hünenbett or Hünengrab and Dutch Hunebed all evoke the image of giants building the structures. Of other Celtic languages, "cromlech" derives from Welsh and "quoit" is commonly used in Cornwall. Anta is the term used in Portugal, and dös in Sweden. Dolmen sites Europe Megalithic tombs are found from the Baltic Sea and North Sea coasts south to Spain and Portugal. Hunebedden are chamber tombs similar to dolmens and date to the middle Neolithic (Funnelbeaker culture, 4th millennium BC). They consist of a kerb surrounding an oval mound which covered a rectangular chamber of stones with the entrance on one of the long sides. Some have a more complex layout and include an entrance passage giving them a T-shape. It has been suggested that this means they are related to the passage graves found in Denmark and elsewhere. Dolmen sites fringe the Irish Sea and are found in south-east Ireland, Wales, Devon and Cornwall. In Ireland, however, dolmens are more to be found on the west coast, particularly in the Burren and Connemara, where some of the more well-known examples, such as Poulnabrone dolmen, are to be found. Examples have also been found in northern Ireland where they may have co-existed with the court cairn tombs. It is thought that the dolmens themselves evolved from a simpler cist burial method. A great many examples can also be found on the Channel Island of Jersey, such as La Pouquelaye de Faldouet, La Hougue des Géonnais and La Sergenté. The most famous of these sites is La Hougue Bie a 6,000 year old neolithic site that sits inside a large mound; later a chapel was built on the top of the mound. Amongst the vast Neolithic collections of the Carnac stones in Brittany, France, several dozen dolmens are found. And all around the country, several dolmens still stand, such as the ones of Passebonneau and des Gorces near Saint-Benoît-du-Sault. Various menhirs and dolmens are located around the Mediterranean islands of Malta and Gozo. Pottery uncovered in these structures allowed the attribution of the monuments to the Tarxien cemetery culture of the Early Bronze Age. Journal of European Archaeology (JEA), 5 (1997); Emilia Pásztor and Curt Roslund: Orientation of Maltese dolmens. This later culture is not to be confused with the Neolithic inhabitants of Malta, who built the Tarxien Temples circa 3100 BC. In France, important megalithic zones are situated in Brittany, Vendée, Quercy and in the south of France (Languedoc, Rouergue and Corsica). More than 10,000 dolmens and menhirs cover a large part of the country (west and south). Importants menhirs alignments in Brittany (Carnac's alignments count more than 1,000 menhirs) In Spain dolmens can be found in Galicia (such as Axeitos, pictured below), Catalonia (like Romanyà de la Selva or Creu d'en Cobertella), Andalusia (like the Cueva de Menga) and Extremadura (like "Dolmen de Lácara"). Dolmens can be found all over Portugal, from simple ones to the more complex examples of megalithic architecture, such as the Almendres Cromlech or the Anta Grande do Zambujeiro. In Mecklenburg and Pomerania (Germany) and Drenthe (The Netherlands), large numbers of these graves were disturbed when harbours, towns, and cities were built. The boulders were used in construction and road building. There are still many thousands left today in Europe. In Italy some dolmens can be found in the south (Puglia) and in Sardinia. In Bulgaria there are many dolmens, and more are being recorded by archaeologists. In Turkey, in the Provinces of Edirne And Kirklareli there are dolmens. They have been studied by Prof. Dr. Engin Beksaç since 2004. The largest dolmen in Europe is the Brownshill Dolmen in County Carlow, Ireland. Its capstone weighs about 150 tonnes. Asia Similar tombs can be found all over the world. Korea has many of the Asian dolmens, dating from the 1st millennium BC. The dolmen in Ganghwa is a northern-type, table-shaped dolmen where ancestral rites were held. It is the biggest stone of this kind in South Korea, measuring 2.6 by 7.1 by 5.5 metres. The number of dolmens in North and South Korea, approximately 30,000, is about 40% of the total number of dolmens in the world. There are also dolmens in Kerala, South India, about 7 km from Marayoor near the small village of Pius Nagar, also known as Alinchuvad. These dolmens are set in clusters of two to five dolmens obviously for the burial of a family. There are hundreds of such dolmen clusters in the area. Apart from overground dolmens, underground burial chambers built with dressed stone slabs have also been discovered in Marayoor. All these dolmens are made from heavy granite slabs, mined using primitive technology. This was a burial ground for several centuries for a noble tribal dynasty known as Adi Cheras, the royal family, which rose as a paramount power in South India in the First Century CE. The Adi Chera tribe traded with the Egyptian and Roman empires of the time. Most of the overground dolmens found in Alinchuvad were made before the Iron Age since no tools were used to dress the granite slabs. On a nearby hill, granite dolmens made, using tools, are also seen. One is underground and the other is overground. The overground dolmen of this type was not used for burial. The length of the dolmens range from 11 ft to 4 ft. There are scores of 4 ft versions of underground type. They had two earthenware pots, one containing the ornaments and weapons of the individual and the other contained the cremation remains. Such underground dolmens are located in various places, like Chelamala,in Ernakulam District, Mattathipara, Muniyara, Panapilavu, etc in the district of Idukki in Kerala State, where Marayoor also is located. It appears that the tribe continued to use this burial practice until the tribe was destroyed in the beginning of third century CE. Middle East Dolmens are also found in Israel, Syria and Jordan. Numerous large dolmens can be viewed in the Israeli National park at Gamla. Eurasia Over 3,000 dolmens and other structures can be found in the North-Western Caucasus region in Russia, where more and more dolmens are discovered in the mountains each year. Other photos See also Dolmen deity Megalith Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites Menhir Neolithic Europe Stone circle List of megalithic sites References Sources Trifonov, V., 2006. Russia's megaliths: unearthing the lost prehistoric tombs of Caucasian warlords in the Zhane valley. St.Petersburg: The Institute for Study of Material Culture History, Russian Academy of Sciences. Available from Kudin, M., 2001. Dolmeni i ritual. Dolmen Path - Russian Megaliths. Available from Knight, Peter. Ancient Stones of Dorset, 1996. External links Megaliths, Menhirs and Dolmens in Europe Dolmens of Dorset Some monuments with QTVR panoramic views in Archeologia Sarda Dolmens, Menhirs & Stones-Circles in the South of France in French and English Pictures of Hunebedden in the Netherlands Poulnabrone Dolmen in the Burren, County Clare, Ireland on UNESCO's World Heritage List. Dolmen Pictures by Robert Triest. 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7,069 | Eiffel_Tower | The Eiffel Tower (, ) is an iron tower built on the Champ de Mars beside the Seine River in Paris. The tower has become a global icon of France and is one of the most recognizable structures in the world. Introduction Named after its designer, engineer Gustave Eiffel, the Eiffel Tower is the tallest building in Paris. The Eiffel Tower as a World monument More than people have visited the tower since its construction in 1889, Number of visitors since 1889 including in 2006, A few statistics making it the most visited paid monument in the world. The Guardian: New look for Eiffel Tower LeMonde.fr : Tour Eiffel et souvenirs de Paris Including the 24 m (79 ft) antenna, the structure is 324 m ( ft) high (since 2000), which is equivalent to about 81 levels in a conventional building. Eiffel Tower October 2007 At the time of completion in 1889, it was the world's tallest tower — a title it retained until 1930 when New York City's Chrysler Building (319 m — ft tall) was completed. The tower is now the fifth-tallest structure in France and the tallest structure in Paris, with the second-tallest being the Tour Montparnasse (210 m — 689 ft), although that will soon be surpassed by Tour AXA ( m — ft). Eiffel Tower from the neighborhood. The metal structure of the Eiffel Tower weighs tonnes while the entire structure including non-metal components is approximately tonnes. Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to 18 cm (7 in) because of thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the sun. The tower also sways 6–7 cm (2–3 in) in the wind. As demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7300 tonnes of the metal structure were melted down it would fill the 125 meter square base to a depth of only 6 cm (2.36 in), assuming a density of the metal to be 7.8 tonnes per cubic meter. The tower has a mass less than the mass of the air contained in a cylinder of the same dimensions, The Eiffel Tower Official Website that is 324 meters high and 88.3 meters in radius. The weight of the tower is 10,100 tonnes compared to 10,265 tonnes of air. The first and second levels are accessible by stairways and lifts. A ticket booth at the south tower base sells tickets to access the stairs which begin at that location. At the first platform the stairs continue up from the east tower and the third level summit is only accessible by lift. From the first or second platform the stairs are open for anyone to ascend or descend regardless of whether they have purchased a lift ticket or stair ticket. The actual count of stairs includes 9 steps to the ticket booth at the base, 328 steps to the first level, 340 steps to the second level and 18 steps to the lift platform on the second level. When exiting the lift at the third level there are 15 more steps to ascend to the upper observation platform. The step count is printed periodically on the side of the stairs to give an indication of progress of ascent. The majority of the ascent allows for an unhindered view of the area directly beneath and around the tower although some short stretches of the stairway are enclosed. Maintenance of the tower includes applying 50 to 60 tonnes of paint every seven years to protect it from rust. In order to maintain a uniform appearance to an observer on the ground, three separate colors of paint are used on the tower, with the darkest on the bottom and the lightest at the top. On occasion the colour of the paint is changed; the tower is currently painted a shade of brownish-grey. Painting the Eiffel Tower On the first floor there are interactive consoles hosting a poll for the colour to use for a future session of painting. The co-architects of the Eiffel Tower are Emile Nouguier, Maurice Koechlin and Stephen Sauvestre. Conception and design of the Eiffel Tower History Eiffel Tower under construction in July 1888. The structure was built between 1887 and 1889 as the entrance arch for the Exposition Universelle, a World's Fair marking the centennial celebration of the French Revolution. Eiffel originally planned to build the tower in Barcelona, for the Universal Exposition of 1888, but those responsible at the Barcelona city hall thought it was a strange and expensive construction, which did not fit into the design of the city. After the refusal of the Consistory of Barcelona, Eiffel submitted his draft to those responsible for the Universal Exhibition in Paris, where he would build his tower a year later, in 1889. The tower was inaugurated on 31 March 1889, and opened on 6 May. Three hundred workers joined together 18,038 pieces of puddled iron (a very pure form of structural iron), using two and a half million rivets, in a structural design by Maurice Koechlin. The risk of accident was great, for unlike modern skyscrapers the tower is an open frame without any intermediate floors except the two platforms. However, because Eiffel took safety precautions, including the use of movable stagings, guard-rails and screens, only one man died. Eiffel Tower Construction view: girders at the first story The tower was met with much criticism from the public when it was built, with many calling it an eyesore. Newspapers of the day were filled with angry letters from the arts community of Paris. One is quoted extensively in William Watson's US Government Printing Office publication of 1892 Paris Universal Exposition: Civil Engineering, Public Works, and Architecture. “And during twenty years we shall see, stretching over the entire city, still thrilling with the genius of so many centuries, we shall see stretching out like a black blot the odious shadow of the odious column built up of riveted iron plates.” William Watson, Paris Universal Exposition: Civil Engineering, Public Works, and Architecture (Washington: Government Printing office, 1892), 833. Signers of this letter included Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier, Charles Gounod, Charles Garnier, Jean-Léon Gérôme, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, and Alexandre Dumas. Novelist Guy de Maupassant — who claimed to hate the tower — supposedly ate lunch in the Tower's restaurant every day. When asked why, he answered that it was the one place in Paris where one could not see the structure. Today, the Tower is widely considered to be a striking piece of structural art. One of the great Hollywood movie clichés is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to 7 stories, only a very few of the taller buildings have a clear view of the tower. Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years, meaning it would have had to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The City had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it could be easily demolished) but as the tower proved valuable for communication purposes, it was allowed to remain after the expiration of the permit. The military used it to dispatch Parisian taxis to the front line during the First Battle of the Marne, and it therefore became a victory statue of that battle. Shape of the tower Looking up at the Eiffel Tower. At the time the tower was built many people were shocked by its daring shape. Eiffel was criticised for the design and accused of trying to create something artistic, or inartistic according to the viewer, without regard to engineering. Eiffel and his engineers, as renowned bridge builders however, understood the importance of wind forces and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world they had to be certain it would withstand the wind. In an interview reported in the newspaper Le Temps, Eiffel said: {{cquote |1=Now to what phenomenon did I give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation dictated it should be (...) will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole. |4= translated from the French newspaper Le Temps of 14 February 1887 Extrait de la réponse d'Eiffel }} The shape of the tower was therefore determined by mathematical calculation involving wind resistance. Several theories of this mathematical calculation have been proposed over the years, the most recent is a nonlinear integral differential equation based on counterbalancing the wind pressure on any point on the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point. That shape is exponential. A careful plot of the tower curvature however, reveals two different exponentials, the lower section having a stronger resistance to wind forces. Elegant Shape Of Eiffel Tower Solved Mathematically By University Of Colorado Professor The Virginia Engineer: Correct Theory Explaining The Eiffel Tower’s Design Revealed Installations Communications The Eiffel tower and the Seine at night The Eiffel tower illuminated in blue to celebrate the French presidency of the EU (July 2008.) Since the beginning of the 20th century, the tower has been used for radio transmission. Until the 1950s, an occasionally modified set of antenna wires ran from the summit to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars. They were connected to long-wave transmitters in small bunkers; in 1909, a permanent underground radio centre was built near the south pillar and still exists today. On 20 November 1913, the Paris Observatory, using the Eiffel Tower as an antenna, exchanged sustained wireless signals with the United States Naval Observatory which used an antenna in Arlington, Virginia. The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris and Washington, D.C. "Paris Time By Wireless," New York Times, 22 November 1913, pg 1. Restaurants The tower has two restaurants: Altitude 95, on the first floor (95 m, 311 ft, above sea level); and the Jules Verne, an expensive gastronomical restaurant on the second floor, with a private lift. This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide. In January 2007, a new multi-Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse was brought in to run Jules Verne. Paris France Guide: Paris Hotels, Food, Wine and Discounts - The Eiffel Tower Breaking News Passenger lifts Ground to second level http://www.tour-eiffel.fr/teiffel/uk/documentation/dossiers/page/construction.html Société nouvelle d'exploitation de la tour Eiffel The original lifts to the first and second floors were provided by two companies. Both companies had to overcome many technical obstacles as neither company (or indeed any company) had experience with installing lifts climbing to such heights with large loads. The slanting tracks with changing angles further complicated the problems. The East and West lifts were supplied by the French company Roux Combaluzier Lepape, using hydraulically powered chains and rollers. Contemporary engravings of the lift cars show that the passengers were seated at this time but it is not clear whether this was conceptual. It would be unnecessary to seat passengers for a journey time of around a couple of minutes. The North and South lifts were provided by the American Otis company using car designs similar to the original installation but using an improved hydraulic and cable scheme. The French lifts had a very poor performance and were replaced with the current installations in 1897 (West Pillar) and 1899 (East Pillar) by Fives-Lille using an improved hydraulic and rope scheme. Both of the original installations operated broadly on the principle of the Fives-Lille lifts. The Fives-Lille lifts from ground level to the first and second levels are operated by cables and pulleys driven by massive water-powered pistons. The hydraulic scheme was somewhat unusual for the time in that it included three large counterweights of 200 tonnes each sitting on top of hydraulic rams which doubled up as accumulators for the water. As the lifts ascend the inclined arc of the pillars, the angle of ascent changes. The two lift cabs are kept more or less level and indeed are level at the landings. The cab floors do take on a slight angle at times between landings. The principle behind the lifts is similar to the operation of a block and tackle but in reverse. Two large hydraulic rams (over 1 metre diameter) with a 16 metre travel are mounted horizontally in the base of the pillar which pushes a carriage (the French word for it translates as chariot and this term will be used henceforth to distinguish it from the lift carriage) with 16 large triple sheaves mounted on it. There are 14 similar sheaves mounted staticly. Six wire ropes are rove back and forth between the sheaves such that each rope passes between the 2 sets of sheaves 7 times. The ropes then leave the final sheaves on the chariot and passes up through a series of guiding sheaves to above the second floor and then via a pair of triple sheaves back down to the lift carriage again passing guiding sheaves. This arrangement means that the lift carriage complete with its cars and passengers travels 8 times the distance that the rams move the chariot which is the 128 metres from the ground to the second floor. The force exerted by the rams also has to be 8 times the total weight of the lift carriage, cars and passengers plus extra to cater for various losses such as friction. The hydraulic fluid was water, normally stored in the 3 accumulators complete with counterbalance weights. To make the lift ascend, water was pumped using an electrically driven pump from the accumulators to the two rams. Since the counterbalance weights provided much of the pressure required, the pump only had to provide the extra effort. For the descent, it was only necessary to allow the water to flow back to the accumulators using a control valve. The lifts were operated by an operator perched precariously underneath the lift cars. His position (with a dummy operator) can still be seen on the lifts today. The Fives-Lille lifts were completely upgraded in 1986 to meet modern safety requirements and to make the lifts easier to operate. A new computer controlled system was installed which completely automated the operation. One of the three counterbalances was taken out of use, and the cars were replaced with a more modern and lighter structure. Most importantly, the main driving force was removed from the original water pump such that the water hydraulic system provided only a counterbalancing function. The main driving force was transferred to a 320 kW electrically driven oil hydraulic pump which drives a pair of hydraulic motors on the chariot itself thus providing the motive power. The new lift cars complete with their carriage and a full 92 passenger load weigh 22 tonnes. Due to elasticity in the ropes and the time taken to get the cars level with the landings, each lift in normal service takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each floor. The average journey time between floors is just 1 minute. The original Otis lifts in the North and South pillars in their turn proved inferior to the new (in 1899) French lifts and were scrapped from the south pillar in 1900 and from the north pillar in 1913 after failed attempts to re-power them with an electric motor. The north and south pillars were to remain without lifts until 1965 when increasing visitor numbers persuaded the operators to install a relatively standard and modern rope hoisted system in the north pillar using a rope hauled counterbalance weight, but hoisted by a block and tackle system to reduce its travel to one third of the lift travel. The counterbalance is clearly visible within the structure of the North pillar. This latter lift was upgraded in 1995 with new cars and computer controls. The South tower acquired a completely new fairly standard electrically driven lift in 1983 to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. This was also supplied by Otis. A further 4 tonne service lift was added to the south pillar in 1989 by Otis to relieve the main lifts when moving relatively small loads or even just maintenance personnel. The east and west hydraulic (water) lift works are on display and, at least in theory, are open to the public in a small museum located in base of the East and West tower, which is somewhat hidden from public view. Because the massive mechanism requires frequent lubrication and attention, public access is often restricted. However, when open, the wait times are much less than the other, more popular, attractions. The rope mechanism of the North tower is visible to visitors as they exit from the lift. Second to third level The original Hydraulic pump for the Edoux lifts. The original lift from the second to the third floor were also of a water powered hydraulic design supplied by Léon Edoux. Instead of using a separate counterbalance, the two lift cars counterbalanced each other. A pair of 81 metre long hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level reaching nearly half way up to the third level. A lift car was mounted on top of the rams. Ropes ran from the top of this car up to a sheave on the third level and back down to a second car. The result of this arrangement was that each car only travelled half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway walking between the cars along a narrow gangway with a very impressive and relatively unobstructed downward view. The 10 tonne cars held 65 passengers each or up to 4 tonnes. One interesting feature of the original installation was that the hoisting rope ran through guides to retain it on windy days to prevent it flapping and becoming damaged. The guides were mechanically moved out of the way of the ascending car by the movement of the car itself. In spite of some antifreeze being added to the water that operated this system, it nevertheless had to close to the public from November to March each year. The original spiral stairs to the third floor which were only 80 centimetres wide. Note also the small service lift in the background.The original lifts complete with their hydraulic mechanism were completely scrapped in 1982 after 97 years of service. They were replaced with two pairs of relatively standard rope hoisted cars which were able to operate all the year round. The cars operate in pairs with one providing the counterbalance for the other. Neither car can move unless both sets of doors are closed and both operators have given a start command. The commands from the cars to the hoising mechanism are by radio obviating the necessity of a control cable. The replacement installation also has the advantage that the ascent can be made without changing cars and has reduced the ascent time from 8 minutes (including change) to 1 minute and 40 seconds. This instalation also has guides for the hoisting ropes but they are electrically operated. The guide once it has moved out of the way as the car ascends automatically reverses when the car has passed to prevent the mechanism becoming snagged on the car on the downward journey in the event it has failed to completely clear the car. Unfortunately these lifts do not have the capacity to move as many people as the 3 public lower lifts and long queues to ascend to the third level are common. Most of the intermediate level structure present on the tower today was installed when the lifts were replaced and allows maintenance workers to take the lift half way. The replacement of these lifts allowed the restructuring of the criss-cross beams in upper part of the tower and further allowed the installation of two emergency staircases. These replaced the dangerous winding stairs that were installed when the tower was constructed. Events Lightning strikes the Eiffel Tower on June 3, 1902, at 9:20 P.M 10 September 1889 Thomas Edison visited the tower. He signed the guestbook with the following message— 1910 Father Theodor Wulf took observations of radiant energy radiating at the top and bottom of the tower, discovering at the top more than was expected, and thereby detecting what are today known as cosmic rays. Wulf, Theodor. Physikalische Zeitschrift, contains results of the four-day long observation done by Theodor Wulf while at the top of the Eiffel Tower in 1910. 4 February 1912 Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping 60 metres from the first deck of Eiffel tower with his home-made parachute. In 1925 The con artist Victor Lustig "sold" the tower for scrap metal on two separate, but related occasions. 1930 The tower lost the title of the world's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building was completed in New York City. 1925 to 1934 Illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower's four sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time. Adolf Hitler with the Eiffel Tower in the background. 1940-1944 Upon the Nazi occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French so that Adolf Hitler would have to climb the steps to the summit. The parts to repair them were allegedly impossible to obtain because of the war. In 1940 German soldiers had to climb to the top to hoist the swastika, but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and it was replaced by a smaller one. When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. It was said that Hitler conquered France, but did not conquer the Eiffel Tower. A Frenchman scaled the tower during the German occupation to hang the French flag. In August 1944, when the Allies were nearing Paris, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. The lifts of the Tower were working normally within hours of the Liberation of Paris. 3 January 1956 A fire damaged the top of the tower. 1957 The present radio antenna was added to the top. 1980s An old restaurant and its supporting iron scaffolding midway up the tower was dismantled; it was purchased and reconstructed on St. Charles Avenue in New Orleans, Louisiana, by entrepreneurs John Onorio and Daniel Bonnot, originally as the Tour Eiffel Restaurant, known more recently as the Red Room. The restaurant was re-assembled from 11,000 pieces that crossed the Atlantic in a cargo container. 31 March 1984 Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza through the arches of the tower. 1985 James Bond action/adventure film A View to a Kill, Sir Roger Moore as James Bond chases May Day played by actress Grace Jones up the Eiffel Tower. She parachutes from the structure to escape. The video of the film's theme tune, performed by the group Duran Duran, also included several scenes of the band staged on the tower intercut with clips from the film. A full 20 years earlier, the Bond film Thunderball (1965) featured an establishing shot of the tower as the villainous Largo, played by Adolfo Celi, parks outside the headquarters of SPECTRE in Paris. 1987 A.J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Upon reaching the ground, Hackett was immediately arrested by the Paris police. http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/extreme-bid-to-stretch-bungy-record/2007/02/27/1172338606150.html 14 July 1995 Bastille Day, French synthesiser musician Jean Michel Jarre performed Concert For Tolerance at the tower in aid of UNESCO. The free concert was attended by an estimated 1.5 million people, filling the Champ de Mars. The concert featured lighting and projection effects on the tower, and a huge firework display throughout. Exactly three years later, he returned to the same spot for a more dance music orientated show, Electronic Night. New Year's Eve 1999 The Eiffel Tower played host to Paris' Millennium Celebration. Fireworks exploded from the whole length of the tower in a spectacular display. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event. 2000 Flashing lights and four high-power searchlights were installed on the tower. Since then the light show has become a nightly event. The searchlights on top of the tower make it a beacon in Paris' night sky. 2002 The tower received its th guest of all-time. 22 July 2003 At 19:20, a fire occurred at the top of the tower in the broadcasting equipment room. The entire tower was evacuated; the fire was extinguished after 40 minutes, and there were no reports of injuries. Since 2004 The Eiffel Tower has hosted an ice skating rink on the first floor during the winter period. 2008 At the start of the French Presidency of the European Union in the second half of 2008, the twelve golden stars of the European Flag were mounted on the base, and whole tower bathed in blue light. In addition every hour, on the hour, 20,000 flash bulbs give the tower a sparkly appearance. Engraved names Gustave Eiffel engraved on the tower seventy-two names of French scientists, engineers and other notable people. This engraving was painted over at the beginning of the twentieth century but restored in 1986–1987 by the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, a company contracted to operate business related to the Tower. Image copyright claims Images of the tower have long been in the public domain; however, in 2003 SNTE (Société nouvelle d'exploitation de la tour Eiffel) installed a new lighting display on the tower. The effect was to put any night-time image of the tower and its lighting display under copyright. As a result, it was no longer legal to publish contemporary photographs of the tower at night without permission in some countries. Statement that publishing pictures of the lighting requires a fee <ref>In the United States, for example, 17 USC 120(a) explicitly permits the publication of photographs of copyrighted architecture in public spaces. In Germany this is known as Panoramafreiheit.</ref> The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for SNTE, Stéphane Dieu, commented in January 2005, "It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it isn't used in ways we don't approve." However, it also potentially has the effect of prohibiting tourist photographs of the tower at night from being published Eiffel Tower: Repossessed as well as hindering non profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the tower. In a recent decision, the Court of Cassation ruled that copyright could not be claimed over images including a copyrighted building if the photograph encompassed a larger area. This seems to indicate that SNTE cannot claim copyright on photographs of Paris incorporating the lit tower. In some jurisdictions, this claim of copyright is explicitly disallowed. For instance Irish copyright law, works "permanently situated in a public place or in premises open to the public" may be freely included in visual reproductions Irish Statute Books — Representation of certain artistic works on public display ; similar laws exist in Germany (see Panoramafreiheit). In popular culture Panoramic view from underneath the Eiffel Tower.A view from above. As a global landmark, the Eiffel Tower is featured in media including films, video games, and television shows. Lattice towers taller than the Eiffel Tower Name Pinnacle height Year Country Town Remarks Kiev TV Tower 1263 ft 385 m 1973 Ukraine Kiev Tallest lattice tower of the world Tashkent Tower 1230 ft 374.9 m 1985 Uzbekistan Tashkent Pylons of Yangtze River Crossing 1137 ft 346.5m 2003 People’s Republic of China Jiangyin 2 towers, tallest pylons in the world Dragon Tower 1102 ft 336 m 2000 People’s Republic of China Harbin Tokyo Tower 1091 ft 332.6 m 1958 Japan Tokyo WITI TV Tower 1078 ft 329 m 1962 U.S. Shorewood, Wisconsin WSB TV Tower 1075 ft 327.6 m 1957 U.S. Atlanta, Georgia Architectural structures in France taller than the Eiffel Tower Name Pinnacle height Year Structure type Town Remarks Longwave transmitter Allouis 350 m 1974 Guyed Mast Allouis HWU transmitter 350 m ? Guyed Mast Rosnay Multiple masts Viaduc de Millau 343 m 2004 Bridge Pillar Millau TV Mast Niort-Maisonnay 330 m ? Guyed Mast Niort Transmitter Le Mans-Mayet 342 m 1993 Guyed Mast Mayet Transmitter Roumoules 330 m 1974 Guyed Mast Roumoules spare transmission mast for long wave, insulated against ground Reproductions Replica at the Paris Las Vegas Hotel Replica at Tianducheng Replica at Kings Island near Cincinnati, Ohio Replica of Eiffel Tower on factory building at Satteldorf near Crailsheim, Germany In order of decreasing height: In front of the Paris Las Vegas hotel/casino on the Las Vegas Strip, Paradise, Nevada, near Las Vegas, Nevada — 165 m (540 ft, scale 1:2). Tianducheng, Hangzhou, China ~108 m Reuters.com Le Figaro – Actualité en direct et informations en continu Kings Island Amusement Park, Mason, Ohio — ~101 m (~332 ft, scale 1:3) Kings Dominion Amusement Park, Doswell, Virginia — ~101 m (332 ft, scale 1:3) Shenzhen, China — ~100 m (~328 ft, scale 1:3) Slobozia, Romania — 54 m (177 ft) In Parizh, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Nagaybaksky District, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia. Built by South Ural Cell Telephone company as a cellphone tower — 50 m (164 ft) In Zoo, Copenhagen, Denmark. Wooden replica — 50 m (164 ft) Fayetteville, North Carolina — The Bordeaux Tower is about 45 m (150 ft) featuring an elevator that takes people to the top for a small view. Walt Disney World's Epcot theme park in Lake Buena Vista, Florida (at the France Pavilion in World Showcase) — 23 (76 ft, scale 1:10) Disney's official French Pavilion page — lists the Eiffel Tower as approximately 1/10th the height of the original. Paris, Texas — 20 m (65 ft) Eiffel Tower (Paris, Tennessee) in Paris, Tennessee — about m (60 ft) tall. As a Meccano model, housed at the Technology Museum of Georgia (Atlanta, Georgia) — 11 m (36 t) Eiffel Tower On the roof of the catering company Rungis Express in Meckenheim and Satteldorf, Germany — (height unknown) Centerpiece of the Falconcity of Wonders — a planned new development project in Dubai. UAE, featuring seven modern wonders of the world (planned). :: Falconcity of Wonders (L.L.C) :: (approximate coordinates) Inwald Miniature Park, Inwald, Poland Mini-Europe, Brussels, a m model (a proportion of 1:25 to the original). Model on the roof of the Rue De Paris cafe in Brisbane, Australia — (roughly 12 m tall) Model in the First World Plaza shopping mall in Genting Highlands, Malaysia First World Plaza. Retrieved on 2008-09-13 In Austin, Texas there is a m (25 ft) tall replica at the Dreyfus Antique Shop. An m model in Filiatra, Messinia, Greece, at the entrance of the village Tower model at Filiatra Photograph of Filiatra tower Paris, Michigan; approximately 3 m (10 ft) tall and in a park Baku, Azerbaijan, Sahil Trade Center, at "Parfums de France" shop. Approximately 3 m tall. Golden Sands sea resort in Varna, Bulgaria — A tower with a ratio of 1:10 to the original is built in the town as a tourist attraction. Aktau, Kazakhstan — model at the front of the office of Oil Construction Company Satteldorf near Crailsheim, Germany. On the top of a company building In 2007 the Lego company released a 1:300 scale model of the Eiffel tower as a set LUGNET Set Guide . It contains 3428 pieces and stands 108 cm (42.5 in) tall and 50 cm (19.7 in) wide and deep Broadcasting stations FM-radio ProgrammeFrequencyERP France Inter Regional 90,35 MHz 3 kW France Culture 93,35 MHz 3 kW France Musique 97,6 MHz 3 kW TV ProgrammeChannel-NumberFrequencyERP Canal+ 6 182,25 MHz 100 kW France 2 22 479,25 MHz 500 kW TF1 25 503,25 MHz 500 kW France 3 28 527,25 MHz 500 kW France 5 30 543,25 MHz 100 kW M6 33 567,25 MHz 100 kW Other structures carrying this name Eiffel Tower (Paris, Tennessee) Eiffel Tower Co-op in Hackensack, New Jersey, USA Eiffel Tower Co-op — SkyscraperPage.com See also List of tallest buildings and structures in the world List of tallest buildings and structures in Paris The 72 names on the Eiffel Tower List of towers List of tallest freestanding structures in the world References Further reading 1889 La Tour Eiffel et L’Exposition Universelle, Musee d’Orsay, 16 May – 15 August 1989 [exhibition catalog]. Paris: Editions de la Reunion des Musees Nationaux, 1989 Frémy, Dominique, Quid de la Tour Eiffel, Robert Lafont, Paris (1989) — out of print Engineering. The Paris Exhibition, 3 May 1889 (Vol. XLVII). London: Office for Advertisements and Publication. Watson, William. Paris Universal Exposition: Civil Engineering, Public Works, and Architecture. Washington [DC], Government Printing Office, 1892. Gallery External links Official website of the Eiffel Tower English version Mechanical Engineering Magazine: Deconstructing Eiffel Reconstructing the Eiffel Tower in CATIA ,3DXML file to download and CG Images 3D render of the Eiffel Tower for use in Google Earth The first transmitters at Eiffel Tower | Eiffel_Tower |@lemmatized eiffel:66 tower:136 iron:5 build:11 champ:3 de:16 mar:3 beside:1 seine:2 river:2 paris:39 become:5 global:2 icon:1 france:13 one:13 recognizable:1 structure:21 world:18 introduction:1 name:7 designer:1 engineer:4 gustave:2 tall:18 building:11 monument:3 people:8 visit:3 since:8 construction:7 number:2 visitor:3 include:14 statistic:1 make:8 visited:1 pay:1 guardian:1 new:15 look:2 lemonde:1 fr:2 tour:10 et:3 souvenir:1 ft:26 antenna:5 high:3 equivalent:1 level:21 conventional:1 october:1 time:18 completion:1 tallest:2 title:2 retain:2 york:3 city:8 chrysler:2 complete:6 fifth:1 second:20 montparnasse:1 although:2 soon:1 surpass:1 axa:1 neighborhood:1 metal:6 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7,070 | General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon | The Lockheed Martin F-16 Fighting Falcon is a multirole jet fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force. Designed as a lightweight, day-time Visual Flight Rules (VFR) fighter, it evolved into a successful multirole aircraft. The Falcon's versatility is a paramount reason it has proven a success on the export market, having been selected to serve in the air forces of 25 nations. Lockheed Martin press release (8 June 2008). "United States Government Awards Lockheed Martin Contract to Begin Production of Advanced F-16 Aircraft for Morocco". Retrieved 11 July 2008. The F-16 is the largest Western jet fighter program with over 4,400 aircraft built since production was approved in 1976. Though no longer being bought by the U.S. Air Force, advanced versions are still being built for export customers. In 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, Rosenwald, Michael S. (updated 17 December 2007). "Downside of Dominance? Popularity of Lockheed Martin's F-16 Makes Its F-35 Stealth Jet a Tough Sell". Washington Post. Retrieved: 11 July 2008. which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta. Anon. (undated). Company Histories – Lockheed Martin Corporation. Funding Universe. Retrieved: 11 July 2008. The Fighting Falcon is a dogfighter with numerous innovations including a frameless, bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick to ease control while under high g-forces, and reclined seat to reduce the effect of g-forces on the pilot. Weapons include a M61 Vulcan cannon and various missiles mounted on up to 11 hardpoints. It was also the first fighter aircraft deliberately built to sustain 9-g turns. It has a thrust-to-weight ratio greater than one, providing enough power to climb and accelerate vertically – if necessary. F-16 Fact Sheet, US Air Force, October 2007. Although the F-16's official name is "Fighting Falcon", it is known to its pilots as the "Viper", due to it resembling a cobra snake and after the Battlestar Galactica starfighter. Aleshire, Peter. Eye of the Viper: The Making of an F-16 Pilot (Illustrated ed.). Old Saybrook, Connecticut: Globe Pequot, 2005. ISBN 1-59228-822-7. Retrieved: 28 May 2009. F-16 Fighting Falcon, F16, or Viper? Peacock 1997, p. 100. It is used by the Thunderbirds air demonstration team. The F-16 is scheduled to remain in service with the U.S. Air Force until 2025. Tirpak, John A. "Making the Best of the Fighter Force". Air Force Magazine, March 2007. Retrieved: 23 June 2008. The planned replacement is the F-35 Lightning II, which is scheduled to enter service in 2011 and will gradually begin replacing a number of multirole aircraft among the air forces of the program's member nations. Development Origins Real-world experience in the Vietnam War revealed some shortcomings in American fighter capabilities, and the need for better air-to-air training for fighter pilots. Spick, Mike, ed. "F-16 Fighting Falcon". Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, MN: MBI, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4. The need for new air superiority fighters led the USAF to initiate two concept development studies in 1965: the Fighter Experimental (FX) project originally envisioned a 60,000 lb (27,200 kg) class twin-engine design with a variable-geometry wing, and the Advanced Day Fighter (ADF), a lightweight design in the 25,000 lb (11,300 kg) class which would out-perform the MiG-21 by 25%. However, the first appearance of the Mach-3-capable MiG-25 'Foxbat' in July 1967 resulted in the ADF effort being deemphasized in favor of the FX program, which would produce the F-15, a 40,000 lb (18,100 kg) class aircraft. Richardson 1990, p. 7. Based on his experiences in the Korean War and as a fighter tactics instructor in the early 1960s Colonel John Boyd and mathematician Thomas Christie developed the Energy-Maneuverability (E-M) theory to model a fighter aircraft's performance in combat. Maneuverability was the key to a process Boyd called the "OODA Loop" (for "Observation-Orientation-Decision-Action"). Boyd's work called for a small, lightweight aircraft with an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. Hillaker, Harry. "Tribute To John R. Boyd". Code One, July 1997. Retrieved: 7 June 2008. Hehs, Eric. "Harry Hillaker – Father of the F-16." Code One, April & July 1991. Retrieved: 7 June 2008. A 1965 Air Force study suggested equipping its squadrons with a mix of high and low cost fighters as being the most economical. Jenkins 1998, p. 6. Lightweight Fighter program In the late 1960s Boyd gathered around him a group of like-minded innovators that became known as the "Lightweight Fighter Mafia". In 1969, the "Fighter Mafia" was able to secure funds for a "Study to Validate the Integration of Advanced Energy-Maneuverability Theory with Trade-Off Analysis". General Dynamics received $149,000 and Northrop $100,000 to develop design concepts that embodied Boyd’s E-M theory – a small, low-drag, low-weight, pure fighter with no bomb racks; their work would lead to the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively. Richardson 1990, pp. 7–8. Coram, Robert. Boyd: the Fighter Pilot Who Changed the Art of War. New York: Little, Brown, and Co., 2002. ISBN 0-316-88146-5. Although the Air Force’s FX proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program, the ADF concept (revamped and renamed as the ‘F-XX’) gained civilian political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard, who favored the idea of competitive prototyping. As a result in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member, and two of its six proposals would be funded, one being the Lightweight Fighter (LWF) proposal. The Request for Proposals issued 6 January 1972 called for a 20,000 lb (9,100 kg) class air-to-air day fighter with a good turn rate, acceleration and range, and optimized for combat at speeds of Mach 0.6–1.6 and altitudes of 30,000–40,000 ft (9,150–12,200 m). This was the region in which the USAF expected most future air combat to occur, based on studies of the Vietnam, Six-Day, and Indo-Pakistani wars. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a production version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF was under no obligation to acquire the aircraft and, in fact, had no firm plans to procure the winner, which was to be announced in May 1975. Peacock 1997, pp. 9–10. Richardson 1990, pp. 7–9. Five companies responded and in March 1972, the Air Staff announced the winners for the follow-on prototype development and testing phase were Boeing’s Model 908-909 and General Dynamics’ Model 401; however, after further review, the Source Selection Authority (SSA) would demote Boeing’s entry to third place, after Northrop’s P-600. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the 'Fighter Mafia' and other LWF proponents successfully advocated the idea of complementary fighters in a high-cost/low-cost force mix (in part, to be able to afford sufficient fighters to sustain overall USAF fighter force structure requirements); this "high/low mix" concept would gain broad acceptance by the time of the flyoff between the prototypes, and would define the relationship of the F-15 and F-16 – and, subsequently, the F-22 Raptor and F-35 Lightning II. Peacock 1997, pp. 10–11. Richardson 1990, pp. 8–9. Flyoff A right side view of a YF-16 and a Northrop YF-17, each armed with AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute-long “official” first flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC) at Edwards AFB, California, on 2 February 1974. Its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January. While gathering speed, a roll-control oscillation caused a fin of the port-side wingtip-mounted missile and then the starboard stabilator to scrape the ground, and the aircraft then began to veer off the runway. The GD test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid wrecking the machine, and safely landed it six minutes later. The slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time. The YF-16’s first supersonic flight was accomplished on 5 February 1974, and the second YF-16 prototype flew for the first time on 9 May 1974. This was followed by the first flights of the Northrop’s YF-17 prototypes, which were achieved on 9 June and 21 August 1974, respectively. Altogether, the YF-16s would complete 330 sorties during the flyoff, accumulating a total of 417 flight hours; the YF-17s would accomplish 268 sorties. Richardson 1990, pp. 12–13. Air Combat Fighter competition Three factors would converge to turn the LWF into a serious acquisition program. First, four North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) allies of the U.S. – Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway – were looking to replace their F-104G fighter-bomber variants of the F-104 Starfighter interceptor; furthermore, they were seeking an aircraft that their own aerospace industries could manufacture under license, as they had the F-104G. In early 1974, they reached an agreement with the U.S. that if the USAF placed orders for the aircraft winning the LWF flyoff, they would consider ordering it as well. Secondly, while the USAF was not particularly interested in a complementary air superiority fighter, it did need to begin replacing its F-105 Thunderchief fighter-bombers. Third, the U.S. Congress was seeking to achieve greater commonality in fighter procurements by the Air Force and Navy. The Congress, in August 1974, redirected funds for the Navy’s VFAX program to a new Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) program that would essentially be a navalized fighter-bomber variant of the LWF. These requirements meshed relatively well, but the timing of the procurement was driven by the timeframe needs of the four allies, who had formed a “Multinational Fighter Program Group” (MFPG) and were pressing for a U.S. decision by December 1974. The U.S. Air Force had planned to announce the LWF winner in May 1975, but this decision was advanced to the beginning of the year, and testing was accelerated. To reflect this new, more serious intent to procure a new aircraft, along with its reorientation toward a fighter-bomber design, the LWF program was rolled into a new Air Combat Fighter (ACF) competition in an announcement by U.S. Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger in April 1974. Schlesinger also made it clear that any ACF order would be for aircraft in addition to the F-15, which essentially ended opposition to the LWF. Richardson 1990, p. 14. Peacock 1997, pp. 12–13. Anon. "YF-16 : The Birth of a Fighter." F-16.net. Retrieved: 13 June 2008. ACF also raised the stakes for GD and Northrop because it brought in further competitors intent on securing the lucrative order that was touted at the time as “the arms deal of the century”. These were Dassault-Breguet’s Mirage F1M-53, the SEPECAT Jaguar, and a proposed derivative of the Saab Viggen styled the “Saab 37E Eurofighter” (which is not to be confused with the later and unrelated Eurofighter Typhoon). Northrop also offered another design, the P-530 Cobra, which looked very similar to its YF-17. The Jaguar and Cobra were dropped by the MFPG early on, leaving two European and the two U.S. LWF designs as candidates. On 11 September 1974, the U.S. Air Force confirmed firm plans to place an order for of the winning ACF design sufficient to equip five tactical fighter wings. On 13 January 1975, Secretary of the Air Force John L. McLucas announced that the YF-16 had been selected as the winner of the ACF competition. Peacock 1997, pp. 13–16. The chief reasons given by the Secretary for the decision were the YF-16’s lower operating costs; greater range; and maneuver performance that was “significantly better” than that of the YF-17, especially at near-supersonic and supersonic speeds. The flight test program revealed that the YF-16 had superior acceleration, climb rates, endurance, and (except around Mach 0.7) turn rates. Another advantage was the fact that the YF-16 – unlike the YF-17 – employed the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine, which was the same powerplant used by the F-15; such commonality would lower the unit costs of the engines for both programs. Richardson 1990, p. 13. Shortly after selection of the YF-16, Secretary McLucas revealed that the USAF planned to order at least 650 and up to 1400 of the production version of the aircraft. The U.S. Air Force initially ordered 15 “Full-Scale Development” (FSD) aircraft (11 single-seat and 4 two-seat models) for its flight test program, but this would be reduced to 8 (6 F-16A and 2 F-16B). The Navy, however, announced on 2 May 1975, that it had decided not to buy the navalized F-16; instead, it would develop an aircraft derived from the YF-17, which would eventually become the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. Peacock 1997, pp. 14, 17–19, 33–34. Moving into production Manufacture of the FSD F-16s got underway at General Dynamics’ Fort Worth, Texas plant in late 1975, with the first example, an F-16A, being rolled out on 20 October 1976, followed by its first flight on 8 December. The initial two-seat model achieved its first flight on 8 August 1977. The initial production-standard F-16A flew for the first time on 7 August 1978 and its delivery was accepted by the USAF on 6 January 1979. The F-16 was given its formal nickname of “Fighting Falcon” on 21 July 1980, and it entered USAF operational service with the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing at Hill AFB on 1 October 1980. Peacock 1997, pp. 17–19, 33–34. A USAF F-16C of the Colorado Air National Guard (COANG) disengages from a refueling boom (fuel port is still open) over Canada. On 7 June 1975, the four European partners, now known as the European Participation Group, signed up for 348 aircraft at the Paris Air Show. This was split among the European Participation Air Forces (EPAF) as 116 for Belgium, 58 for Denmark, 102 for the Netherlands, and 72 for Norway. These would be produced on two European production lines, one in the Netherlands at Fokker’s Schiphol-Oost facility and the other at SABCA’s Gossellies plant in Belgium; production would be divided among them as 184 and 164 units, respectively. Norway’s Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk and Denmark’s Terma A/S also manufactured parts and subassemblies for the EPAF aircraft. European co-production was officially launched on 1 July 1977 at the Fokker factory. Beginning in mid-November 1977, Fokker-produced components were shipped to Fort Worth for assembly of fuselages, which were in turn shipped back to Europe (initially to Gossellies starting in January 1978); final assembly of EPAF-bound aircraft began at the Belgian plant on 15 February 1978, with deliveries to the Belgian Air Force beginning in January 1979. The Dutch line started up in April 1978 and delivered its first aircraft to the Royal Netherlands Air Force in June 1979. In 1980 the first aircraft were delivered to the Royal Norwegian Air Force by SABCA and to the Royal Danish Air Force by Fokker. Peacock 1997, pp. 14–16, 21. Richardson 1990, pp. 13–15. Since then, a further production line has been established at Ankara, Turkey, where Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) has produced 232 Block 30/40/50 F-16s under license for the Turkish Air Force during the late 1980s and 1990s, and has 30 Block 50 Advanced underway for delivery from 2010; TAI also built 46 Block 40s for Egypt in the mid-1990s. Korean Aerospace Industries opened another production line for the KF-16 program, producing 140 Block 52s from the mid-1990s to mid-2000s. If India selects the F-16IN for its Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft procurement, a sixth F-16 production line will be established in that nation to produce at least 108 fighters. Anon. "Lockheed Martin F-16 Fighting Falcon." Jane’s All The World’s Aircraft, updated 21 January 2008. Retrieved: 30 May 2008. Evolution After selection, the YF-16 design was altered for the production F-16. The fuselage was lengthened , a larger nose radome was fitted to house the AN/APG-66 radar, wing area was increased from to , the tailfin height was decreased slightly, the ventral fins were enlarged, two more stores stations were added, and a single side-hinged nosewheel door replaced the original double doors. These modifications increased the F-16's weight approximately 25% over that of the YF-16 prototypes. Peacock 1997, pp. 31–32. Spick 2000, p. 196. One needed change that would originally be discounted was the need for more pitch control to avoid deep stall conditions at high angles of attack. Model tests of the YF-16 conducted by the Langley Research Center revealed a potential problem, but no other laboratory was able to duplicate it. YF-16 flight tests were not sufficiently extensive to resolve the issue, but relevant flight testing on the FSD aircraft demonstrated that it was a real concern. As a result, the horizontal stabilizer areas were increased 25%; this so-called "big tail" was introduced on the Block 15 aircraft in 1981 and retrofitted later on earlier production aircraft. Besides significantly reducing (though not eliminating) the risk of deep stalls, the larger horizontal tails also improved stability and permitted faster takeoff rotation. Chambers, Joseph R. "Lockheed Martin F-16 Fighting Falcon : Curing Deep Stall" in Partners in Freedom: Contributions of the Langley Research Center to U.S. Military Aircraft of the 1990’s; Monographs in Aerospace History Number 19, The NASA History Series (NASA SP-2000-4519). Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2000. Retrieved: 22 June 2008. Goebel, Greg. "F-16 Variants". Vectorsite.net, 1 April 2007. Retrieved: 26 May 2008. Darling 2003, p. 56. In the 1980s, the Multinational Staged Improvement Program (MSIP) was conducted to evolve new capabilities for the F-16, mitigate risks during technology development, and ensure its currency against a changing threat environment. The program upgraded the F-16 in three stages. Altogether, the MSIP process permitted quicker introduction of new capabilities, at lower costs, and with reduced risks compared to traditional stand-alone system enhancement and modernization programs. Camm, Frank. The F-16 Multinational Staged Improvement Program: A Case Study of Risk Assessment and Risk Management (Accession No. ADA281706). RAND Corp., 1993. Retrieved: 2 June 2008. The F-16 has involved in other upgrade programs including service life extension programs in the 2000s. "F-16 Fighting Falcon – Service Life". Global Security. Retrieved: 30 May 2008. Design F-16CJ-50C from 20 Fighter Wing (Shaw AFB) armed with air-to-air and SEAD ordnance Overview The F-16 is a single-engined, supersonic, multi-role tactical aircraft. The F-16 was designed to be a cost-effective combat "workhorse" that can perform various kinds of missions and maintain around-the-clock readiness. It is much smaller and lighter than its predecessors, but uses advanced aerodynamics and avionics, including the first use of a relaxed static stability/fly-by-wire (RSS/FBW) flight control system, to achieve enhanced maneuver performance. Highly nimble, the F-16 can pull 9-g maneuvers and can reach a maximum speed of over Mach 2. F-16 on the hardstand at McChord AFB, Washington. The F-16 is equipped with an M61 Vulcan 20 mm cannon in the left wing root, and early models could be armed with up to six AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking short-range air-to-air missiles (AAM), including a single missile mounted on a dedicated rail launcher on each wingtip. Some variants can also employ the AIM-7 Sparrow long-range radar-guided AAM, and more recent versions can be equipped with the AIM-120 AMRAAM. It can also carry other AAM; a wide variety of air-to-ground missiles, rockets or bombs; electronic countermeasures (ECM), navigation, targeting or weapons pods; and fuel tanks on eleven hardpoints – six under the wings, two on wingtips and three under the fuselage. General configuration The F-16 design employs a cropped-delta planform incorporating wing-fuselage blending and forebody vortex-control strakes; a fixed-geometry, underslung air intake inlet supplying airflow to the single turbofan jet engine; a conventional tri-plane empennage arrangement with all-moving horizontal “stabilator” tailplanes; a pair of ventral fins beneath the fuselage aft of the wing’s trailing edge; a single-piece, bird-proof “bubble” canopy; and a tricycle landing gear configuration with the aft-retracting, steerable nose gear deploying a short distance behind the inlet lip. There is a boom-style aerial refueling receptacle located a short distance behind the rear of the canopy. Split-flap speedbrakes are located at the aft end of the wing-body fairing, and an arrestor hook is mounted underneath the aft fuselage. Another fairing is situated at the base of the vertical tail, beneath the bottom of the rudder, and is used to house various items of equipment such as ECM gear or drag chutes. Several later F-16 models, such as the F-16I variant of the Block 50 aircraft, also have a long dorsal fairing “bulge” that runs along the “spine” of the fuselage from the rear of the cockpit to the tail fairing; these fairings can be used to house additional equipment or fuel. Peacock 1997, pp. 99–102. The F-16 was designed to be relatively inexpensive to build and much simpler to maintain than earlier-generation fighters. The airframe is built with about 80% aviation-grade aluminum alloys, 8% steel, 3% composites, and 1.5% titanium. Control surfaces such as the leading-edge flaps, tailerons, and ventral fins make extensive use of bonded aluminum honeycomb structural elements and graphite epoxy laminate skins. The F-16A had 228 access panels over the entire aircraft, about 80% of which can be reached without work stands. The number of lubrication points, fuel line connections, and replaceable modules was also greatly reduced compared to its predecessors. Goebel, Greg. "F-16 Origins." Vectorsite, 1 April 2007. Retrieved: 14 June 2008. Although the USAF’s LWF program had called for an aircraft structural life of only 4000 flight hours, and capable of achieving 7.33 g with 80% internal fuel, GD’s engineers decided from the start to design the F-16’s airframe life to last to 8000 hours and for 9-g maneuvers on full internal fuel. This proved advantageous when the aircraft’s mission was changed from solely air-to-air combat to multi-role operations. However, changes over time in actual versus planned operational usage and continued weight growth due to the addition of further systems have required several structural strengthening programs. Richardson 1990, p. 10. F-16CG-40B from Aviano Air Base on display at Paris Air Show. Wing and strake configuration Aerodynamic studies in the early 1960s demonstrated that the phenomenon known as “vortex lift” could be beneficially harnessed by the utilization of highly swept wing configurations to reach higher angles of attack through use of the strong leading edge vortex flow off of a slender lifting surface. Since the F-16 was being optimized for high agility in air combat, GD’s designers chose a slender cropped-delta wing with a leading edge sweep of 40° and a straight trailing edge. To improve its ability to perform in a wide range of maneuvers, a variable-camber wing with a NACA 64A-204 airfoil was selected. The camber is adjusted through the use of leading-edge and trailing edge flaperons linked to a digital flight control system (FCS) that automatically adjusts them throughout the flight envelope. This vortex lift effect can be increased by the addition of an extension of the leading edge of the wing at its root, the juncture with the fuselage, known as a strake. The strakes act as a sort of additional slender, elongated, short-span, triangular wing running from the actual wing root to a point further forward on the fuselage. Blended fillet-like into the fuselage, including along with the wing root, the strake generates a high-speed vortex that remains attached to the top of the wing as the angle of attack increases, thereby generating additional lift. This allows the aircraft to achieve angles of attack beyond the point at which it would normally stall. The use of strakes also permits the use of a smaller, lower-aspect-ratio wing, which in turn increases roll rates and directional stability, while decreasing aircraft weight. The resulting deeper wingroots also increase structural strength and rigidity, reduce structural weight, and increase internal fuel volume. As a result, the F-16’s high fuel fraction of 0.31 gives it a longer range than other fighter aircraft of similar size and configuration. Flight controls Negative static stability The YF-16 was the world’s first aircraft intentionally designed to be slightly aerodynamically unstable. This technique, called "relaxed static stability" (RSS), was incorporated to further enhance the aircraft’s maneuver performance. Most aircraft are designed with positive static stability, which induces an aircraft to return to its original attitude following a disturbance. However, positive static stability hampers maneuverability, as the tendency to remain in its current attitude opposes the pilot’s effort to maneuver; on the other hand, an aircraft with negative static stability will, in the absence of control input, readily depart from level and controlled flight. Therefore, an aircraft with negative static stability will be more maneuverable than one that is positively stable. When supersonic, a negatively stable aircraft actually exhibits a more positive-trending (and in the F-16’s case, a net positive) static stability due to aerodynamic forces shifting aft between subsonic and supersonic flight. At subsonic speeds, however, the fighter is constantly on the verge of going out of control. Hoh, Roger H. and David G. Mitchell. Flying Qualities of Relaxed Static Stability Aircraft – Volume I: Flying Qualities Airworthiness Assessment and Flight Testing of Augmented Aircraft. (DOT/FAA/CT-82/130-I). Federal Aviation Administration, September 1983. pp. 11ff. Retrieved: 16 June 2008. Aronstein, David C. & Piccirillo, Albert C. The Lightweight Fighter Program: A Successful Approach to Fighter Technology Transition. AIAA, 1996. p. 21. Retrieved: 25 October 2008. F-16 taxiing at JeffCo airport Wisconsin ANG F-16s over Madison, Wisconsin Fly-by-wire To counter this tendency to depart from controlled flight—and avoid the need for constant minute trimming inputs by the pilot—the F-16 has a quadruplex (four-channel) fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system (FLCS). The flight control computer (FLCC), which is the key component of the FLCS, accepts the pilot’s input from the stick and rudder controls, and manipulates the control surfaces in such a way as to produce the desired result without inducing a loss of control (known as "departing" controlled flight). The FLCC also takes thousands of measurements per second of the aircraft’s attitude, and automatically makes corrections to counter deviations from the flight path that were not input by the pilot, thereby allowing for stable flight. This has led to a common aphorism among F-16 pilots: “You don’t fly an F-16; it flies you.” Greenwood, Cynthia. "Air Force Looks at the Benefits of Using CPCs on F-16 Black Boxes." CorrDefense, Spring 2007. Retrieved: 16 June 2008. The FLCC further incorporates a series of limiters that govern movement in the three main axes based on the jet’s current attitude, airspeed and angle of attack, and prevent movement of the control surfaces that would induce an instability such as a slip or skid, or a high angle of attack inducing a stall. The limiters also act to prevent maneuvering that would place more than 9 [[g force|g'''s]] of force on the pilot or airframe. Hoh and Mitchell 1983, p. 5. Retrieved: 16 June 2008. Unlike the YF-17 which featured a FBW system with traditional hydromechanical controls serving as a backup, the F-16’s designers took the innovative step of eliminating mechanical linkages between the stick and rudder pedals and the aerodynamic control surfaces. The F-16’s sole reliance on electronics and wires to relay flight commands, instead of the usual cables and mechanical linkage controls, gained the F-16 the early moniker of "the electric jet". The quadruplex design permits “graceful degradation” in flight control response in that the loss of one channel renders the FLCS a “triplex” system. Richardson 1990, p. 12. The FLCC began as an analog system on the A/B variants, but has been supplanted by a digital computer system beginning with the F-16C/D Block 40. Nielsen, Mats (undated [2007]). "Total Immersion Fuel Tank Airborne Cable Assemblies". Glenair. Retrieved: 16 June 2008. Day, Dwayne A. "Computers in Aviation." U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission, 2003. Retrieved: 16 June 2008. Cockpit and ergonomics One of the more notable features from a pilot’s perspective is the F-16’s exceptional field of view from the cockpit, a feature that is vital during air-to-air combat. The single-piece, bird-proof polycarbonate bubble canopy provides 360° all-round visibility, with a 40° down-look angle over the side of the aircraft, and 15° down over the nose (compared to the more common 12–13° of its predecessors); the pilot’s seat is mounted on an elevated heel line to accomplish this. Furthermore, the F-16's canopy lacks the forward bow frame found on most fighters, which obstructs some of the pilot’s forward vision. (The length of the tandem arrangement of two-seat F-16s does necessitate a frame between the pilots, however.) Peacock 1997, p. 99. F-16 Ground Trainer Cockpit (F-16 MLU Version) The rocket-boosted ACES II zero/zero ejection seat is reclined at an unusually high tilt-back angle of 30°; the seats in older and contemporary fighters were typically tilted back at around 13–15°. The F-16’s seat-back angle was chosen to improve the pilot’s tolerance of high g forces, and to reduce his susceptibility to gravity-induced loss of consciousness. The increased seat angle, however, has also been associated with reports of increased risk of neck ache when not mitigated by proper use of the head-rest. Albano, J. J. and J. B. Stanford. "Prevention of Minor Neck Injuries in F-16 Pilots". Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine; 69, 1998: 1193-9. Subsequent U.S. jet fighter designs have more modest tilt-back angles of 20°. Peacock 1997, pp. 99–100. Because of the extreme seat tilt-back angle and the thickness of its polycarbonate single-piece canopy, the F-16’s ejection seat lacks the steel rail canopy breakers found in most other aircraft’s ejection systems. Such breakers shatter a section of the canopy should it fail to open or jettison to permit emergency egress of the aircrew. On the F-16, crew ejection is accomplished by first jettisoning the entire canopy; as the relative wind pulls the canopy away from the plane, a lanyard triggers the seat’s rockets to fire. Sherman, Robert. "F-16 Fighting Falcon." Federation of American Scientists (FAS), updated 30 May 2008. Retrieved: 20 June 2008. The pilot flies the aircraft primarily by means of a side-stick controller mounted on the right-hand armrest (instead of the more common center-mounted stick) and an engine throttle on the left side; conventional rudder pedals are also employed. To enhance the pilot’s degree of control of the aircraft during high-g combat maneuvers, a number of function switches formerly scattered about the cockpit have been moved to "hands on throttle-and-stick (HOTAS)" controls found on both of these controllers. Simple hand pressure on the side-stick controller causes the transmission of electrical signals via the FBW system to adjust the various flight control surfaces used for maneuvering. Originally, the side-stick controller was non-moving, but this arrangement proved uncomfortable and difficult for pilots to adjust to, sometimes resulting in a tendency to "over-rotate" the aircraft during takeoffs, so the control stick was given a small amount of “play”. Since its introduction on the F-16, HOTAS controls have become a standard feature among modern fighters (although the side-stick application is less widespread). Pike, John. "F-16 Fighting Falcon." Global Security, updated 27 April 2005. Retrieved: 20 June 2008. The F-16 cockpit also has a Head-Up Display (HUD), which projects visual flight and combat information in symbological form in front of the pilot without obstructing his view. Being able to keep his head “out of the cockpit” further enhances the pilot’s situational awareness of what is occurring around him. Task, H. L. (December 1983). Optical Effects of F-16 Canopy-HUD (Head Up Display) Integration, (Accession No. ADP003222). Air Force Aerospace Medical Research Lab. Boeing’s Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS) is also available from Block 52 onwards for use with high-off-boresight air-to-air missiles like the AIM-9X. JHMCS permits cuing the weapons system to the direction in which the pilot’s head is facing—even outside the HUD’s field of view—while still maintaining his situational awareness. Anon. (undated). "Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS)". Boeing Integrated Defense Systems. JHMCS was first operationally deployed during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Anon. F-16 Fighting Falcon Multi-Role Fighter Aircraft, USA. Airforce-technology.com. Retrieved: 21 June 2008. The pilot obtains further flight and systems status information from multi-function displays (MFD). The left-hand MFD is the primary flight display (PFD), which generally shows radar and moving-map displays; the right-hand MFD is the system display (SD), which presents important information about the engine, landing gear, slat and flap settings, fuel quantities, and weapons status. Initially, the F-16A/B had only a single monochrome cathode ray tube (CRT) display to serve as the PFD, with system information provided by a variety of traditional “steam gauges”. The MLU introduced the SD MFD in a cockpit made compatible for usage of night-vision goggles (NVG). These CRT displays were replaced by color liquid crystal displays on the Block 50/52. The Block 60 features three programmable and interchangeable color MFDs (CMFD) with picture-in-picture capability that is able to overlay the full tactical situation display on the moving map. Radar The F-16A/B was originally equipped with the Westinghouse (now Northrop Grumman) solid-state AN/APG-66 pulse-Doppler fire-control radar. Its slotted planar-array antenna was designed to be sufficiently compact to fit into the F-16’s relatively small nose. In uplook mode, the APG-66 uses a low pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) for medium- and high-altitude target detection in a low-clutter environment, and in downlook employs a medium PRF for heavy clutter environments. It has four operating frequencies within the X band, and provides four air-to-air and seven air-to-ground operating modes for combat, even at night or in bad weather. The Block 15’s APG-66(V)2 model added a new, more powerful signal processor, higher output power, improved reliability, and increased range in a clutter or jamming environments. The Mid-Life Update (MLU) program further upgrades this to the APG-66(V)2A model, which features higher speed and memory. Anon. "The AN/APG-66 Radar". Avitop.com. Retrieved: 21 June 2008. The mechanically scanned AN/APG-68 X-band pulse-Doppler radar, an evolution of the APG-66, was introduced with the F-16C/D Block 25. The APG-68 has greater range and resolution, as well as 25 operating modes, including ground-mapping, Doppler beam-sharpening, ground moving target, sea target, and track-while-scan (TWS) for up to ten targets. The Block 40/42’s APG-68(V)1 model added full compatibility with Lockheed Martin Low-Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infra-Red for Night (LANTIRN) pods, and a high-PRF pulse-Doppler track mode to provide continuous-wave (CW) target illumination for semi-active radar-homing (SARH) missiles like the AIM-7 Sparrow. The Block 50/52 F-16s initially received the more reliable APG-68(V)5 which has a programmable signal processor employing Very-High-Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) technology. The Advanced Block 50/52 (or 50+/52+) are equipped with the APG-68(V)9 radar which has a 30% greater air-to-air detection range, and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mode for high-resolution mapping and target detection and recognition. In August 2004, Northrop Grumman received a contract to begin upgrading the APG-68 radars of the Block 40/42/50/52 aircraft to the (V)10 standard, which will provide the F-16 with all-weather autonomous detection and targeting for the use of Global Positioning System (GPS)-aided precision weapons. It also adds SAR mapping and terrain-following (TF) modes, as well as interleaving of all modes. The F-16E/F is outfitted with Northrop Grumman’s AN/APG-80 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, making it only the third fighter to be so equipped. Anon. "F-16E/F : Block 60." F-16.net. Retrieved: 21 June 2008. Kopp, Carlo. "Active Electronically Steered Arrays: A Maturing Technology". Australian Aviation, June 2002 (as reprinted by Air Power Australia). Retrieved: 21 June 2008. In July 2007, Raytheon announced that it was developing a new Raytheon Next Generation Radar (RANGR) based on its earlier AN/APG-79 AESA radar as an alternative candidate to Northrop Grumman’s AN/APG-68 and AN/APG-80 for new-build F-16s as well as retrofit of existing ones. Shamim, Asif. "Raytheon and Northrop Grumman battle over F-16 radars". F-16.net, 7 November 2007. Retrieved: 21 June 2008. On 1 November 2007, Boeing selected this design for development under the USAF’s F-15E Radar Modernization Program (RMP). Anon. "Boeing Selects Raytheon to Provide AESA Radar for U.S. Air Force F-15E Strike Eagles." Boeing News Release, 1 November 2007. Retrieved: 21 June 2008. Propulsion Mechanics actuating an F-16 exhaust nozzle. The powerplant first selected for the single-engined F-16 was the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 afterburning turbofan, a slightly modified version of the F100-PW-100 used by the F-15. Rated at 23,830 lbf (106.0 kN) thrust, it remained the standard F-16 engine through the Block 25, except for new-build Block 15s with the Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU). The OCU introduced the 23,770 lbf (105.7 kN) F100-PW-220, which was also installed on Block 32 and 42 aircraft; while not offering a noteworthy difference in thrust, it introduced a Digital Electronic Engine Control (DEEC) unit that improved reliability and reduced the risk of engine stalls (an unwelcome occasional tendency with the original "-200" that necessitated a midair engine restart). Introduced on the F-16 production line in 1988, the "-220" also supplanted the F-15’s "-100," thereby maximizing commonality. Many of the "-220" jet engines on Block 25 and later aircraft were upgraded from mid-1997 to the "-220E" standard, which further enhanced reliability and maintainability, including a 35% reduction of the unscheduled engine removal rate. Peacock 1997, pp. 102–103. Pike, John. "F100-PW-100/-200". Global Security, updated 13 March 2006. Retrieved: 21 June 2008. Development of the F100-PW-220/220E was the result of the USAF’s Alternate Fighter Engine (AFE) program (colloquially known as “the Great Engine War”), which also saw the entry of General Electric as an F-16 engine provider. Its F110-GE-100 turbofan, however, required modification of the F-16’s inlet; the original inlet limited the GE jet’s maximum thrust to only 25,735 lbf (114.5 kN), while the new Modular Common Inlet Duct allowed the F110 to achieve its maximum thrust of 28,984 lbf (128.9 kN) in afterburner. (To distinguish between aircraft equipped with these two engines and inlets, from the Block 30 series on, blocks ending in "0" (e.g., Block 30) are powered by GE, and blocks ending in "2" (e.g., Block 32) are fitted with Pratt & Whitney engines.) Peacock 1997, p. 103. Camm, Frank and Thomas K. Glennan, Jr. "The Development of the F100-PW-220 and F110-GE-100 Engines (N-3618-AF)." RAND Corp., 1993. Retrieved: 21 June 2008. Anon. "F-16C/D : Block 30/32". F-16.net. Retrieved: 21 June 2008. Further development by these competitors under the Increased Performance Engine (IPE) effort led to the 29,588 lbf (131.6 kN) F110-GE-129 on the Block 50 and 29,100 lbf (129.4 kN) F100-PW-229 on the Block 52. F-16s began flying with these IPE engines on 22 October 1991 and 22 October 1992, respectively. Altogether, of the 1,446 F-16C/Ds ordered by the USAF, 556 were fitted with F100-series engines and 890 with F110s. The United Arab Emirates’ Block 60 is powered by the General Electric F110-GE-132 turbofan, which is rated at a maximum thrust of 32,500 lbf (144.6 kN), the highest ever developed for the F-16 aircraft. Pike, John. "F110." Global Security, updated 15 March 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2008. Operational history IAF F-16A Netz with 6.5 aerial victory marks and Osirak bombing mark A USAF Air National Guard F-16 pilot in cockpit with nightvision equipment A U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds pilot ejects from his F-16 at an air show in September 2003 Turkish Air Force F-16s in formation Due to their ubiquity, F-16s have participated in numerous conflicts, most of them in the Middle East. First combat successes: Bekaa Valley and Osiraq raid (1981) The F-16’s first air-to-air combat success was achieved by the Israeli Air Force (IAF) over the Bekaa Valley on 28 April 1981 against a Syrian Mi-8 helicopter, which was downed with cannon fire following an unsuccessful attempt with an AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile (AAM). A year later, on 9 June 1982, during the initial air battle of the 1982 Lebanon War, the IAF achieved the first F-16 "kill" of another fighter with a successful AAM shoot-down of a Syrian MiG-21. Iskra, Alex. "GD/L-M F-16A/B Netz in Israeli Service". Air Combat Information Group (ACIG), 26 September 2003. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. On 7 June 1981, eight Israeli F-16s, escorted by F-15s, executed Operation Opera, their first employment in a significant air-to-ground operation. This raid severely damaged Osirak, an Iraqi nuclear reactor under construction near Baghdad, to prevent the regime of Saddam Hussein from using the reactor for the creation of nuclear weapons. Grant, Rebecca. "Osirak and Beyond". Air Force Magazine, August 2002. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. Operation Peace for Galilee (1982) The following year, during Operation Peace for Galilee (Lebanon War) Israeli F-16s engaged Syrian aircraft in one of the largest air battles involving jet aircraft, which began on 9 June and continued for two more days. At the end of the conflict, the Israeli Air Force credited their F-16s with 44 air-to-air kills, mostly of MiG-21s and MiG-23s, while suffering no air-to-air losses of their own. Schow, Jr., Kenneth C., Lt. Col., USAF. "Falcons Against the Jihad: Israeli Airpower and Coercive Diplomacy in Southern Lebanon". Air University Press, November 1995. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. F-16s were also used in their ground-attack role for strikes against targets in Lebanon. Incidents during the Soviet-Afghan War (1986–1988) During the Soviet-Afghan war, between May 1986 and January 1989, Pakistan Air Force F-16s shot down at least ten intruders from Afghanistan. Four of the kills were Afghan Su-22s bombers, three were Afghan transports (two An-26s and one An-24), and one was a Soviet Su-25 bomber. Most of these kills were achieved using the AIM-9 Sidewinder, but a Su-22 was destroyed by cannon fire and the one An-24 crash landed after being forced to land upon interception. "Pakistan Border Battles". Pakistan Military Consortium. Retrieved: 17 May 2008. Afghanistan claimed to have shot down one Pakistani F-16A during an encounter on 29 April 1987; the pilot ejected safely and landed in Pakistani territory. Pakistani authorities admitted to having lost a fighter jet to enemy fighters, but suggested that it may have been either an F-16 or an F-6 and insisted it was attacked over Pakistani territory. Weisman, Steven R. "Afghans Down a Pakistani F-16, Saying Fighter Jet Crossed Border". The New York Times, 2 May 1987. Retrieved: 10 August 2008. Subsequently, Pakistani officials confirmed that the loss was an F-16, but asserted it was accidentally shot down in a friendly fire incident during a dogfight with enemy aircraft over Pakistani territory. According to this claim, Flight Lieutenant Shahid Sikandar Khan’s F-16 was hit by an AIM-9 missile fired by another F-16 piloted by Squadron Leader Amjad Javed. Anon. "F-16 Aircraft Database: F-16 Airframe Details for 81-0918". F-16.net. Retrieved: 10 August 2008. Operation Desert Storm (1991) In Operation Desert Storm of 1991, 249 USAF F-16s flew 13,340 sorties in strikes against Iraq, the most of any Coalition aircraft. Three aircraft were lost to confirmed enemy action: two to enemy radar guided SA-6 and SA-3 surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) Airframe Details for F-16 #87-0228 Airframe Details for F-16 #87-0257 and one to a shoulder lauched SA-16 missile. Airframe Details for F-16 #84-1390 Other F-16s were damaged in accidents and by hostile ground fire but were able to return to base and be repaired. Anon. "F-16 Accident Reports for 1991". F-16.net. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. Anon. "USAF Manned Aircraft Combat Losses 1990-2002". Air Force Historical Research Agency. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. In all, seven F-16 were lost during Desert Storm combat operations between January 16 and February 28. F-16 Accident Reports for 1991 F-16's formed the basis of the largest strike package (72 aircraft) flown during the war - "Package Q", a daylight raid against targets in downtown Baghdad. It was during the "Package Q" mission that two F-16's, assigned to the 401st TFW (P) flying from Doha, Qatar were lost to SAMs with their pilots becoming POW's. This mission also marked the largest single operational F-16 strike package flown to date. The Lucky Devils and Forgotten 1000 in the Gulf War Interwar Air Operations over Iraq (1991-2003) From the end of Desert Storm until the invasion of Iraq in 2003, USAF F-16s patrolled the Iraqi no-fly zones. Two air-to-air victories were scored by USAF F-16s in Operation Southern Watch. Anon. "Aerial Victory Credits." Air Force Historical Research Agency. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. On 27 December 1992, a USAF F-16D shot down an Iraqi MiG-25 in UN-restricted airspace over southern Iraq with an AIM-120 AMRAAM; this was the first USAF F-16 kill since the F-16 was introduced; and was also the first AMRAAM kill. Anon. "F-16 Aircraft Database: F-16 Airframe Details for 90-0778." F-16.net. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. On 17 January 1993, a USAF F-16C destroyed an Iraqi MiG-23 with an AMRAAM missile for the second USAF F-16 victory. Anon. "F-16 Aircraft Database: F-16 Airframe Details for 86-0262". F-16.net. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. F-16s returned to Iraq in December 1998 as part of the Operation Desert Fox bombing campaign to "degrade" Iraq's ability to manufacture and use weapons of mass destruction. NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. "Secretary Albright" (transcript). PBS, 17 December 1998. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. Venezuelan coup attempt (1992) On 27 November 1992, two Venezuelan F-16s took part in the November Venezuelan Coup Attempt on the side of the government. In particular, the two F-16As strafed targets on the ground and shot down two OV-10 Broncos with AIM-9Ps and one AT-27 Tucano with cannon fire as these rebel-flown aircraft attacked loyalist army positions. Cooper, Tom and Juan Sosa. "Venezuelan Coup Attempt, 1992". Air Combat Information Group (ACIG), 1 September 2003. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. Balkans (1994–1995 and 1999) Tail and canopy of F-16CG in Belgrade Aviation Museum, Serbia. F-16s were also employed by NATO during Bosnian peacekeeping operations in 1994-95 in ground-attack missions and enforcing the no-fly-zone over Bosnia (Operation Deny Flight). On 28 February 1994, 4 J-21 and 2 IJ-21 Jastrebs and 2 J-22 Oraos had violated the no-fly-zone to conduct a bombing run. The pilots of the 2 J-22s spotted the F-16s above them and after their attack, they left the area in low-level flight towards Croatia, where the U.S. jets could not follow; one of these later crashed due to lack of fuel. Meanwhile, the rest of the group was engaged and attacked, first by 2 USAF F-16Cs, which scored three kills. The remaining J-21 was taken out by a different pair of USAF F-16Cs. Of the six Yugoslavian jets engaged, four were shot down (one by AMRAAM and the others by Sidewinders). Palmer, Eric L. "USAF F-16s shoot down 4 Serb attack aircraft". F-16.net, 28 February 1994. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. Anon. "U.S. Air-to-Air Victories during the Cold War, Wars in Yugoslavia, and Anti-Terror War". Air Combat Information Group (ACIG), 28 October 2003; updated 18 September 2004. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. On 2 June 1995, one F-16C was lost to a Serb 2K12 Kub SAM (NATO reporting name: SA-6 'Gainful') while on patrol over Bosnia. Its pilot, Scott O'Grady, ejected and was later rescued by a USMC CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopter on 8 June. Anon. "F-16 Aircraft Database: F-16 Airframe Details for 89-2032". F-16.net. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. NATO F-16s also participated in air strikes against Serbian forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina during Operation Deliberate Force in August-September 1995, and again in Operation Allied Force over Yugoslavia from March-June 1999. During Allied Force, F-16s also achieved one or two aerial victories: one by a Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16AM, which shot down a Yugoslavian MiG-29 with an AMRAAM, and possibly another by a USAF F-16C which fired two AMRAAMs at a Yugoslavian MiG-29. However, in the latter case, the Serbs claimed to have subsequently found fragments of a 9K32M Strela-2M NATO designation: SA-7b ‘Grail’ Mod 1) MANPAD in the wreckage of this MiG-29, suggesting it was mistakenly downed by Serbian infantry. Anon. "Yugoslav & Serbian MiG-29s". Air Combat Information Group (ACIG), 30 November 2003. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. On 2 May 1999, a USAF F-16CG was lost over Serbia. It was shot down by an S-125 Pechora SAM (NATO: SA-3 ‘Goa’) near Nakucani. Its pilot, the commander of 555th Fighter Squadron, managed to eject and was later rescued by a combat search-and-rescue (CSAR) mission. Roberts, Chris. "Holloman commander recalls being shot down in Serbia". F-16.net, 7 February 2007. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. Anon. "F-16 Aircraft Database: F-16 Airframe Details for 88-0550". F-16.net. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. The remains of this aircraft are on display in the Yugoslav Aeronautical Museum, Belgrade International Airport. Aegean incidents (1996 and 2006) On 10 October 1996, during an air-to-air confrontation over the Aegean Sea in Greek airspace, a Greek Mirage 2000 fired an R550 Magic and shot down a Turkish F-16D, which the Turkish government claims was on a training mission north of the Greek island of Samos, close to the Turkish mainland. The Turkish pilot died, while the co-pilot ejected and was rescued by Greek forces. Anon. "F-16 Aircraft Database: F-16 Airframe Details for 91-0023". F-16.net. Retrieved: 18 May 2008. Anon. "Greek & Turkish Air-to-Air Victories". Air Combat Information Group (ACIG), 28 October 2003; updated 18 September 2004. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. While the Turkish government admits the loss, the Greek government officially denies the shootdown occurred. Dewitte, Lieven. "Deadly 1996 Aegean clash is confirmed". F-16.net, 22 May 2003. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. On 23 May 2006, two Greek F-16 Block 52+ jets were scrambled to intercept a Turkish RF-4 reconnaissance aircraft and its two F-16 escorts off the coast of the Greek island of Karpathos. A mock dogfight ensued between the two sides’ F-16s, which ended in a midair collision between a Turkish F-16 and a Greek F-16. The Turkish pilot ejected safely after his jet was destroyed, but the Greek pilot died when his canopy and cockpit were destroyed during the collision. "Greek F-16 and Turkish F-16 collide - 1 pilot OK". F-16.net, 23 May 2006. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. Kargil War (1999) Pakistani F-16s saw action against the Indian MiG-29s during the Kargil War in Kashmir in 1999. The IAF used the MiG-29s extensively for providing fighter escort for Mirage 2000s which were used for firing laser-guided bombs on enemy targets. During the Kargil War, MiG-29s from IAF’s 47 (Black Archers)Squadron successfully locked onto two Pakistani Air Force (PAF) F-16s which were close to the Indian airspace. Since India and Pakistan were not officially at war during the time, the MiGs were ordered by the IAF command to give up the chase. After this incident, the PAF ordered its aircraft to stay well within the Pakistani airspace. Kapisthalam, Kaushik. "Strategy." Strategy Page 20 May 2005. Retrieved: 16 May 2009. Operations in Afghanistan (2001–present) An F-16 of the Royal Netherlands Air Force over Afghanistan. F-16s have been used by the United States in Afghanistan since 2001. In 2002, a tri-national detachment known as the European Participating Air Forces (Danish, Dutch and Norwegian) of 18 F-16s in the ground attack role deployed to Manas Air Base in Kyrgyzstan to support Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. Since April 2005, eight Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16s, joined by four Royal Norwegian Air Force F-16s in February 2006, have been supporting International Security Assistance Force ground troops the southern provinces of Afghanistan. The detachment is known as the 1st Netherlands-Norwegian European Participating Forces Expeditionary Air Wing (1 NLD/NOR EEAW). Anon. "F-16s complete one thousand hours of flight operations over Afghanistan". Dutch Ministry of Defense, 3 January 2006. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. On 31 August 2006, a Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16AM crashed in Ghazni province and the pilot was killed. "Dutch F-16 crash in Afghanistan." BBC News, 31 August 2006. Retrieved: 16 may 2009. No cause was determined, but the investigation referenced the fact that a camel spider and other creatures had recently been found in the cockpits of Dutch aircraft in Afghanistan. F-16 mishap horror, F-16.net, 12 July 2007. "F-16 Mishap Horror" Invasion of Iraq and post-war operations (2003–present) US F-16s participated in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the only loss suffered over Iraq during this phase was an F-16CG of the 388th Fighter Wing’s 421st Fighter Squadron that crashed near Baghdad on 12 June 2003 when it ran out of fuel. Anon. "F-16 Aircraft Database: F-16 Airframe Details for 88-0424". F-16.net. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. A US Army MIM-104 Patriot SAM fire-control radar was damaged on 25 March 2003 following a hit by an AGM-88 HARM anti-radiation missile fired from an USAF F-16C on a patrol over southern Iraq, when the radar established a lock-on onto the fighter. Weisman, Jonathan. "Patriot Missiles Seemingly Falter For Second Time; Glitch in Software Suspected". Washington Post, 26 March 2003 (via Global Security). Retrieved: 17 May 2008. On 7 June 2006, two USAF F-16s dropped two guided bombs (one GBU-12 Paveway LGB and one GBU-38 GPS-guided “smart” bomb) destroying an al-Qaeda safehouse, killing Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi, the leader of Al-Qaeda in Iraq. "Iraq Terror Chief Killed in Airstrike". CBS News, 8 June 2006. Retrieved: 29 June 2008. An F-16CG crashed near Fallujah on 27 November 2006 while on a low-altitude ground-strafing run; although under fire, according to the official USAF report, the apparent cause was due to flying into the ground while attempting to maintain visual identification of targeted enemy vehicles. The pilot, Major Troy Gilbert, was killed. Anon. "US F-16 goes down in Iraq". Al Jazeera, 27 November 2006. Retrieved: 17 May 2008. Anon. "F-16 Aircraft Database: F-16 Airframe Details for 90-0776". F-16.net. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. Two other F-16s were lost in Iraq a month apart, on 15 June and 15 July 2007 in separate accidents, "Pilot killed in an F-16 fighter crash on takeoff in Iraq, Air Force says". International Herald Tribune, 16 June 2007. Retrieved: 17 May 2008. "U.S. F-16 warplane crashes in Iraq, pilot uninjured". Xinhua News Agency, 17 July 2007. Retrieved: 17 May 2008. due to non-combat related causes. F-16CG F-16CJ On 12 November 2008, an F-16C was destroyed in a ground fire at Balad Air Base in Iraq after a failed take off. The pilot was uninjured. "F-16 Mishap News: US F-16 destroyed in ground fire." F-16 fire On 25 February 2009, a USAF F-16 shot down an Iranian Ababil-3 UAV that had violated Iraqi airspace. This so far marks the only confirmed air-to-air kill of the war. Iran Second Lebanon War (2006) Israeli F-16s, the bomber workhorse of the Israel Defense Forces, participated in the 2006 Lebanon War. The only reported F-16 loss was an IDF F-16I that crashed on July 19 when one of its tires burst as it took off for Lebanon from an air base in the Negev. The pilots ejected safely and there were no casualties on the ground. Harel, Amos. “IDF fighter jet crashes during take-off in Negev; no injuries”. Haaretz, 20 July 2007. Retrieved: 16 May 2008. Israeli F-16's shot down three Hezbollah-operated Ababil UAVs during the war. IDFAF Operation Sun (2008) Turkish built F-16s with LANTIRN belonging to the 181st Squadron (Pars Filo) of the Turkish Air Force, took part in the bombing of PKK infrastructure located in Northern Iraq during Operation Sun. 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict Israeli Defense Force F-16s were used in attacks in the Gaza strip in December 2008. Operation Black Thunderstorm Pakistan Air Force's F-16s provide a critical counterterrorism capability to Pakistan. The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) has made extensive use of its aging F-16 fleet to support Pakistan Army operations in the Swat Valley and in the Bajaur Agency of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). According to information from the Pakistan Embassy in Washington, the PAF flew 93 sorties in August 2008 in operations against the Taliban. However, their current model F-16 can be used for close air support missions only in daylight and good visibility. F-16 The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) agressively bombed the moutains in the Swat and Malakand Division. Pakistan's F-16s successfully targeted the Taliban training camps, killing a major Taliban commander. On 27 April 2009, Pakistani F-16s successfully bombed positions in the mountains of the Dir district, killing more than 70 Taliban fighters. With the crucial support of F-16s, the Pakistan Army completed the operation successfully. On 28 April PAF F-16s heavily bombed the position in mountains in the Babaji Kandao area of Buner. News On 2 May 2009, Pakistan Air Force along with Pakistan Army started an operation against the Taliban. Pakistani F-16 bombed successfully mountain position of Taliban, killing 143 Taliban and a key Taliban leader, regaining control of Buner and some areas of Malakand division. Pakistan PAF Chief, Air Chief Marshal Rao Qamar Suleman has announced that PAF F-16s provide its full support to Pakistan army and only targetting the mountain hideouts and avoiding to targetting civilian infrastructure. Pakistani F-16s also achieved high-value target in the Mangora city, killing top Taliban leaders commanders Maulana Shahid and Qari Quraish. Variants Static display, Farnborough, 2006 F-16 models are denoted by sequential block numbers to denote significant upgrades. The blocks cover both single- and two-seat versions. A variety of software, hardware, systems, weapons carriage, and structural enhancements have been instituted over the years to gradually upgrade the F-16 and retroactively implement the upgrades in previously delivered aircraft. While many F-16s were produced according to these block designs, there have been many other variants with significant changes, usually due to modification programs. Other changes have resulted in role-specialization, such as the close air support and reconnaissance variants. Several models were also developed to test new technology. The F-16 design also inspired the design of other aircraft, which are considered derivatives. Main production variants BlockModelsEngine1F-16A / B PW F100-PW-2005F-16A / B PW F100-PW-20010F-16A / B PW F100-PW-20015F-16A / B PW F100-PW-20020F-16A / B PW F100-PW-20025F-16C / D PW F100-PW-220E30F-16C / D GE F110-GE-10032F-16C / D PW F100-PW-220E40F-16C / D GE F110-GE-10042F-16C / D PW F100-PW-220E50F-16C / D GE F110-GE-12952F-16C / D PW F100-PW-22960F-16E / F GE F110-GE-132 F-16A/B The F-16A (single seat) and F-16B (two seat) were initially equipped with the Westinghouse AN/APG-66 pulse-doppler radar, Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 turbofan, rated at 14,670 lbf (64.9 kN) and 23,830 lbf (106.0 kN) with afterburner. The A and B variants include Blocks 1, 5, 10, 15 and 20. The USAF bought 674 F-16As and 121 F-16Bs, with delivery completed in March 1985. The F-16A/B had a unit cost of US$14.6 million (1992). Early blocks (Block 1/5/10) featured relatively minor differences between each. Most were later upgraded to the Block 10 configuration in the early 1980s. Block 15 aircraft was the first major change in the F-16. It featured larger horizontal stabilizers, the addition of two hardpoints to the chin inlet, an improved AN/APG-66(V)2 radar, and increased capacity for the underwing hardpoints. Block 15 also gained the Have Quick II secure UHF radio. The horizontal stabilizers were enlarged by 30% to counter the additional weight of the new hardpoints. Block 15 is the most numerous variant of the F-16, with 983 produced. USAF F-16C Block 20 added some F-16C/D capability: Improved AN/APG-66(V)3 radar, carriage of AGM-45 Shrike, AGM-84 Harpoon, and AGM-88 HARM missiles, as well as the LANTIRN navigation and targeting pod. The Block 20 computers are significantly improved in comparison to that of the earlier versions. The Republic of China (Taiwan) received 150 F-16A/B Block 20 aircraft. "F-16A/B, Block 1/5/10/15/15OCU/20". F-16.net. Retrieved: 25 January 2009. F-16C/D F-16C (single seat) and F-16D (two seat) variants were introduced in service in 1984. The Block 25 was the first C/D block. It added all-weather capability with beyond-visual-range (BVR) AIM-7 and AIM-120 air-air missiles. Darling 2003, p. 59. Block 25 introduced a substantial improvement in cockpit avionics, and improved AN/APG-68 radar. Block 25s were first delivered with the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 engine and later upgraded to the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-220E. A total of 209 Block 25 aircraft were delivered. "F-16C/D, Block 25". F-16.net. Retrieved: 25 January 2009. The F-16C/D had a unit cost of US$18.8 million (1998). Three U.S. Air Force F-16 Block 30 aircraft fly in formation over South Korea Block 30/32 was the first block of F-16s affected by the Alternative Fighter Engine project under which aircraft were fitted with the traditional Pratt & Whitney engines or, for the first time, the General Electric F110-GE-100. From this point on, blocks ending in "0" (e.g., Block 30) are powered by GE, and blocks ending in "2" (e.g., Block 32) are fitted with Pratt & Whitney engines. The first Block 30 F-16 entered service in 1987. Major differences include the carriage of the AGM-45 Shrike, AGM-88 HARM, and the AIM-120 missiles. From Block 30D, aircraft were fitted with larger engine air intakes (called a Modular Common Inlet Duct) for the increased-thrust GE engine. A total of 733 Block 30/32 aircraft were produced and delivered to six countries. "F-16C/D, Block 30/32". F-16.net. Retrieved: 25 January 2009. An Egyptian Air Force F-16D Block 40 Block 40/42 entered service in 1988. It is the improved all-day/all-weather strike variant equipped with LANTIRN pod; also unofficially designated the F-16CG/DG, the night capability gave rise to the name "Night Falcons". This block features strengthened and lengthened undercarriage for LANTIRN pods, an improved radar, and a GPS receiver. From 2002, the Block 40/42 increased the weapon range available to the aircraft including JDAM, AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW), Wind-Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD) and the (Enhanced) EGBU-27 Paveway “bunker-buster”. A total of 615 Block 40/42 aircraft were delivered to 5 countries. "F-16C/D, Block 40/42". F-16.net. Retrieved: 25 January 2009. Block 50/52 F-16 was first delivered in late 1991; the aircraft are equipped with improved GPS/INS, and the aircraft can carry a further batch of advanced missiles: the AGM-88 HARM missile, JDAM, JSOW and WCMD. Block 50 aircraft are powered by the F110-GE-129 while the Block 52 jets use the F100-PW-229. Block 50/52 Plus (or 50/52+), which is also known as the "Advanced Block 50/52", was first delivered in April 2003 to the Hellenic Air Force. Its main differences are the addition of conformal fuel tanks (CFTs), APG-68(V9) radar, On-Board Oxygen Generation (OBOGS) system and JHMCS helmet. "F-16C/D, Block 50/52". F-16.net. Retrieved: 25 January 2009. F-16E/F F-16E (single seat) and F-16F (two seat). Originally, the single-seat version of the General Dynamics F-16XL was to have been designated F-16E, with the twin-seat variant designated F-16F. This was sidelined by the Air Force's selection of the competing F-15E Strike Eagle in the Enhanced Tactical Fighter fly-off in 1984. The 'Block 60' designation had also previously been set aside in 1989 for the A-16, but this model was dropped. Anon. "A-16, F/A-16, F-16A (30mm gun)." F-16.net. Retrieved: 21 May 2008. The F-16E/F designation now belongs to a special version developed especially for the United Arab Emirates, and is sometimes unofficially called the "Desert Falcon". United Arab Emirates F-16 Block 60 taking off after taxiing out of the Lockheed Martin plant in Fort Worth, TX (NAS Fort Worth JRB) Block 60 is based on the F-16C/D Block 50/52, it features improved radar and avionics and conformal fuel tanks; it has only been sold to the United Arab Emirates. At one time, this version was incorrectly thought to have been designated "F-16U". A major difference from previous blocks is the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-80 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, which gives the airplane the capability to simultaneously track and destroy ground and air threats. The Block 60's General Electric F110-GE-132 engine is a development of the -129 model and is rated at 32,500 lbf (144 kN). The Block 60 allows the carriage of all Block 50/52-compatible weaponry as well as AIM-132 Advanced Short Range Air-to-Air Missile (ASRAAM) and the AGM-84E Standoff Land Attack Missile (SLAM). The CFTs provide an additional 450 US gallon (2,045 L) of fuel, allowing increased range or time on station and frees up hardpoints for weapons instead of underwing fuel tanks. The MIL-STD-1553 data bus is replaced by MIL-STD-1773 fiber-optic data bus which offers a 1000 times increase in data-handling capability. UAE funded the entire $3 billion Block 60 development costs, and in exchange will receive royalties if any of the Block 60 aircraft are sold to other nations. A press report stated that this is "the first time the US has sold a better aircraft[F-16] overseas than its own forces fly". "Dubai 2007: UAE shows off its most advanced Falcons". FlightGlobal.com, 11 November 2007. The F-16E/F has a unit cost of US$26.9 million (2005). Operators Operators of F-16 (Not delivered yet) Notable incidents On 8 May 1975, while practicing a 9-g aerial display maneuver with the second YF-16 (tail number 72-1568) at Fort Worth prior to being sent to the Paris Air Show, one of the main landing gear jammed. The test pilot, Neil Anderson, had to perform an emergency gear-up landing and chose to do so in the grass, hoping to minimize damage and to avoid injuring the many GD employees observing the display. The aircraft was only slightly damaged (inlet duct buckling, fuselage station 227 bulkhead cracks, etc.). It was scheduled to appear at the Paris air show but due to the mishap the first prototype (tail number 72-1567) was sent. On 11 February 1992, an F-16 from the Royal Netherlands Air Force crashed into the city of Hengelo. The fighter suffered engine failure shortly after takeoff and the pilot tried to return to the nearby Twenthe air base. The pilot ejected and landed safely on the roof of a building. The F-16 crashed between the houses, without causing any injuries on the ground. During a joint Army-Air Force exercise being conducted at Pope AFB, North Carolina, on 23 March 1994, F-16D (tail number 88-0171) of the 23d Fighter Wing / 74th Fighter Squadron was at the center of a multi-aircraft accident, since known as the “Green Ramp disaster”, that resulted in 24 fatalities and at least 80 others injured. 23 March 1994 crash, Aviation Safety Net. On 27 March 2000, an Israeli Air Force F-16D-30F (GD serial number 077) of 109 Sq based at Ramat David Air Base, crashed into the Mediterranean Sea during a training flight off the coastal village of Atlit in northern Israel. The pilot, Major Yonatan Begin, was a grandson of former Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin. Neither he nor his co-pilot, Lt. Lior Harari, had notified their ground controllers of any problems. "Grandson of Begin Lost in Israeli F-16 Crash". The New York Times, 29 March 2000. Retrieved: 13 June 2008. F-16 Crash Specifications (F-16C Block 30) Orthographically projected diagram of the F-16. Popular culture The F-16 can be seen in movies such as Blue Thunder, The Jewel of the Nile, the Iron Eagle series, X2, The Sum Of All Fears, and Eagle Eye. It also appears, in a more negative light, in the 1992 TV movie Afterburn. Due to its widespread adoption, the F-16 has been a popular model for computer flight simulators, appearing in over 20 games. Some of them are: Falcon series (1987-2005), F-16 Fighting Falcon (1984), Jet (1989), Strike Commander (1993), iF-16 (1997), F-16 Multi-role Fighter (1998), F-16 Aggressor (1999), The Ace Combat Series, and Thrustmaster "HOTAS Cougar" flight simulator controller (exacting reproduction of those found in the F-16 Block 40/50). The F-16 is also one of two aircraft available in the built-in flight simulator in Google Earth. See also References Notes Bibliography Darling, Kev. F-16 Fighting Falcon (Combat Legend). London: Airlife, 2003. ISBN 1-84037-399-7. Hehs, Eric. "Harry Hillaker — Father of the F-16." Code One: An Airpower Projection Magazine, April/July 1991. Hillaker, Harry. "John Boyd, USAF Retired, Father of the F-16." Code One: An Airpower Projection Magazine, April/July 1997. Jenkins, Dennis R. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter. Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1998. ISBN 1-85780-081-8. Mehuron, Tamar A., Assoc. Editor."2007 USAF Almanac - Equipment". Air Force Magazine, Journal of the Air Force Association 90 (5): May 2007. ISSN: 0730-6784. Peacock, Lindsay. On Falcon Wings: The F-16 Story. RAF Fairford, United Kingdom: The Royal Air Force Benevolent Fund Enterprises, 1997. ISBN 1-899808-01-9. Richardson, Doug. General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. London: Salamander Books, 1990. ISBN 0-86101-534-7. Spick, Mike, ed. Great Book of Modern Warplanes''. St. Paul, MN: MBI, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4. External links F-16 USAF fact sheet F-16 page on LockheedMartin.com F-16 page on GlobalSecurity.org F-16.net Extensive and up-to-date Fighting Falcon resource F-16 profile on Aerospaceweb.org F-16 Modernization program news release | General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon |@lemmatized lockheed:11 martin:11 f:340 fight:16 falcon:23 multirole:3 jet:19 fighter:70 aircraft:99 originally:6 develop:8 general:12 dynamic:7 united:7 state:5 air:141 force:77 design:23 lightweight:7 day:7 time:16 visual:4 flight:44 rule:1 vfr:1 evolve:2 successful:3 versatility:1 paramount:1 reason:2 prove:3 success:3 export:2 market:1 select:6 serve:3 nation:4 press:4 release:3 june:42 government:5 award:2 contract:3 begin:14 production:17 advanced:8 morocco:1 retrieve:73 july:16 large:8 western:1 program:28 build:9 since:9 approve:1 though:3 longer:2 buy:3 u:30 version:11 still:3 customer:1 sell:5 manufacturing:1 business:1 corporation:2 rosenwald:1 michael:1 updated:1 december:9 downside:1 dominance:1 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7,071 | Class_action | In law, a class action or a representative action is a form of lawsuit where a large group of people collectively bring a claim to court. This form of collective lawsuit originated in the United States and is still predominately a US phenomenon, at least the US variant of it. However, in several European countries with civil law (as opposed to the English common law principle, which is used by US courts), changes have in recent years been made that allow consumer organizations to bring claims on behalf of large groups of consumers. US federal class actions In the United States federal courts, class actions are governed by Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Rule 23 and 28 U.S.C.A. § 1332 (d). Class action lawsuits may be brought in federal court if the claim arises under federal law, or if the claim falls under 28 USCA § 1332 (d). Under § 1332 (d) (2) the federal district courts have original jurisdiction over any civil action where the amount in controversy exceeds $5,000,000 and either 1. any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State different from any defendant; 2. any member of a class of plaintiffs is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state and any defendant is a citizen of a State; or 3. any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State and any defendant is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state. 28 USCA § 1332 (d) (2) Nationwide plaintiff classes are possible, but such suits must have a commonality of issues across state lines. This may be difficult if the civil law in the various states have significant differences. Large class actions brought in federal court frequently are consolidated for pre-trial purposes through the device of multidistrict litigation (MDL). It is also possible to bring class action lawsuits under state law, and in some cases the court may extend its jurisdiction to all the members of the class, including out of state (or even internationally) as the key element is the jurisdiction that the court has over the defendant. Typically, federal courts are thought to be more favorable for defendants, and state courts more favorable for plaintiffs. Many class action cases are filed initially in state court. The defendant will frequently try to remove the case to federal court. The Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 Class Action Fairness Act Public Law 109-2, 119 Stat. 4 increases defendants' ability to remove state cases to federal court by giving federal courts original jurisdiction for all class actions with damages exceeding $5,000,000, exclusive of interest and costs. 28 U.S.C.A. § 1332 (d) It should be noted, however, that the Class Action Fairness Act contains carve-outs for, 'inter alia', shareholder class action lawsuits covered by the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 and those concerning internal corporate governance issues (the latter typically being brought as shareholder derivative actions in the state courts of Delaware, the state of incorporation of most large corporations). William B. Rubenstein, "Understanding the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005" (briefing paper) The procedure for filing a class action is to file suit with one or several named plaintiffs on behalf of a proposed class. The proposed class must consist of a group of individuals or business entities that have suffered a common injury or injuries. Typically these cases result from an action on the part of a business or a particular product defect or policy that applied to all proposed class members in a uniform manner. After the complaint is filed, the plaintiff must file a motion to have the class certified. In some cases class certification may require additional discovery in order to determine if the proposed class meets the standard for class certification. Upon the motion to certify the class, the defendants may object to whether the issues are appropriately handled as a class action, to whether the named plaintiffs are sufficiently representative of the class, and to their relationship with the law firm or firms handling the case. The court will also examine the ability of the firm to prosecute the claim for the plaintiffs, and their resources for dealing with class actions. Due process requires in most cases that notice describing the class action be sent, published, or broadcast to class members. As part of this notice procedure, there may have to be several notices, first a notice giving class members the opportunity to opt out of the class, i.e. if individuals wish to proceed with their own litigation they are entitled to do so, only to the extent that they give timely notice to the class counsel or the court that they are opting out. Second, if there is a settlement proposal, the court will usually direct the class counsel to send a settlement notice to all the members of the certified class, informing them of the details of the proposed settlement. In federal civil procedure law, which has generally been accepted by most states (through adoption of state civil procedure rules paralleling the federal rules), the class action must have certain definite characteristics: (1) the class must be so large as to make individual suits impractical, (2) there must be legal or factual claims in common (3) the claims or defenses must be typical of the plaintiffs or defendants, and (4) the representative parties must adequately protect the interests of the class. In many cases, the party seeking certification must also show (5) that common issues between the class and the defendants will predominate the proceedings, as opposed to individual fact-specific conflicts between class members and the defendants and (6) that the class action, instead of individual litigation, is a superior vehicle for resolution of the disputes at hand. State class actions Since 1938, many states have adopted rules similar to the Fed. R. Civ. P. However, some states like California have homegrown civil procedure codes which less closely mirror the federal rules. As a result, there are entire treatises dedicated to the topic. Some states, such as Virginia, do not provide for any class actions, while others, such as New York, limit the types of claims that may be brought as class actions. Advantages and criticisms of class actions Advantages of class actions Class action lawsuits may offer a number of advantages Association of Trial Lawyers of America, Class Action Press Kit because they aggregate a large number of individualized claims into one representational lawsuit. First, aggregation can increase the efficiency of the legal process, and lower the costs of litigation. In cases with common questions of law and fact, aggregation of claims into a class action may avoid the necessity of repeating "days of the same witnesses, exhibits and issues from trial to trial." Jenkins v. Raymark Indus. Inc., 782 F.2d 468, 473 (5th Cir. 1986) (granting certification of a class action involving asbestos). Second, a class action may overcome "the problem that small recoveries do not provide the incentive for any individual to bring a solo action prosecuting his or her rights." Amchem Prods., Inc. v. Windsor, 521 U.S. 591, 617 (1997) (quoting Mace v. Van Ru Credit Corp., 109 F.3d 388, 344 (7th Cir. 1997)). "A class action solves this problem by aggregating the relatively paltry potential recoveries into something worth someone’s (usually an attorney’s) labor." Amchem Prods., Inc., 521 U.S. at 617 (quoting Mace, 109 F.3d at 344). In other words, a class action ensures that a defendant who engages in widespread harm but does so minimally against each individual plaintiff must compensate those individuals for their injuries. For example, thousands of shareholders of a public company may have losses too small to justify separate lawsuits, but a class action can be brought efficiently on behalf of all shareholders. Perhaps even more important than compensation is that class treatment of claims may be the only way to impose the costs of wrongdoing on the wrongdoer, thus deterring future wrongdoing. Third, in "limited fund" cases, a class action ensures that all plaintiffs receive relief and that early-filing plaintiffs do not raid the fund (i.e., the defendant) of all its assets before other plaintiffs may be compensated. See Ortiz v. Fibreboard Corp., 527 U.S. 815 (1999). A class action in such a situation centralizes all claims into one venue where a court can equitably divide the assets amongst all the plaintiffs if they win the case. Finally, a class action avoids the situation where different court rulings could create "incompatible standards" of conduct for the defendant to follow. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(1)(A). For example, a court might certify a case for class treatment where a number of individual bond-holders sue to determine whether they may convert their bonds to common stock. Refusing to litigate the case in one trial could result in different outcomes and inconsistent standards of conduct for the defendant corporation. Thus, courts will generally allow a class action in such a situation. See, e.g., Van Gemert v. Boeing Co., 259 F. Supp. 125 (S.D.N.Y. 1966). Whether a class action is superior to individual litigation depends on the case, and is determined by the judge's ruling on a motion for class certification. The Advisory Committee Note to Rule 23, for example, states that mass torts are ordinarily "not appropriate" for class treatment. Class treatment may not improve the efficiency of a mass tort because the claims frequently involve individualized issues of law and fact that will have to be re-tried on an individual basis. See Castano v. Am. Tobacco Co., 84 F.3d 734 (5th Cir. 1996) (rejecting nationwide class action against tobacco companies). Mass torts also involve high individual damage awards; thus, the absence of class treatment will not impede the ability of individual claimants to seek justice. See id. Other cases, however, may be more conducive to class treatment. The preamble to the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005, passed by the United States Congress, found: Class-action lawsuits are an important and valuable part of the legal system when they permit the fair and efficient resolution of legitimate claims of numerous parties by allowing the claims to be aggregated into a single action against a defendant that has allegedly caused harm. Criticisms of class actions There are several criticisms of class action lawsuits. *Richard Epstein, "Class Actions: The Need for a Hard Second Look" Michael Greve, "Harm-Less Lawsuits? What's Wrong with Consumer Class Actions" Jim Copland, "Class Actions" The preamble to the Class Action Fairness Act stated that some abusive class actions harmed class members with legitimate claims and defendants that have acted responsibly; adversely affected interstate commerce; and undermined public respect for the country's judicial system. Class members often receive little or no benefit from class actions. Examples cited for this include large fees for the attorneys, while leaving class members with coupons or other awards of little or no value; unjustified awards are made to certain plaintiffs at the expense of other class members; and confusing notices are published that prevent class members from being able to fully understand and effectively exercise their rights. For example, in the United States, class lawsuits sometimes bind all class members with a low settlement. These "coupon settlements" (which usually allow the plaintiffs to receive minimal benefit such as a small check or a coupon for future services or products with the defendant company) are a way for a defendant to forestall major liability by precluding a large number of people from litigating their claims separately, to recover reasonable compensation for the damages. However, existing law requires judicial approval of all class action settlements, and in most cases class members are given a chance to opt out of class settlement, though class members, despite opt-out notices, may be unaware of their right to opt-out because they did not receive the notice, did not read it, or did not understand it. The Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 addresses these concerns. Coupon Settlements may be scrutinized by an independent expert before judicial approval in order to ensure that the settlement will be of value to the class members. 28 U.S.C.A. 1712(d). Further, if the action provides for settlement in coupons, the attorney must take a corresponding part of his fee in coupons. 28 U.S.C.A. 1712(a). Defendant class action Although normally plaintiffs are the class, defendant class actions are also possible. For example, in 2005, the Archidiocese of Portland was sued as part of the Catholic priest sex-abuse scandal. All parishioners of the Archdiocese's churches were cited as a defendant class. This was done to include their assets (local churches) in any settlement. Where both the plaintiffs and the defendants have been organized into court-approved classes, the action is called a bilateral class action. Class actions vs. mass actions In a class action, the plaintiff seeks court approval to litigate on behalf of a group of similarly-situated persons. Not every plaintiff looks for, or could obtain, such approval. As a procedural alternative, plaintiff's counsel may attempt to sign up every similarly-situated person that counsel can find as a client. Plaintiff's counsel can then join the claims of all of these persons in one complaint, a so-called "mass action," hoping to have the same efficiencies and economic leverage as if a class had been certified. Because mass actions operate outside the detailed procedures laid out for class actions, they can pose special difficulties for both plaintiffs, defendants, and the court. For example, settlement of class actions follows a predictable path of negotiation with class counsel and representatives, court scrutiny, and notice. There may not be a way to uniformly settle all of the many claims brought via a mass action. Some states permit plaintiff's counsel to settle for all the mass action plaintiffs according to a majority vote, for example. Other states, such as New Jersey, require each plaintiff to approve the settlement of that plaintiff's own individual claims. Class actions in other countries Austria The Austrian Code of Civil Procedure (Zivilprozessordnung – ZPO) does not provide for a special proceeding for complex class action litigation. However, Austrian consumer organizations (Verein für Konsumenteninformation/VKI and the Federal Chamber of Labour/Bundesarbeitskammer) have, in recent years, brought claims on behalf of hundreds or even thousands of consumers. This technique, soon labelled as “class action Austrian style”, allows for a significant reduction of overall costs. The Austrian Supreme Court, in a recent judgment, has confirmed the legal admissibility of these lawsuits under the condition that all claims are essentially based on the same grounds. The Austrian Parliament has unanimously requested the Austrian Federal Minister for Justice to examine the possibility of new legislation providing for a cost-effective and appropriate way to deal with mass claims. Together with the Austrian Ministry for Social Security, Generations and Consumer Protection, the Justice Ministry opened the discussion with a conference held in Vienna in June, 2005. With the aid of a group of experts from many fields, the Justice Ministry began drafting the new law in September, 2005. With the individual positions varying greatly, a political consensus could not be reached.. France Under French law, an association can represent the collective interests of consumers; however, each claimant must be individually named in the lawsuit. On January 4, 2005, President Chirac urged changes that would provide greater consumer protection. A draft bill was proposed in April 2006. Under the proposals the court will be able to decide whether to allow an action brought by an association on behalf of consumers (which must comprise at least two individuals) for goods purchased under a standard contract. After such an action is brought, the association would be entitled to identify additional consumers for a one-month period. The court would determine the damages that must be awarded to the consumers who have opted-in to the proceedings, with damages limited to 2000 Euros; contingent fees for attorneys would be barred. The president of the French Supreme Court recently declared that "class actions are inescapable." Nevertheless, the bill was withdrawn in January 2007 at the request of Minister of Health Xavier Bertrand. Germany On November 1, 2005, Germany enacted the “Act on Model Case Proceedings in Disputes under Capital Markets Law (Capital Markets Model Case Act)” allowing sample proceedings to be brought before the courts in litigation arising from mass capital markets transactions. It does not apply to any other civil law proceeding. It is not like class actions in the United States it only applies to parties who have already filed suit and does not allow a claim to be brought in the name of an unknown group of claimants. The effects of the new law will be monitored over the next five years. It contains a ‘sunset clause’, and it will automatically cease to have effect on November 1, 2010, unless the legislature decides to prolong the law, or extend it to other mass civil case proceedings. “Capital Markets Model Case Act” Der Bund Retrieved July 16, 2006 Italy Italy has class action legislation now. Consumer associations can file claims on behalf of groups of consumers to obtain judicial orders against corporations that cause injury or damage to consumers. These types of claims are increasing and Italian courts have recently allowed them against banks that continue to apply compound interest on retail clients’ current account overdrafts. The introduction of class actions is on the new government’s agenda. On the 19th of November 2007 the Senato della Repubblica passed a class action law in Finanziara 2008, a financial document for the economy management of the government. Now (from 10 December 2007), in order of Italian legislation system, the law is before the House and has to be passed also by the Camera dei Deputati, the second house of Italian Parliament, to become an effective law. More information Class Action Italia. In 2004, the Italian parliament considered the introduction of a type of class action lawsuit, specifically in the area of consumers’ law. To date, no such law has been enacted, however scholars demonstrated that class actions (azioni rappresentative) do not contrast with Italian principles of civil procedure. Class Action is regulated by art. 140 bis of the Italian consumers' code and will be in force from 1 July 2009. [FAVA P., L’importabilità delle class actions in Italia, in Contratto e Impresa 1/2004 FAVA P., Class actions all’italiana:“Paese che vai, usanza che trovi” (l’esperienza dei principali ordinamenti giuridici stranieri e le proposte A.A.C.C. n. 3838 e n. 3839), in Corr. Giur. 3/2004; FAVA P., Class actions tra efficientismo processuale, aumento di competitività e risparmio di spesa: l’esame di un contenzioso seriale concreto (le S.U. sul rapporto tra indennità di amministrazione e tredicesima), in Corr. Giur. 2006, 535; FAVA P., Indennità di amministrazione e tredicesima: il “no secco” delle Sezioni Unite. Un caso pratico per valutare le potenzialità delle azioni rappresentative (class actions) nel contenzioso seriale italiano, Rass. Avv. Stato 2005] . . See also Class Action Italia, Dalle origini ad oggi and Italy introduces consumer class actions India In India class action lawsuits are called Public interest litigation and can be initiated by individuals or groups of individuals. Netherlands Dutch law allows collective actions brought by associations on behalf of injured parties seeking a judicial declaration that the company is liable for the damage it has caused . Spain Spanish law allows nominated consumer associations to take action to protect the interests of consumers. A number of groups already have the power to bring collective or class actions: certain consumer associations, bodies legally constituted to defend the ‘collective interest’ and groups of injured parties. See Class Actions in Spain Recent changes to Spanish civil procedure rules include the introduction of a quasi-class action right for certain consumer associations to claim damages on behalf of unidentified classes of consumers. The rules require consumer associations to represent an adequate number of affected parties who have suffered the same harm. Also any judgment made by the Spanish court will list the individual beneficiaries or, if that is not possible, conditions that need to be fulfilled for a party to benefit from a judgment. Switzerland Swiss law does not allow for any form of class action. When the government proposed a new federal code of civil procedure in 2006, replacing the cantonal codes of civil procedure, it rejected the introduction of class actions, arguing that: Canada Provincial laws in Canada allow class actions. All provinces permit plaintifff classes and some permit defendant classes. Quebec was the first province to enact U.S.-style class proceedings legislation in 1978. Ontario was next with the Class Proceedings Act, 1992. As of 2008, 9 of 10 provinces have enacted comprehensive class actions legislation. In Prince Edward Island, where no comprehensive legislation exists, following the decision of the Supreme Court of Canada in Western Canadian Shopping Centres Inc. v. Dutton, [2001] 2 S.C.R. 534, class actions may be advanced under a local rule of court. The Federal Court of Canada permits class actions under Part V.1. of the Federal Courts Rules. Legislation in Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Nova Scotia expressly or by judicial opinion have been read to allow for what are informally known as national "opt-out" class actions,whereby residents of other provinces may be included in the class definition and potentially be bound by the court's judgment on common issues unless they opt-out in a prescribed manner and time. Court rulings have determined that this permits a court in one province to include residents of other provinces in the class action on an "opt-out" basis. Recent judicial opinions have indicated that provincial legislative national opt-out powers should not be exercised to interfere with the ability of another province to certify a parallel class action for residents of other provinces. The first court to certify will generally exclude residents of provinces whose courts have certified a parallel class action. However, in the Vioxx litigation, two provincial courts recently certified overlapping class actions whereby Canadian residents are class members in two class actions in two provinces. Ontario: Tiboni v. Merck Frosst Canada Ltd., [2008] O.J. No. 2996. Saskatchewan: Wuttunee v. Merck Frosst Canada Ltd., 2008 SKQB 78 . Both decisions are under appeal. Class action certification is considered easier to obtain in Canada than in the United States, because predominance of common issues is merely a factor in determining whether to certify a class action, but not a requirement. See also Joinder (from which the class action was born) Dukes v. Wal-Mart (the largest class-action lawsuit to date) Public Interest Litigation. (A similar system adopted in India) External links U.S. law Manual for Complex Litigation, Fourth Securities class actions; Stanford Law School Proposals to expand European class action law George Parker, EU considers consumer class action, Financial Times, 4 March 2007 John Beisner and Charles Borden, On the Road to Litigation Abuse: The Continuing Export of U.S. Class Action and Antitrust Law, U.S. Chamber Institute for Legal Reform, Oct 2006 Mattil/Desoutter: European class action (german) WM 12/2008 Class action in Italy Class Action Italia Canadian Class Actions Class Actions in Canada Blog Notes | Class_action |@lemmatized law:31 class:158 action:121 representative:4 form:3 lawsuit:17 large:9 group:10 people:2 collectively:1 bring:17 claim:27 court:43 collective:5 originate:1 united:6 state:32 still:1 predominately:1 u:16 phenomenon:1 least:2 variant:1 however:9 several:4 european:3 country:3 civil:14 oppose:2 english:1 common:8 principle:2 use:1 change:3 recent:5 year:3 make:4 allow:14 consumer:24 organization:2 behalf:9 federal:19 govern:1 rule:11 procedure:12 c:7 may:22 arise:2 fall:1 usca:2 district:1 original:2 jurisdiction:4 amount:1 controversy:1 exceeds:1 either:1 member:19 plaintiff:28 citizen:5 different:3 defendant:25 foreign:4 subject:2 nationwide:2 possible:4 suit:4 must:14 commonality:1 issue:8 across:1 line:1 difficult:1 various:1 significant:2 difference:1 frequently:3 consolidate:1 pre:1 trial:5 purpose:1 device:1 multidistrict:1 litigation:13 mdl:1 also:9 case:21 extend:2 include:6 even:3 internationally:1 key:1 element:1 typically:3 think:1 favorable:2 many:5 file:7 initially:1 try:2 remove:2 fairness:7 act:13 public:5 stat:1 increase:3 ability:4 give:4 damage:8 exceed:1 exclusive:1 interest:8 cost:5 note:3 contain:2 carve:1 inter:1 alia:1 shareholder:4 cover:1 private:1 security:3 reform:2 concern:2 internal:1 corporate:1 governance:1 latter:1 derivative:1 delaware:1 incorporation:1 corporation:3 william:1 b:2 rubenstein:1 understand:3 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fund:2 receive:4 relief:1 early:1 filing:1 raid:1 asset:3 see:8 ortiz:1 fibreboard:1 situation:3 centralize:1 venue:1 equitably:1 divide:1 amongst:1 win:1 finally:1 avoids:1 ruling:3 could:4 create:1 incompatible:1 conduct:2 follow:3 might:1 bond:2 holder:1 sue:2 convert:1 stock:1 refuse:1 litigate:3 outcome:1 inconsistent:1 g:1 gemert:1 boeing:1 co:2 supp:1 n:3 depend:1 judge:1 advisory:1 committee:1 mass:11 tort:3 ordinarily:1 appropriate:2 improve:1 basis:2 castano:1 tobacco:2 reject:2 high:1 award:4 absence:1 impede:1 claimant:3 justice:4 id:1 conducive:1 preamble:2 pass:3 congress:1 find:2 valuable:1 system:4 permit:6 fair:1 efficient:1 legitimate:2 numerous:1 single:1 allegedly:1 cause:3 richard:1 epstein:1 need:2 hard:1 look:2 michael:1 greve:1 le:4 wrong:1 jim:1 copland:1 abusive:1 responsibly:1 adversely:1 affect:1 interstate:1 commerce:1 undermined:1 respect:1 judicial:7 often:1 little:2 benefit:3 cite:2 fee:3 leave:1 coupon:6 value:2 unjustified:1 expense:1 confusing:1 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bank:1 continue:2 compound:1 retail:1 current:1 account:1 overdraft:1 introduction:4 government:3 agenda:1 senato:1 della:1 repubblica:1 finanziara:1 financial:2 document:1 economy:1 management:1 december:1 house:2 camera:1 dei:2 deputati:1 become:1 information:1 italia:4 consider:2 specifically:1 area:1 date:2 scholar:1 demonstrate:1 azioni:2 rappresentative:2 contrast:1 regulate:1 art:1 bi:1 force:1 fava:4 l:3 importabilità:1 delle:3 contratto:1 impresa:1 italiana:1 paese:1 che:2 vai:1 usanza:1 trovi:1 esperienza:1 principali:1 ordinamenti:1 giuridici:1 stranieri:1 proposte:1 corr:2 giur:2 tra:2 efficientismo:1 processuale:1 aumento:1 di:5 competitività:1 risparmio:1 spesa:1 esame:1 un:2 contenzioso:2 seriale:2 concreto:1 sul:1 rapporto:1 indennità:2 amministrazione:2 tredicesima:2 il:1 secco:1 sezioni:1 unite:1 caso:1 pratico:1 per:1 valutare:1 potenzialità:1 nel:1 italiano:1 ras:1 avv:1 stato:1 dalle:1 origini:1 ad:1 oggi:1 introduces:1 india:3 initiate:1 netherlands:1 dutch:1 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institute:1 oct:1 mattil:1 desoutter:1 german:1 wm:1 blog:1 |@bigram inter_alia:1 corporate_governance:1 plaintiff_defendant:3 f_cir:3 f_supp:1 supp_n:1 advisory_committee:1 adversely_affect:1 interstate_commerce:1 supreme_court:3 della_repubblica:1 shopping_centre:1 saskatchewan_manitoba:1 nova_scotia:1 wal_mart:1 external_link:1 |
7,072 | Angela_Vincent | Angela Vincent (born 1942) is a professor at Somerville College of Oxford University. She is the head of a research group, which is located in the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine and working on a wide range of biological disciplines encompassing molecular biology, biochemistry, cellular immunology and intracellular neurophysiology. The group's research is focused on autoimmune and genetic disorders of the neuromuscular junction and peripheral motor nerves. The principal autoimmune diseases studied are myasthenia gravis, the Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome and acquired neuromyotonia. Her contributions are mainly on the roles of antibodies directed against ion channel at the nerve-muscle junction in the pathogenesis of above mentioned diseases. She has demonstrated that transfer of these antibodies across the placenta from the pregnant woman to the fetus in utero can cause developmental abnormalities. She has also worked on the principal gene mutations causing neuromuscular diseases. References 1. http://www.some.ox.ac.uk/admissions/fellows/vincenta/ 2. http://www.imm.ox.ac.uk/pages/research/neurosciences/vincent.htm | Angela_Vincent |@lemmatized angela:1 vincent:2 born:1 professor:1 somerville:1 college:1 oxford:1 university:1 head:1 research:3 group:2 locate:1 weatherall:1 institute:1 molecular:2 medicine:1 work:2 wide:1 range:1 biological:1 discipline:1 encompass:1 biology:1 biochemistry:1 cellular:1 immunology:1 intracellular:1 neurophysiology:1 focus:1 autoimmune:2 genetic:1 disorder:1 neuromuscular:2 junction:2 peripheral:1 motor:1 nerve:2 principal:2 disease:3 study:1 myasthenia:1 gravis:1 lambert:1 eaton:1 myasthenic:1 syndrome:1 acquire:1 neuromyotonia:1 contribution:1 mainly:1 role:1 antibody:2 direct:1 ion:1 channel:1 muscle:1 pathogenesis:1 mention:1 demonstrate:1 transfer:1 across:1 placenta:1 pregnant:1 woman:1 fetus:1 utero:1 cause:2 developmental:1 abnormality:1 also:1 gene:1 mutation:1 reference:1 http:2 www:2 ox:2 ac:2 uk:2 admission:1 fellow:1 vincenta:1 imm:1 page:1 neuroscience:1 htm:1 |@bigram molecular_biology:1 biology_biochemistry:1 neuromuscular_junction:1 autoimmune_disease:1 myasthenia_gravis:1 neuromuscular_disease:1 http_www:2 ox_ac:2 |
7,073 | Kult | Kult is a contemporary fantasy horror role-playing game originally designed by Gunilla Jonsson and Michael Petersén, first published in Sweden by Target Games in 1991. The first English edition was published in 1993 by Metropolis Ltd., a now defunct American publisher. The game is no longer published in either language, though copies can be purchased through secondary and specialized markets. Kult is notable for its philosophical and religious depth as well as for its mature content. Setting Kult is set in contemporary times, usually in large, real-life cities and metropols. In the game, the world we see is an Illusion which is unravelling to reveal an even darker backdrop which in the game is called Reality. This Illusion was created by the Demiurge to hold humanity prisoner and to prevent mankind from regaining the divinity it once had. The notion of an originally divine mankind being held captive by sinister forces is borrowed from gnosticism. In the game's cosmology humans can regain their lost divine status through a game concept called Awakening in which characters with an extremely high or low mental balance are no longer restrained by the rules of the Illusion. See more about mental balance below. Entities The cosmological backdrop of Kult is largely based on the Tree of Life from kabbalistic lore and the Sephirot. It is balanced with the Demiurge and his Archons on one side and Astaroth and his Death Angels on the other. Each Archon or Death Angel represent a value, group or an action (aid organisations, child abuse, mafia, apathy, judicial systems, etc.) over which they have great influence. The Archons and Death Angels have various creatures and cults (thereby the name of the game) to do their bidding and promote their values. Many of these are our jailers who work to maintain the Illusion. Many of the adventures revolve around how these entities' conflicts affect the player characters and the world around them. Disappearance of the Demiurge One of the more central elements of the game is that the Demiurge has disappeared since just before the 20th century, and since then Astaroth, the Archons and the Death Angels have been struggling for power. Many entities have vanished since, and the Illusion has been weakened. The game leaves a lot to the imagination of interpretive game masters regarding reasons for the Demiurge's disappearance as well as the earlier mentioned divinity of mankind. Realities The game concept relies on there being several realities that may appear when the Illusion shatters: Metropolis is the original city which interconnects with all great cities, Inferno and its purgatories where humans are held captive and tortured after death, and Gaia which connects to nature and nature's destructive forces. Rules The system is a skill based system utilizing 20-sided dice (it is however not the d20 system published by Wizards of the Coast), with point based characters. In the game, a natural 1 usually is great success with added bonuses and a natural 20 means a complete failure. Some symbols and creatures appearing in Kult can also be seen in other Swedish games to which the Kult authors and production team also have contributed. The Mutant Chronicles universe (created by Nils Gulliksson and Michael Stenmark) its spin-offs share creatures such as Nepharites and Razides which appear in the game. Mental Balance Central to the game is the aspect of Mental Balance, which is a sanity-gauge of sorts. The closer to equilibrium the character is, the more easily he or she is shocked and the harder it is for the character to see through the Illusion. A Kult character can have positive or negative mental balance affected by shocking events, influence from creatures or places or by advantages and disadvantages. The advantages and disadvantages are typically talents and traits that work for or against the character, such as having animal friendship, artistic talent, body awareness, or from the negative spectrum being socially inept, drug addiction, paranoia or similar. Combat There are two different official rulesets for combat. The second and third English rules use a system based on Damage Effect Factors (DEF). Magic Kult's magic system is largely drawn on the same real-world occult belief systems as some modern magick societies. Sorcerers can cast spells from one (or rarely more) of five different Lores; Death, Dream, Madness, Passion and Time & Space. Due to the fact that these spells have (very) long casting times (up to several days), highly specific and exacting verbal, material and somatic requirements, and can only be cast inside the sorcerer's consecrated temple, these spells are actually more like quasi-religious rituals. History Kult was originally published by the company Target Games in 1991 as a Swedish role-playing game, and has later been translated into several other languages. Kult has been published in Swedish, German, English, Italian, Polish, Spanish and French. Current publishers Currently, Kult is owned by Paradox Entertainment and is being published in English and French by 7eme Cercle and in Italian by Raven Distribution. The third English edition of Kult, subtitled Beyond The Veil is currently out of print, and indications seem to point towards the English line being moved to a strictly electronic format, PDF 2006, Discussion about the future of Kult releases from a Kult fan site. . The current state of the French production line is also vague at the moment, due to poor sales of supplements http://www.7emecercle.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=586 Neko of 7th Circle . Controversy In Sweden, Kult has been noted by the general press several times, and in 1997 the Kult core rules was quoted in a motion in the Parliament of Sweden http://www.riksdagen.se/webbnav/index.aspx?nid=410&typ=mot&rm=1997/98&bet=Kr501 from the parliament archives. Swedish. http://bjorn.foxtail.nu/rollspel/krit_motion.htm unofficial source. Swedish . The motion was to remove funding towards subsidized youth groups that were active with role playing. It refers to a murder in a small town in southern Sweden called Bjuv, where a 15-year-old was killed by two 16- and 17-year-old friends who (according to the legal motion) were influenced by Kult. Critics of role playing games have also have tied Kult to a 16-year-old Swedish boy who committed suicide by shotgun in November 1996 http://www.aftonbladet.se/vss/nyheter/story/0,2789,246481,00.html Article in Swedish . The local newspaper Tønsbergs Blad in Tønsberg, Norway similarly used Kult in relation to the disappearance of a boy called Andreas Hammer on July 1, 1994. Andreas Hammer allegedly played Kult the week prior to his disappearance. He is still missing http://pub.tv2.no/dyn-nettavisen/arkiv/?archiveSection=765&archiveItem=140520 Nettavisen. Norwegian article. . Spin-offs Kult Collectible Card Game by Bryan Winter. Notes External links 7eme Cercle webpage Paradox Entertainment Kult CCG - Author's webpage (No longer updated) | Kult |@lemmatized kult:22 contemporary:2 fantasy:1 horror:1 role:4 playing:3 game:20 originally:3 design:1 gunilla:1 jonsson:1 michael:2 petersén:1 first:2 publish:7 sweden:4 target:2 english:6 edition:2 metropolis:2 ltd:1 defunct:1 american:1 publisher:2 longer:3 either:1 language:2 though:1 copy:1 purchase:1 secondary:1 specialized:1 market:1 notable:1 philosophical:1 religious:2 depth:1 well:2 mature:1 content:1 set:2 time:4 usually:2 large:1 real:2 life:2 city:3 metropols:1 world:3 see:4 illusion:7 unravel:1 reveal:1 even:1 darker:1 backdrop:2 call:4 reality:2 create:2 demiurge:5 hold:3 humanity:1 prisoner:1 prevent:1 mankind:3 regain:2 divinity:2 notion:1 divine:2 captive:2 sinister:1 force:2 borrow:1 gnosticism:1 cosmology:1 human:2 lost:1 status:1 concept:2 awakening:1 character:7 extremely:1 high:1 low:1 mental:5 balance:6 restrain:1 rule:4 entity:3 cosmological:1 largely:2 base:4 tree:1 kabbalistic:1 lore:2 sephirot:1 archons:3 one:3 side:2 astaroth:2 death:6 angel:4 archon:1 represent:1 value:2 group:2 action:1 aid:1 organisation:1 child:1 abuse:1 mafia:1 apathy:1 judicial:1 system:7 etc:1 great:3 influence:3 various:1 creature:4 cult:1 thereby:1 name:1 bidding:1 promote:1 many:3 jailer:1 work:2 maintain:1 adventure:1 revolve:1 around:2 conflict:1 affect:2 player:1 disappearance:4 central:2 element:1 disappear:1 since:3 century:1 struggle:1 power:1 vanish:1 weaken:1 leave:1 lot:1 imagination:1 interpretive:1 master:1 regard:1 reason:1 early:1 mentioned:1 realities:1 relies:1 several:4 may:1 appear:3 shatters:1 original:1 interconnect:1 inferno:1 purgatory:1 tortured:1 gaia:1 connect:1 nature:2 destructive:1 skill:1 utilize:1 dice:1 however:1 wizard:1 coast:1 point:2 natural:2 success:1 added:1 bonus:1 mean:1 complete:1 failure:1 symbol:1 also:4 swedish:7 author:2 production:2 team:1 contribute:1 mutant:1 chronicle:1 universe:1 nil:1 gulliksson:1 stenmark:1 spin:2 offs:2 share:1 nepharites:1 razides:1 aspect:1 sanity:1 gauge:1 sort:1 closer:1 equilibrium:1 easily:1 shock:2 hard:1 positive:1 negative:2 event:1 place:1 advantage:2 disadvantage:2 typically:1 talent:2 trait:1 animal:1 friendship:1 artistic:1 body:1 awareness:1 spectrum:1 socially:1 inept:1 drug:1 addiction:1 paranoia:1 similar:1 combat:2 two:2 different:2 official:1 rulesets:1 second:1 third:2 use:2 damage:1 effect:1 factor:1 def:1 magic:2 draw:1 occult:1 belief:1 modern:1 magick:1 society:1 sorcerer:2 cast:3 spell:3 rarely:1 five:1 dream:1 madness:1 passion:1 space:1 due:2 fact:1 long:1 day:1 highly:1 specific:1 exact:1 verbal:1 material:1 somatic:1 requirement:1 inside:1 consecrate:1 temple:1 actually:1 like:1 quasi:1 ritual:1 history:1 company:1 later:1 translate:1 german:1 italian:2 polish:1 spanish:1 french:3 current:2 currently:2 paradox:2 entertainment:2 cercle:2 raven:1 distribution:1 subtitle:1 beyond:1 veil:1 print:1 indication:1 seem:1 towards:2 line:2 move:1 strictly:1 electronic:1 format:1 pdf:1 discussion:1 future:1 release:1 fan:1 site:1 state:1 vague:1 moment:1 poor:1 sale:1 supplement:1 http:5 www:3 com:1 forum:1 viewtopic:1 php:1 neko:1 circle:1 controversy:1 note:2 general:1 press:1 core:1 quote:1 motion:3 parliament:2 riksdagen:1 se:2 webbnav:1 index:1 aspx:1 nid:1 typ:1 mot:1 rm:1 bet:1 archive:1 bjorn:1 foxtail:1 nu:1 rollspel:1 htm:1 unofficial:1 source:1 remove:1 funding:1 subsidize:1 youth:1 active:1 refer:1 murder:1 small:1 town:1 southern:1 bjuv:1 year:3 old:3 kill:1 friend:1 accord:1 legal:1 critic:1 play:2 tie:1 boy:2 commit:1 suicide:1 shotgun:1 november:1 aftonbladet:1 v:1 nyheter:1 story:1 html:1 article:2 local:1 newspaper:1 tønsbergs:1 blad:1 tønsberg:1 norway:1 similarly:1 relation:1 andreas:2 hammer:2 july:1 allegedly:1 week:1 prior:1 still:1 miss:1 pub:1 dyn:1 nettavisen:2 arkiv:1 archivesection:1 archiveitem:1 norwegian:1 collectible:1 card:1 bryan:1 winter:1 external:1 link:1 webpage:2 ccg:1 update:1 |@bigram regain_lost:1 revolve_around:1 spin_offs:2 advantage_disadvantage:2 drug_addiction:1 http_www:3 commit_suicide:1 collectible_card:1 external_link:1 |
7,074 | Korea | Korea (Hangul: 한국 or 조선 ) is a civilization, formerly unified nation, and geographic area currently composed of two sovereign states located on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. It borders China to the northwest, and Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait. Korea was divided in 1948, with the southern portion of the peninsula controlled by the capitalistic democracy South Korea. South Korea, officially known as the Republic of Korea, is a developed country with memberships in the United Nations, WTO, OECD and G-20 major economies and home to such global brands as Samsung, LG Electronics, and Hyundai. The northern portion is controlled by the single-party communist North Korea, officially known as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). The north follows the unique ideology of Juche, a form of Communism based on self-reliance, which was conceived and advanced by the first leader of the DPRK, Kim Il-sung. Led by Kim-Jong-il, Chairman of the National Defense Commission of North Korea, North Korea has close relations with the People's Republic of China and Russia. Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggest origin of the Korean people were Altaic language-speaking migrants from south-central Siberia, The Rise of Civilization in East Asia: the Archaeology of China, Korea and Japan, pp. 165 who populated ancient Korea in successive waves from the Neolithic age to the Bronze Age 뿌리 깊은 한국사, 샘이 깊은 이야기: 고조선, 삼국, pp. 44-45 . The adoption of the Chinese writing system ("Hanja" in Korean) in the 2nd century BC, and Buddhism in the 4th century AD, had profound effects on the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Baekje later passed on a modified version of these cultural advances to Japan. "Yayoi Period History Summary," BookRags.com; Jared Diamond, "Japanese Roots," Discover 19:6 (June 1998); Thayer Watkins, "The Genetic Origins of the Japanese"; "Shinto - History to 1900," Encyclopædia Britannica; "The Yayoi period (c. 250 BC–c. 250 AD)," Encyclopædia Britannica. "Korean Buddhism Basis of Japanese Buddhism," Seoul Times, June 18, 2006; "Buddhist Art of Korea & Japan," Asia Society Museum; "Kanji," JapanGuide.com; "Pottery," MSN Encarta; "History of Japan," JapanVisitor.com. ; George Sansom, A History of Japan to 1334, Stanford University Press, 1958. p. 47. ISBN 0-8047-0523-2 From Paekche to Origin of Yamato Since the Goryeo Dynasty, Korea was ruled by a single government and maintained political and cultural independence until the 20th century, despite the Mongol invasions of the Goryeo Dynasty in the 13th century and Japanese invasions of the Joseon Dynasty in the 16th century. In 1377, Korea produced the Jikji, the world's oldest existing document printed with movable metal type. World's oldest printed Doc In the 15th century, the turtle ships were deployed, and King Sejong the Great promulgated the Korean alphabet Hangul to increase literacy among his people who could neither read nor write Hanja (Chinese characters). During the latter part of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname the "Hermit Kingdom". By the late 19th century, the country became the object of the colonial designs of Japan and Europe. In 1910, Korea was forcibly annexed by Japan and remained occupied until the end of World War II in August 1945. In 1945, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed on the surrender and disarming of Japanese troops in Korea; the Soviet Union accepting the surrender of Japanese weaponry north of the 38th parallel and the United States taking the surrender south of it. This minor decision by allied armies soon became the basis for the division of Korea by the two superpowers, exacerbated by their inability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. The two Cold War rivals then established governments sympathetic to their own ideologies, leading to Korea's current division into two political entities: North Korea and South Korea. Names of Korea The name "Korea" derives from the Goryeo period of Korean history, which in turn referred to the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo. Merchants of the Middle East called it Cauli (from the Chinese pronunciation), which then came to be spelled Corea and Korea. Korea is now commonly used in English contexts by both North and South Korea. A K is often used in Germanic languages, while a C is preferred in Romance languages. In the Korean language, Korea as a whole is referred to as Han-guk () in South Korea, and Chosŏn () in North Korea. "The Land of the Morning Calm" is an English language nickname loosely derived from the hanja characters for Joseon, the name derived from the Joseon Dynasty and the earlier Gojoseon. (Choson and Joseon are two Romanizations of the same name.) History Prehistory and Gojoseon Korean Academy of Social Sciences discovered ancient human fossils originating from about 100,000 BC in the lava at a stone city site in Korea. Fluorescent and high-magnetic analyses indicate the volcanic fossils may be from as early as 300,000 BC. http://www.pureinsight.org/pi/index.php?news=1065 The best preserved Korean pottery goes back to the paleolithic times around 10,000 BC, and the Neolithic period begins around 6000 BC. Gojoseon's founding legend describes Dangun, a descendent of heaven, as establishing the kingdom in 2333 BC. Go-Choson Archaeological and contemporary written records indicate it developed from a federation of walled cities into a centralized kingdom sometime between the 7th and 4th centuries BC. The original capital may have been at the Manchuria-Korea border, but was later moved to what is today Pyongyang, North Korea. In 108 BC, the Chinese Han Dynasty defeated Wiman Joseon and installed four commanderies in the area of Liaoning and the northern Korean peninsula. By 75 BC, three of those commanderies had fallen, but the Lelang Commandery remained as a center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties until 313, when it fell to Goguryeo. Proto-Three Kingdoms The Proto-Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Several States Period, is the earlier part of what is commonly called the Three Kingdoms Period, following the fall of Gojoseon but before Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla fully developed into kingdoms. This time period saw numerous states spring up from the former territories of Gojoseon. Buyeo arose in today's North Korea and southern Manchuria, from about the 2nd century BC to 494. Its remnants were absorbed by Goguryeo in 494, and both Goguryeo and Baekje, two of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, considered themselves its successor. Okjeo and Dongye of northern Korea were eventually absorbed into the growing Goguryeo. Located in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, Samhan refers to the three confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan. Mahan was the largest and consisted of 54 states. Byeonhan and Jinhan both consisted of twelve states, bringing a total of 78 states within the Samhan. These three confederacies eventually developed into Baekje, Silla, and Gaya. Three Kingdoms Anapji in Gyeongju Historic Areas. Tomb of King Dongmyeong in Pyeongyang. The Three Kingdoms of Korea (Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje) dominated the peninsula and parts of Manchuria during the early Common Era. They competed with each other both economically and militarily. Goguryeo united Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye and other states in the former Gojoseon territory, in addition to destroying the last Chinese commandery. Koguryo Goguryeo was the most dominant power, Goguryeo reached its zenith in the fifth century, when reign of the Gwanggaeto the Great and his son, Jangsu expanded territory into almost all of Manchuria and part of inner Mongolia, and took the Seoul region from Baekje. Gwanggaeto and Jangsu subdued Baekje and Silla during their times. After the 7th Century, Goguryeo was constantly at war with the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. Founded around modern day Seoul, the southwestern kingdom Baekje expanded far beyond Pyongyang during the peak of its powers in the 4th century. It had absorbed all of the Mahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula (including the modern provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong, and Jeolla, as well as part of Hwanghae and Gangwon) to a centralized government. Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through contacts with the Southern Dynasties during the expansion of its territory. Historic evidence suggests that Japanese culture, art, and language was strongly influenced by the kingdom of Baekje and Korea itself. Archeological findings have further confirmed many of these hypotheses but extensive investigation is often restricted by the Japanese government and is usually conducted by government-appointed groups. Although later records claim that Silla, in the southeast, was the oldest of the three kingdoms, it is now believed to have been the last kingdom to develop. By the 2nd century, Silla existed as a large state, occupying and influencing nearby city states. Silla began to gain power when it annexed the Gaya confederacy in 562 AD. The Gaya confederacy was located between Baekje and Silla. The three kingdoms of Korea often warred with each other and Silla often faced pressure from Baekje and Goguryeo but at various times Silla also allied with Baekje and Goguryeo in order to gain dominance over the peninsula. In 660, King Muyeol of Silla ordered his armies to attack Baekje. General Kim Yu-shin, aided by Tang forces, conquered Baekje. In 661, Silla and Tang moved on Goguryeo but were repelled. King Munmu, son of Muyeol and nephew of General Kim launched another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year. North South States Period In the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries, Silla's power gradually extended across the Korean Peninsula. Silla first annexed the adjacent Gaya confederacy. By the 660s, Silla formed an alliance with the Tang Dynasty of China to conquer Baekje and later Goguryeo. After repelling Chinese forces, Silla partially unified the Peninsula, beginning a period often called Unified Silla. In the north, former Goguryeo General Dae Joyeong led a group of Goguryeo refugees to the Jilin area in Manchuria and founded Balhae (698 AD - 926 AD) as the successor to Goguryeo. At its height, Balhae's territory extended from northern Manchuria down to the northern provinces of modern-day Korea. Balhae was destroyed by the Khitans in 926. Unified Silla fell apart in the late 9th century, giving way to the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period (892-935). Goryeo unified the Later Three Kingdoms and absorbed Balhae refugees. Goryeo Goryeo celadon incense burner,National Museum of Korea, Seoul. The country Goryeo was founded in 918 and replaced Silla as the ruling dynasty of Korea. ("Goryeo" is a short form of "Goguryeo" and the source of the English name "Korea.") The dynasty lasted until 1392. During this period laws were codified, and a civil service system was introduced. Buddhism flourished, and spread throughout the peninsula. The development of celadon industry flourished in 12th and 13th century. The publication of Tripitaka Koreana onto 80,000 wooden blocks and the invention of the world's first movable-metal-type printing press in 13th century attest to Goryeo's cultural achievements. Their dynasty was threatened by Mongol invasion from the 1230s into the 1270s, but the dynastic line continued to survive until 1392 since they negotiated a treaty with the Mongols that kept its sovereign power. In 1350s, King Gongmin was free at last to reform a Goryeo government. Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, which included the removal of pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars. Joseon Dynasty Deoksugung palace in Seoul, South Korea. Entrance to Gyeongbokgung in South Korea. In 1392, the general Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) with a largely bloodless coup. The Joseon Dynasty is believed to have been the longest-lived actively ruling dynasty in East Asia. He named it the Joseon Dynasty in honor of the previous Joseon before (Gojoseon is the first Joseon. "Go", meaning "old", was added to distinguish between the two). King Taejo moved the capital to Hanseong (formerly Hanyang; modern-day Seoul) and built the Gyeongbokgung palace. In 1394 he adopted Confucianism as the country's official religion, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by the Buddhists. The prevailing philosophy was Neo-Confucianism, which was developed by Zhu Xi. Joseon experienced advances in science and culture. King Sejong the Great (1418-1450) promulgated hangul, the Korean alphabet. The period saw various other cultural and technological advances as well as the dominance of neo-Confucianism over the entire peninsula. Between 1592 and 1598, Japan invaded Korea. General Toyotomi Hideyoshi led the forces and tried to invade the Asian continent through Korea, but was eventually repelled with assistance from Ming China. This war also saw the rise of the career of Admiral Yi Sun-shin and his "turtle ship" or gobukseon. In the 1620s and 1630s Joseon suffered invasions by the Manchu who eventually also conquered the Chinese Ming Dynasty. After invasions from Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Especially, King Yeongjo and King Jeongjo led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty. However, During the last years of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the name the "Hermit Kingdom", primarily for protection against Western imperialism before it was forced to open trade beginning an era leading into Japanese colonial rule. Korean Empire and Japanese rule The earliest surviving depiction of the Korean / South Korean flag was printed in a US Navy book Flags of Maritime Nations in July 1889. Beginning in the 1870s, Japan began to force Korea out of the Manchu Qing Dynasty's sphere of the traditional influence into its own. As a result of the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), the Qing Dynasty had to give up such a position according to Article 1 of the Treaty of Simonoseki (the Treaty of Maguan), which was concluded between Qing and Japan in 1895. Consequently, Korea ended giving her tribute to Qing. In 1895, Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by Japanese agents. Murder of Empress Myeongseong In 1897, the Korean Joseon dynasty was renamed the Korean Empire (1897-1910), and King Gojong became Emperor Gojong. However, Japanese forcibly annexed Korea, controlling it until the end of World War II on 15 August 1945. Japanese occupation Go Fishing, Georges Ferdinand Bigot, Tobae, February 1887. It shows Korea as a fish which China, Russia, and Japan are all trying to catch. Beginning in the 1870s, Japan began to force Korea to move out of China's sphere of influence and into its own. Japan forced Korea to engage in foreign trade through the Treaty of Ganghwa in 1876. In 1895, Empress Myeongseong of Korea was assassinated by the Japanese under Miura Gorō's directive. (Kim et al. 1976) Murder of Empress Myeongseong In 1904, the Russo-Japanese War pushed the Russians out of the fight for Korea. In Manchuria on 1909, An Jung-geun assassinated the former Resident-General of Korea, Itō Hirobumi for his role in trying to force Korea into occupation. In 1910, an already militarily occupied Korea was a forced party to the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty. The treaty was signed by Lee Wan-Yong, who was given the General Power of Attorney by the Emperor. But the Emperor is said to have not actually ratified the treaty according to Yi Tae-jin "서울대이태진교수의동경대생들에게들려준한국사 : 메이지일본의한국침략사", Yi Tae-jin (2005) ISBN 89-7626-999-3 . There is a long dispute whether this treaty was legal or illegal. Even before formal Japanese colonial rule, the Korean Independence Movement was already in existence. Korean resistance to the brutal Japanese occupation 4. Korea, 1910-1945. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History Korea - MSN Encarta Asia Times Online :: Japan News and Japanese Business and Economy was manifested in the nonviolent March 1st Movement of 1919, where 7,000 demonstrators were killed by Japanese police and military. March 1st Movement The Korean liberation movement also spread to neighboring Manchuria and Siberia. Over five million Koreans were conscripted for labor beginning in 1939, Statistics Of Japanese Genocide And Mass Murder and tens of thousands of men were forced into Japan's military. 山脇 啓造 Yamawaki, Keizo. 近代日本と外国人労働者―1890年代後半と1920年代前半における中国人・朝鮮人労働者問題 Modern Japan and Foreign Laborers: Chinese and Korean Laborers in the late 1890s and early 1920s, 明石書店 Akashi-shoten, 1994, et al. ISBN 9784750305684 Approximately 200,000 girls and women, Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Comfort Women. Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II. Translated by Suzanne O'Brien. Columbia University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-231-12032-X, originally published by 岩波書店, 1995. ISBN 978-4004303848 mostly from China and Korea, were forced into sexual slavery for the Japanese military. CNN.com - Japanese comfort women ruling overturned - March 29, 2001 In 1993, Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono acknowledged the terrible injustices faced by these euphemistically named "comfort women". Comfort-Women.org MOFA: Statement by the Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono on the result of the study on the issue of "comfort women" During the Japanese Colonial rule, the Korean language was suppressed in an effort to eradicate Korean national identity. Koreans were forced to take Japanese surnames, known as Sōshi-kaimei. HAN: "Koreans in Japan: Past and Present" Traditional Korean culture suffered heavy losses, as numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed Gyeongbok Palace | Seoul City | South Korea or taken to Japan. To this day, valuable Korean artifacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collections. Newsweek.com. Who rightfully owns Korean artifacts looted by Japan? One investigation by the South Korean government identified 75,311 cultural assets that were taken from Korea, 34,369 of which are in Japan, and 17,803 of which are in the United States. However, experts estimate that over 100,000 artifacts remains in Japan. http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LSD&office_id=001&article_id=0001429084 Japanese officials considered returning Korean cultural properties, but to this date have not returned these artifacts to Korea. Today, Korea and Japan dispute over the ownership of Liancourt Rocks, a small island located east of the Korean peninsula 日독도 영유권 교육강화 방침, 2005년에 이미 발표 :: 한국의 대표 진보언론 민중의소리 There was a significant level of emigration to the overseas territories of the Empire of Japan during the Japanese colonial period, including Korea. Japanese Periodicals in Colonial Korea By the end of World War II, there were over 850,000 Japanese settlers in Korea. The Life Instability of Intermarried Japanese Women in Korea After World War II, most of these overseas Japanese repatriated to Japan. Korean War With the surrender of Japan in 1945 the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the Soviet Union administering the peninsula north of the 38th parallel and the United States administering the south. The politics of the Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments, North Korea and South Korea. In June 1950 North Korea invaded the South, using Soviet tanks and weaponry. During the Korean War (1950-1953) millions of civilians died and the three years of fighting throughout the nation effectively destroyed most cities. Around 125,000 POWs were captured and held by the Americans and South Koreans on Geojedo (an island in the south) (Cumings 1997: 298) The war ended in a ceasefire agreement at approximately the Military Demarcation Line. Division of Korea South Korea is one of Four Asian Tigers and described as Miracle on the Han River. The aftermath of World War II left Korea partitioned along the 38th parallel, with the north under Soviet occupation and the south under the occupation of other allied countries. Consequently, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, a Soviet-style socialist regime, was established in the north while the Republic of Korea, a Western-style republic was established in the south. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_of_Korea The Korean War broke out when Soviet-backed North Korea invaded South Korea, though neither side gained much territory as a result. Today, the Korean peninsula remains divided, the Korean Demilitarized Zone being the de facto border between the two states. Geography A view of Seoraksan. Korea is located on the Korean Peninsula in North-East Asia. To the northwest, the Amnok River (Yalu River) separates Korea from China and to the northeast, the Duman River (Tumen River) separates Korea from China and Russia. The Yellow Sea is to the west, the East China Sea is to the south, and the East Sea is to the east of Korea. Korean Map, The People's Korea, 1998. Notable islands include Jeju-do, Ulleung-do, and Liancourt Rocks (Dokdo in Korean). The southern and western parts of the peninsula have well-developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea is Baekdusan (2744 m), through which runs the border with China. The southern extension of Baekdusan is a highland called Gaema Heights. This highland was mainly raised during the Cenozoic orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the peninsula. This mountain range is named Baekdudaegan. Some significant mountains include Sobaeksan (1,439 m), Baekdusan or Baeksan (1,724 m), Geumgangsan (1,638 m), Seoraksan (1,708 m), Taebaeksan (1,567 m), and Jirisan (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan. They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are basically northwest. Daedongyeojido, a map of Korea Jeju-do seashore. Unlike most ancient mountains on the mainland, many important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the Cenozoic orogeny. Jeju-do, situated off the southern coast, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain Hallasan (1950 m) is the highest in South Korea. Ulleung-do is a volcanic island in the East Sea, whose composition is more felsic than Jeju-do. The volcanic islands tend to be younger, the more westward. Because the mountainous region is mostly on the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowing Nakdonggang and Seomjingang. Important rivers running westward include the Amnok River (Yalu), the Cheong-cheongang, the Daedonggang, the Han River, the Geumgang, and the Yeongsangang. These rivers have vast flood plains and provide an ideal environment for wet-rice cultivation. The southern and southwestern coastlines of Korea form a well-developed ria coastline, known as Dadohae-jin in Korean. Its convoluted coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and seaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean Peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at Incheon, around the middle of the western coast. It can get as high as 9 m). Vast tidal flats have been developing on the south and west coastlines Demographics The combined population of the Koreas is about 73 million (North Korea: 23 million, South Korea: 50 million). Korea is chiefly populated by a highly homogeneous ethnic group, the Koreans, who speak the Korean language. The number of foreigners living in Korea has also steadily increased since the late 20th century, particularly in South Korea, where more than 1 million foreigners currently reside. A minority population of ethnic Chinese (roughly 440,000 as of August 2007 ) live in South Korea and small communities of ethnic Chinese and Japanese are also found in North Korea. CIA - The World Factbook - Korea, North Language Hunmin jeong-eum, afterwards called Hangul. Korean is the official language of both North and South Korea, and (along with Mandarin) of Yanbian Autonomous Prefecture in Manchuria area of China. Worldwide, there are up to 80 million speakers of the Korean Language. South Korea has around 50 million speakers while North Korea around 23 million. Other large groups of Korean speakers are found in the United States (around 0.9 million speakers), China (around 1.8 million speakers), the former Soviet Union (around 350,000), Japan (around 700,000), Canada (100,000), Philippines (70,000) and Australia (150,000). It is estimated that there are around 700,000 people scattered across the world who are able to speak Korean because of job requirements (for example, salespersons or businessmen with Korean contacts), marriages to Koreans or out of pure interest in the language. The genealogical classification of Korean is debated. Some linguists place it in the Altaic language family; others consider it to be a language isolate. Korean is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax. Like Japanese and Vietnamese, Korean has borrowed much vocabulary from the genetically unrelated Chinese or created vocabulary on Chinese models. Modern Korean is written almost exclusively in the hangul script, which was invented in the 15th century. While hangul may appear logographic, it is actually a phonemic alphabet organized into syllabic blocks. Each block consists of at least two of the 24 hangul letters (jamo): at least one each of the 14 consonants and 10 vowels. Historically, the alphabet had several additional letters (see obsolete jamo). For a phonological description of the letters, see Korean phonology. Hanja (Chinese characters) and Latin alphabets are sometimes included within hangul texts, particularly in South Korea. Culture and arts Korean Buddhist architecture Traditional Korean dance (Jinju geommu) In ancient Chinese texts, Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (, ) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (, ). During the 7th and 8th centuries, the silk road connected Korea to Arabia. In 845, Arab traders wrote, "Beyond China is a land where gold abounds and which is named Silla. The Muslims who have gone there have been charmed by the country and tend to settle there and abandon all idea of leaving. The kingdom of Silla and the treasures of Nara (ancient Korea kingdom; Buddhist temple in Nara, Japan) " Korean festivities often showcase vibrant colors, which have been attributed to Mongolian influences: bright red, yellow, and green often mark traditional Korean motifs. http://www.pacificasiamuseum.org/calendar/kcostumes.htm These bright colors are sometimes seen in the traditional dress known as hanbok. One peculiarity of Korean culture is its age reckoning system. Individuals are regarded as one year old when they are born, and their age increments on New Year's Day rather than on the anniversary of their birthday. Thus, one born on December the 31st would be aged two on the day after they were born. Accordingly, a Korean person's stated age will be one or two years more than their age expressed in the Western tradition. Literature Korean literature written before the end of the Joseon Dynasty is called "Classical" or "Traditional." Literature, written in Chinese characters (hanja), was established at the same time as the Chinese script arrived on the peninsula. Korean scholars were writing poetry in the classical Korean style as early as the 2nd century BCE, reflecting Korean thoughts and experiences of that time. Classical Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk tales of the peninsula, strongly influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped spread literacy from the aristocracy to the common people and women. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature. Sinsoseol, for instance, are novels written in hangul. The Korean War led to the development of literature centered around the wounds and chaos of . Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and their struggles with national pain. The collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another common theme of the time. Religion Amitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas, Goryeo scroll from the 1300s Confucian tradition has dominated Korean thought, along with contributions by Buddhism, Taoism, and Korean Shamanism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, Christianity has competed with Buddhism in South Korea, while religious practice has been suppressed in North Korea. Throughout Korean history and culture, regardless of separation; the influence of traditional beliefs of Korean Shamanism, Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism have remained an underlying religion of the Korean people as well as a vital aspect of their culture, all these traditions coexisted peacefully for hundred years to today despite of stronger Westernization from Christian missionary conversions in the South About Korea - Religion Every Culture - South Koreans Every Culture - Culture of SOUTH KOREA or the pressure from Communism's atheist government in the North. Every Culture - Culture of NORTH KOREA CIA The World Factbook -- North Korea According to 2005 statistics compiled by the South Korean government, about 46% of citizens profess to follow no particular religion. Christians account for 29.2% of the population (of which are Protestants 18.3% and Catholics 10.9%) and Buddhists 22.8%. International Religious Freedom Report 2008 - Korea, Republic of Koreans valued scholarship and rewarded education and study of Chinese classic texts; Yangban boys were highly educated in hanja. In Silla, the bone rank system defined a person's social status, and a similar system persisted through the end of the Joseon Dynasty. In addition, the gwageo civil service examination provided paths of upward mobility. Islam in South Korea is comprised of about 45,000 in addition to some 100,000 foreign workers from Muslim countries. http://www.islamawareness.net/Asia/KoreaSouth/ks_news002.html The Korea Times:Islam takes root and blooms Cuisine Bibimbap Korean cuisine is probably best known for kimchi, which uses a distinctive fermentation process of preserving vegetables, most commonly cabbage. Gochujang is also commonly used, often as pepper (chilli) powder, earning the cuisine a reputation for being spicy. Bulgogi (roasted marinated meat, usually beef), galbi (marinated grilled short ribs), and samgyeopsal (pork belly) are popular meat entrees. Meals are usually accompanied by a soup or stew, such as galbitang (stewed ribs) and doenjang jjigae (fermentated bean paste stew). The center of the table is filled with a shared collection of sidedishes called banchan. It is also usually accompanied by Soju, a popular Korean alcoholic drink made from rice. Other popular dishes include bibimbap which literally means "mixed rice" (rice mixed with meat, vegetables, and pepper paste) and naengmyeon (cold noodles). Also, an instant noodle snack called ramyeon is popular. Koreans also enjoy food from pojangmachas (street vendors), where one can buy fish cake, Tteokbokki (rice cake and fish cake with a spicy gochujang sauce), and fried foods including squid, sweet potato, peppers, potato. Sundae, a sausage made of bean curd and green-bean sprouts stuffed in pig intestine, is widely eaten. Education The modern Korean school system consists of 6 years in elementary school, 3 years in middle school, and 3 years in high school. Students are supposed to go to elementary and middle school, and do not have to pay for the education, except for a small fee called "School Operation Support Fee" that differs from school to school. (The teachers are paid from taxes) Most private and public schools have students wear uniforms, and are not supposed to grow their hair more than a particular length. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks South Korea's science education as the 3rd best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/8/39700724.pdf Korea also ranks 2nd on Maths and literature and 1st in problem solving. Although South Korean students often rank high on international comparative tests, the education system is sometimes criticized for its emphasis on passive learning and memorization. The Korean education system is much more strict and structured than most western societies and Korean students rarely have free time to spend enjoying themselves as they are under a lot of pressure to perform and gain entrance to a university. Science and technology Jikji, Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon Masters, the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris. One of the best known artifacts of Korea's history of science and technology is Cheomseongdae (첨성대, ), a 9.4-meter high observatory built in 634. It is considered to be one of the world's oldest surviving astronomical observatories. The world's first metal mechanical movable type printing was developed in Korea in 1234 by Choe Yun-ui during the Goryeo Dynasty, modeled after widespread Chinese clay (Bi Sheng in 1041), several hundred years before Johann Gutenberg developed his metal letterset type (Cumings 1997: 65). Though the block printing was used much earlier, metal movable type printing press marked a significant development in printing allowing the same tools to be used for more diverse printings. The Jikji is the world's earliest remaining movable metal printed book, printed in Korea in 1377. The world's earliest known surviving example of woodblock printing is the Mugujeonggwang Great Dharani Sutra. Cultural Heritage, the source for Koreans' Strength and Dream It is believed to have been printed in Korea in 750-751 CE which, if correct, would make it older than the Diamond Sutra. Goryeo silk was highly regarded by China, and Korean pottery made with blue-green celadon was of the highest quality and sought after by even Arabian merchants. Goryeo had a bustling economy with a capital that was frequented by merchants from all over the known world. During the Joseon period the Geobukseon (Turtle Ship) were invented, which were covered by a wooden deck and iron with thorns, Hawley, Samuel: The Imjin War. Japan's Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China, The Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, Seoul 2005, ISBN 89-954424-2-5, p.195f. Turnbull, Stephen: Samurai Invasion. Japan’s Korean War 1592-98 (London, 2002), Cassell & Co ISBN 0-304-35948-3, p.244 Roh, Young-koo: "Yi Sun-shin, an Admiral Who Became a Myth", The Review of Korean Studies, Vol. 7, No. 3 (2004), p.13 as well as other weapons such as the Bigyeokjincheolloe (비격진천뢰, ) and the hwacha. It is also considered to be the world first ship that is partly made of iron. The Korean alphabet hangul was also invented during this time by Sejong the Great. International incidences The Sept. 1, 1983 Soviet shootdown of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 carrying 269 people including sitting U.S. Democratic Congressman, Larry McDonald See also List of rulers of Korea Famous Korean people Korean name National treasures of North Korea National treasures of South Korea Inter-Korean Summit Koreans South Korea North Korea Notes References Cumings, Bruce. Korea's Place in the Sun, Norton, 1997. ISBN 0-393-31681-5 Kim, et al. Women of Korea: A History from Ancient Times to 1945, Ewha Womans University Press, 1976. ISBN 89-7300-116-7. Asian Info website Park's Associates sjtu.edu.cn umsl.edu diamond-dilemma.com (Review of ). Further reading Chun, Tuk Chu. "Korea in the Pacific Community." Social Education 52 (March 1988), 182. EJ 368 177. Cumings, Bruce. The Two Koreas. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1984. Focus On Asian Studies. Special Issue: "Korea: A Teacher's Guide." No. 1, Fall 1986. Gi-Wook Shin/Michael Robinson (Ed.). Colonial modernity in Korea, Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.] : Harvard University, Asia Center; Distributed by Harvard Univ. Press 1999, ISBN 0-674-14255-1 Joe, W.J. & Choe, H.A. Traditional Korea: A Cultural History, Seoul: Hollym, 1997. Joungwon, A.K. Divided Korea: The Politics of Development, Harvard University Press, 1975. Lee Ki-baik. A New History Of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1984. Lee Sang-sup. "The Arts and Literature of Korea." The Social Studies 79 (July-August 1988): 153-60. EJ 376 894. Tae-Jin, Y. "The Illegality of the Forced Treaties Leading to Japan's Annexation of the Great Han Empire," In the Korean National Commission for UNESCO, Vol. 36, No. 4, 1996. Dennis Hart, From Tradition to Consumption: Construction of a Capitalist Culture in South Korea. Seoul:Jimoondang Pub. 2003. 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7,075 | Politics_of_Hong_Kong | Politics of Hong Kong takes place in a framework of a political system dominated by its constitutional document, the Basic Law of Hong Kong, its own legislature, the Chief Executive as the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. On 1 July 1997, sovereignty of Hong Kong was transferred to the People's Republic of China (PRC), ending over a one and half century of British rule. Hong Kong became a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the PRC with a high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign affairs and defence, which are responsibilities of the PRC government. According to the Sino-British Joint Declaration (1984) and the Basic Law, Hong Kong will retain its political, economic, and judicial systems and unique way of life and continue to participate in international agreements and organisations as a dependent territory for at least 50 years after retrocession. For instance, the International Olympic Committee recognises Hong Kong as a participating dependency under the name, "Hong Kong, China", separate from the delegation from the People's Republic of China. Overview In accordance with Article 31 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong has Special Administrative Region status, which provides constitutional guarantees for implementing the policy of "one country, two systems". Wong, Yiu-chung. [2004] (2004). One Country, Two Systems in Crisis: Hong Kong's Transformation. Lexington Books. Hong Kong. ISBN 0739104926. The government is economically liberal, but currently lacks universal suffrage except for District Council elections and Legislative council seats for geographical constituencies. The head of government (the Chief Executive of Hong Kong) is elected indirectly through an electoral college, the majority of whose members are appointed. The Basic Law, Hong Kong's constitutional document, was approved in March 1990 by National People's Congress of the PRC. On the other hand, Hong Kong enjoys an independent judiciary, and the legal system is based on the English common law system. The current legal system will stay in force until at least 30 June 2047. All permanent residents over 18 years of age are eligible to vote in direct elections for the 30 seats representing geographical constituencies in the 60-seat Legislative Council. However, eligibility for certain indirect elections is limited to about 180,000 voters in 28 functional constituencies (composed of business and professional sectors), and the Chief Executive is elected by an 800-member electoral college drawn mostly from the voters in the functional constituencies but also from religious organisations and municipal and central government bodies. Government Executive branch The Chief Executive is the head of the special administrative region, and is also the highest ranking official in the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, and is the head of the executive branch. The Chief Executive is elected by an 800-member Election Committee. The Executive Council is entirely appointed by the Chief Executive. Legislative branch The legislative branch is the unicameral Legislative Council (LegCo), which consists of 60 members, 30 of which are elected from Geographical Constituencies, while the other 30 are elected from Functional Constituencies. Judicial branch The Judiciary consists of a series of courts, of which the court of final adjudication is the Court of Final Appeal. Hong Kong is represented in the National People's Congress by a delegation which is elected by a special electoral committee. Major political issues in recent years A poster promoting the March for Democracy Right of Abode On 29 January 1999, the Court of Final Appeal, the highest judicial authority in Hong Kong interpreted several Articles of the Basic Law, in such a way that the Government estimated would allow 1.6 million Mainland China immigrants to enter Hong Kong within ten years. This caused widespread concerns among the public on the social and economic consequences. While some in the legal sector advocated that the National People's Congress (NPC) should be asked to amend the part of the Basic Law to redress the problem, the HKSAR Government decided to seek an interpretation to, rather than an amendment of, the relevant Basic Law provisions from the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC). The NPCSC issued an interpretation in favour of the Hong Kong Government in June 1999, thereby overturning parts of the court decision. While the full powers of NPCSC to interpret the Basic Law is provided for in the Basic Law itself, some critics argues this undermines judicial independence. A number of anti-Communist party promotions 1 July marches and Article 23 The Hong Kong 1 July March is an annual protest rally led by the Civil Human Rights Front since the 1997 handover on the HKSAR establishment day. However, it was only in 2003 when it drew large public attention by opposing the bill of the Article 23. It has become the annual platform for demanding universal suffrage, calling for observance and preservation civil liberties such as free speech, venting dissatisfaction with the Hong Kong Government or the Chief Executive, rallying against actions of the Pro-Beijing camp. In 2003, the HKSAR Government proposed to implement Article 23 of the Basic Law by legislating against acts such as treason, subversion, secession and sedition. Basiclaw23HK. "Basiclaw23." Treason, subversion and secession. Retrieved on 2007-12-28. However, there were concerns that the legislation would infringe human rights by introducing the mainland's concept of "national security" into the HKSAR. Together with the general dissatisfaction with the Tung administration, about 500,000 people participated in this protest. Article 23 enactment was "temporarily suspended". Wong, Yiu-Chung. One Country, Two Systems in Crisis: Hong Kong's Transformation Since the Handover. Lexington books. ISBN 0739104926. Political activists voicing their concern in the Jan 2008 protest Universal suffrage Towards the end of 2003, the focus of political controversy shifted to the dispute of how subsequent Chief Executives get elected. The Basic Law's Article 45 stipulates that the ultimate goal is universal suffrage; when and how to achieve that goal, however, remains open but controversial. Under the Basic Law, electoral law could be amended to allow for this as soon as 2007 (Hong Kong Basic Law Annex .1, Sect.7). Arguments over this issue seemed to be responsible for a series of Mainland Chinese newspapers commentaries in February 2004 which stated that power over Hong Kong was only fit for "patriots." The interpretation of the NPCSC to Annex I and II of the Basic Law, promulgated on 6 April 2004, made it clear that the National People's Congress' support is required over proposals to amend the electoral system under Basic Law. On 26 April 2004, the Standing Committee of National People's Congress denied the possibility of universal suffrage in 2007 (for the Chief Executive) and 2008 (for LegCo). The NPCSC interpretation and decision were regarded as obstacles to the democratic development of Hong Kong by the democratic camp, and were criticised for lack of consultation with Hong Kong residents. On the other hand, the pro-government camp considered them to be in compliance with the legislative intent of the Basic Law and in line with the 'One country, two systems' principle, and hoped that this would put an end to the controversies on development of political structure in Hong Kong. In 2007 Chief Executive Sir Donald Tsang requested for Beijing to allow direct elections for the Chief Executive. He referred to a survey which said more than half of the citizens of Hong Kong wanted direct elections by 2012. However, he said waiting for 2017 may be the best way to get two-thirds of the support of Legislative Council. Donald Tsang announced that the NPC said it planned to allow the 2017 Chief Executive elections and the 2020 Legislative Council elections to take place by universal suffrage. Resignation of Tung Chee-hwa and interpretation of Basic Law On 12 March 2005, the Chief Executive, Tung Chee-hwa, resigned. Immediately after Tung's resignation, there was dispute over the length of the term of the Chief Executive. To most local legal professionals, the length is obviously five years, under whatever circumstances. It should also be noted that the wording of the Basic Law on the term of the Chief Executive is substantially different from the articles in the PRC constitution concerning the length of term of the president, premier, etc. Nonetheless, legal experts from the mainland said it is a convention a successor will only serve the remainder of the term if the position is vacant because the predecessor resigned. The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress exercised its right to interpret the Basic Law, and affirmed that the successor would only serve the remainder of the term. Many in Hong Kong saw this as an adverse impact on one country, two systems, as the Central People's Government interpret the Basic Law to serve its need, that is, a two-year probation for Tsang, instead of a five-year term. Political reform package Demonstration against reform package On 4 December 2005, people in Hong Kong demonstrated against Sir Donald Tsang's proposed reform package, before a vote on 21 December. According to the organisers Alliance.org.hk. "Alliance.org.hk." Szeto Wah Speech. Retrieved on 2007-12-29. , an estimated 250,000 turned out into the streets. The police supplied a figure of 63,000, and Michael de Golyer of Baptist University estimated between 70,000 and 100,000 The Standard. "." Turnout is substantial however one cuts it . Retrieved on 2009-01-13. . The march has sent a strong message to hesitant pro-democracy legislators to follow public opinion. The pro-government camp claims to have collected 700,000 signatures on a petition backing Mr. Tsang's reform package. This number, however, is widely seen as too small to influence pro-democracy lawmakers. The Reform Package debate has seen the return of key political figure and former Chief Secretary Anson Chan, raising speculations of a possible run up for the 2007 Chief Executive election, though she dismissed having a personal interest in standing for the next election. In an attempt to win last minute votes from moderate pro-democracy lawmakers, the government amended its reform package on 19 December by proposing a gradual cut in district councils appointed members. Their number would be reduced from 102 to 68 by 2008. It would then be decided in 2011 whether to scrap the remaining seats in 2012 or in 2016. The amendment has been seen as a reluctant response by Sir Donald Tsang to give satisfaction to the democratic demands of the 4 December demonstrations. The move has been qualified "Too little, too late" by pan-democrats in general. On 21 December 2005, the reform political reform package was vetoed by the pro-democracy lawmakers. Chief Secretary Rafael Hui openly criticised pro-democracy Martin Lee and Bishop Zen for blocking the proposed changes. Political Appointments System The 24 non-civil-service positions under the political appointment system comprise 11 undersecretaries and 13 political assistants. Bonnie Chen, "No hurry to present new deputy ministers", The Standard, 4 March 2008 The government named eight newly appointed Undersecretaries on 20 May, and nine Political Assistants on 22 May 2008. The posts were newly created, ostensibly to work closely with bureau secretaries and top civil servants in implementing the Chief Executive's policy blueprint and agenda in an executive-led government. Donald Tsang described the appointments as a milestone in the development of Hong Kong's political appointment system. Diana Lee, "High hopes for appointees", The Standard, 21 May 2008 Controversies arose with the disclosure of foreign passports and salaries. Page A1, South China Morning Post, 5 June 2008 Pressure for disclosure continued to mount despite government insistence on the right of the individuals to privacy: on 10 June 2008, newly-appointed Undersecretaries and political assistants, who had previously argued were contractually forbidden from disclosing their remuneration, revealed their salaries. The Government news release stated that the appointees had "voluntarily disclosed their salaries, given the sustained public interest in the issue." "Political appointees disclose salaries", Hong Kong Government, 10 June 2008, retrieved 2008-06-12 Inflation relief measures On 16 July 2008, Donald Tsang announced some "extraordinary measures for extraordinary times", giving a total of HK$11 billion in inflation relief to help families' finances. Of which, the Employee Retraining levy on the employment of Foreign domestic helpers would be temporarily waived, at an estimated cost of $HK2 billion. It was intended that the levy would be waived for a two-year period on all helpers' employment contracts signed on or after 1 September 2008, but would not apply to ongoing contracts. The Immigration Department said it would not reimburse levies, which are prepaid half-yearly or yearly in advance. The announcement resulted in chaos and confusion, and uncertainty for the helpers as some employers deferred contracts or had dismissed helpers pending confirmation of the effective date, leaving helpers in limbo. On 20 July, Secretary for Labour and Welfare Matthew Cheung announced the waiver commencement date would be brought forward by one month. The Immigration Department would relax its 14-day re-employment requirement for helpers whose contracts expired. On 30 July, the Executive Council approved the measures. After widespread criticism of the situation, the government also conceded that maids having advanced renewal of contract would not be required to leave Hong Kong through the discretion exercised by the Director of Immigration, and employers would benefit from the waiver simply by renewing the contract within the two-year period, admitting that some employers could benefit from the waiver for up to 4 years. The administration's poor handling of the matter came in for heavy criticism. The administrative credibility and competence were called into question by journals from all sides of the political spectrum, and by helpers and employers alike. Leung Chin-man appointment In August 2008, the appointment of Leung Chin-man as deputy managing director and executive director of New World China Land, subsidiary of New World Development, was greeted with uproar amidst widespread public suspicion that job offer was a quid pro quo for the favours he allegedly granted to NWD. Leung was seen to have been involved with the sale of the Hung Hom Peninsula HOS housing estate to NWD at under-value in 2004. After a 12-month 'sterilisation period' after retirement, Leung submitted an application to the government on 9 May for approval to take up employment with New World China Land. The Secretary for the Civil Service, Denise Yue Chung-yee, signed off on the approval for him to take up the job after his request passed through the vetting committee. Controversies surrounded not only the suspicions of Leung's own conflict of interest, but also of the insensitivity of the committee which recommended the approval for him to take up his lucrative new job less than two years after his official retirement. New World argued that they hired Leung in good faith after government clearance. On 15 August, the Civil Service Bureau issued the report requested by Donald Tsang, where they admitted that they had neglected to consider Leung's role in the Hung Hom Peninsula affair. Donald Tsang asked the SCS to reassess the approval, and submit a report to him. New World Development announced in the early hours of 16 August that Leung had resigned from his post, without any compensation from either side or from the government, for the termination. The next day, Donald Tsang confirmed that Denise Yue would not have to resign. He was satisfied with her apology and with the explanations offered by her. Tsang ordered a committee, of which Yue was to be a member, to be set up to perform a sweeping review of the system to process applications for former civil servants. Other political issues since 1997 A "free Ching Cheong" poster Year Event 2001 The Grand bauhinia medal being bestowed on Yeung Kwong, a leader of the Hong Kong 1967 Leftist Riots. Chan, Ming K. So, Alvin Y. White III, Lynn T. [2002] (2002). Crisis and Transformation in China's Hong Kong. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0765610000. 2003 Central and Wan Chai Reclamation controversyHarbour Fest controversy 2005 The Link REIT IPO controversyArrest of journalist Ching Cheong by the People's Republic of China on spying chargesMa Ying-jeou denied visa to enter Hong Kong Taipei times Cabinet questions visa refusal for Ma 2006 Aborted proposal to grant development rights for the West Kowloon Cultural District to a single developer.Aborted proposal to introduce a Goods and Services TaxBattle for conservation of Star Ferry Pier 2007 Battle for conservation of Queen's Pier. Hong Kong Institute of Education academic freedom controversy 2008 Raymond Wong Yuk-man's banana throw incident & Lee Cheuk-yan's banana incident 2009 Johannes Chan Macau ban Nationality and citizenship Chinese nationality Before and after the handover, the PRC has recognised the ethnic Chinese people in Hong Kong as its citizens. The PRC issues Home Return Permits for them to enter the mainland China. Hong Kong issues the HKSAR passport through its Immigration Department GovHK. "GovHK." HK SAR passport. Retrieved on 2007-12-28. . to all PRC citizens who are permanent residents of Hong Kong fitting the right of abode rule. The HKSAR passport is not the same as the ordinary PRC passport, which is issued to residents of mainland China. Only permanent residents of Hong Kong who are PRC citizens are eligible to apply. To acquire the status of permanent resident one has to have "ordinarily resided" in Hong Kong for a period of seven years and adopted Hong Kong as their permanent home. Therefore, citizenships rights enjoyed by residents of mainland China and residents Hong Kong are differentiated even though both hold the same citizenship. Interestingly, new immigrants from mainland China (still possess Chinese Citizenship) to Hong Kong are denied from getting PRC passport from the mainland authorities, and are not eligible to apply for an HKSAR passport. They usually hold the Document of Identity (DI) as the travel document, until the permanent resident status is obtained after seven years of residence. Naturalisation as a PRC Citizen is common among ethnic Chinese people in Hong Kong who are not PRC Citizens. Some who have surrendered their PRC citizenship, usually those who have emigrated to foreign countries and have retained the permanent resident status, can apply for PRC citizenship at the Immigration Department, though they must renounce their original nationality in order to acquire the PRC citizenship. Naturalisation of persons of non-Chinese ethnicity are rare because China does not allow dual citizenship and becoming a Chinese citizen requires the renouncement of other passports. A notable example is Michael Rowse, a permanent resident of Hong Kong and the current Director-General of Investment Promotion of Hong Kong Government, naturalised and became a PRC citizen, for the offices of secretaries of the policy bureaux are only open to PRC citizens. In 2008, a row erupted over political appointees. Five newly appointed Undersecretaries declared that they were in the process of renouncing foreign citizenship as at 4 June 2008, citing public opinion as an overriding factor, and one Assistant had initiated the renunciation process. This was done despite there being no legal or constitutional barrier for officials at this level of government to have foreign nationality. British nationality Hong Kong residents who were born in Hong Kong in the colonial era (about 3.5 million) could acquire the British Dependent Territories citizenship (BDTC). HK residents who were not born in Hong Kong could also naturalise as a BDTC before the handover. To allow them to retain the status of British national while preventing a possible flood of immigrants from Hong Kong, the United Kingdom created a new nationality status, British National (Overseas) (BN(O)) that Hong Kong British Dependent Territories citizens could apply for. Holders of the BN(O) passports, however, have no right of abode in the UK. See British nationality law and Hong Kong for details. British National (Overseas) status was given effect by the Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986. Article 4(1) of the Order provided that on and after 1 July 1987, there would be a new form of British nationality, the holders of which would be known as British Nationals (Overseas). Article 4(2) of the Order provided that adults and minors who had a connection to Hong Kong were entitled to make an application to become British Nationals (Overseas) by registration. Becoming a British National (Overseas) was therefore not an automatic or involuntary process and indeed many eligible people who had the requisite connection with Hong Kong never applied to become British Nationals (Overseas). Acquisition of the new status had to be voluntary and therefore a conscious act. To make it involuntary or automatic would have been contrary to the assurances given to the Chinese government which led to the words "eligible to" being used in paragraph (a) of the United Kingdom Memorandum to the Sino-British Joint Declaration. The deadline for applications passed in 1997. Any person who failed to register as a British Nationals (Overseas) by 1 July 1997 and were eligible to become PRC citizens became solely PRC citizens on 1 July 1997. However, any person who would be rendered stateless by failure to register as a British Nationals (Overseas) automatically became a British Overseas citizen under article 6(1) of the Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986. After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, people urged the British Government to grant full British citizenship to all Hong Kong BDTCs — but this request was never accepted. However, it was considered necessary to devise a British Nationality Selection Scheme to enable some of the population to obtain British citizenship. The United Kingdom made provision to grant citizenship to 50,000 families whose presence was important to the future of Hong Kong under the British Nationality Act (Hong Kong) 1990. After reunification, all PRC citizens with the right of abode in Hong Kong (holding Hong Kong permanent identity cards) are eligible to apply for the HKSAR passport issued by the Hong Kong Immigration Department. As the visa-free-visit destinations of the HKSAR passport are very similar with that of a BN(O) passport and the application fee for the former is much lower (see articles HKSAR passport and British passport for comparison and verification), the HKSAR passport is becoming more popular among residents of Hong Kong. Hong Kong residents who were not born in Hong Kong (and had not naturalised as a BDTC) could only apply for the Certificate of identity (CI) from the colonial government as travel document. They are not issued (by neither the British nor Chinese authorities) after handover. Former CI holders holding PRC Citizenship (e.g. born in mainland China or Macau) and are permanent residents of Hong Kong are now eligible for the HKSAR passports, making the HKSAR passports more popular. Recent changes to India's Citizenship Act, 1955 (see Indian nationality law) will also allow some children of Indian origin, born in Hong Kong after 7 January 2004, who have a solely BN(O) parent to automatically acquire British Overseas citizenship at birth under the provisions for reducing statelessness in article 6(2) or 6(3) of the Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986. If they have acquired no other nationality after birth, they will be entitled to subsequently register for full British citizenship with right of abode in the UK. Political parties and elections The four main political parties are as follows. Each holds a significant portion of LegCo. Thirteen members are registered as affiliated with the DAB, eight with the Democratic Party, five with the Civic Party, three with the Liberal Party and three with the League of Social Democrats. There are also many unofficial party members: politicians who are members of political parties but have not registered such status in their election applications. There are two major blocs: the democratic camp and the pro-government camp. Civic Party (Kuan Hsin-chi, chairman) Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong (DAB) (Tam Yiu Chung, chairman) Democratic Party (Albert Ho, chairman) League of Social Democrats (Raymond Wong, chairman) Liberal Party (Miriam Lau, chairman) Others include: Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood (Frederick Fung Kin-kee, chairman) Citizens Party (Alex Chan Kai-chung, chairperson) The Frontier (Emily Lau Wai-hing, convenor) Political pressure groups and leaders Chinese General Chamber of Commerce Chinese Manufacturers' Association of Hong Kong Hong Kong Confederation of Trade Unions (Lau Chin-shek, President; Lee Cheuk-yan, General Secretary) Federation of Hong Kong Industries Hong Kong Federation of Students International Action Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions (Cheng Yiu-tong, President) The Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements in China (Szeto Wah, Chairman) Hong Kong and Kowloon Trade Union Council Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce Hong Kong Professional Teachers' Union(Cheung Man-kwong, President) Liberal Democratic Federation (Hu Fa-kuang, Chairman) Anson Chan, Convener of her Core Group References Further reading Lam, Wai-Man; Chan, Ming K. (FRW), "Understanding the Political Culture of Hong Kong: The Paradox of Activism and Depoliticization", M.E. Sharpe, 2004. ISBN 076561314X See also Politics of the People's Republic of China PRC United Front strategy Foreign relations of Hong Kong One country, two systems Principal Officials Accountability System Political Appointments System District Council of Hong Kong External links HKSAR Government web site Hong Kong Executive Council Hong Kong Legislative Council Olympic Watch (Committee for the 2008 Olympic Games in a Free and Democratic Country) on the status of Hong Kong Sight & Sound of a recent protest march | Politics_of_Hong_Kong |@lemmatized politics:2 hong:85 kong:85 take:5 place:2 framework:1 political:25 system:19 dominate:1 constitutional:4 document:5 basic:19 law:23 legislature:1 chief:19 executive:25 head:4 government:33 multi:1 party:13 power:3 exercise:3 july:9 sovereignty:1 transfer:1 people:20 republic:5 china:18 prc:23 end:3 one:11 half:3 century:1 british:30 rule:2 become:11 special:5 administrative:5 region:4 sar:2 high:4 degree:1 autonomy:1 matter:2 except:2 foreign:7 affair:2 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7,076 | Literate_programming | Literate programming is an approach to programming introduced by Donald Knuth as an alternative to the structured programming paradigm of the 1970s. The literate programming paradigm, as conceived by Knuth, represents a move away from writing programs in the manner and order imposed by the computer, and instead enables programmers to develop programs in the order demanded by the logic and flow of their thoughts. Literate programs are written as an uninterrupted exposition of logic in an ordinary human language, much like the text of an essay, in which macros which hide abstractions and traditional source code are included. Literate programming tools are used to both en-tangle a literate program into a form suitable for further compilation or execution, and to weave the program into formatted documentation. While the first generation of literate programming tools were computer language-specific, the later ones are language-agnostic and exist above the programming languages. Concept A literate program is an explanation of the program logic in a natural language, such as English, interspersed with snippets of macros and traditional source code. Macros in a literate source file are simply title-like or explanatory phrases in a human language that describe human abstractions created while solving the programming problem, and hiding chunks of code or lower-level macros. These macros are similar to the algorithms in pseudocode typically used in teaching computer science. These arbitrary explanatory phrases become precise new operators, created on the fly by the programmer, forming a meta-language on top of the underlying programming language. A preprocessor is used to substitute arbitrary hierarchies, or rather "interconnected 'webs' of macros", to produce the compilable source code with one command ("tangle"), and documentation with another ("weave"). The preprocessor also provides an ability to write out the content of the macros and to add to already created macros in any place in the text of the literate program source file, thereby disposing of the need to keep in mind the restrictions imposed by traditional programming languages or to interrupt the flow of thought. Advantages of the method According to Knuth, literate programming provides for higher-quality programs, since it forces programmers to explicitly state the thoughts behind the program, making poorly thought-out design decisions more obvious. Knuth also claims that literate programming provides a first-rate documentation system, which is not an add-on, but is grown naturally in the process of exposition of one's thoughts during a program creation. The resulting documentation allows authors to restart their own thought processes at any later time, and allows other programmers to more easily understand the construction of the program. This differs from traditional documentation, in which a programmer is presented with source code that follows a compiler-imposed order, and must decipher the thought process behind the program from the code and its associated comments. The meta-language capabilities of literate programming are also claimed to facilitate thinking in general, giving a higher "bird's eye view" of the code and increasing the number of concepts the mind can successfully retain and process. Applicability of the concept to programming on a large scale, that of commercial-grade programs is proven by an edition of TeX code as a literate program. Misconceptions Literate programming is very often misunderstood to refer only to formatted documentation produced from a common file with both source code and comments, or to voluminous commentaries included with code. This misconception has led to claims that comment-extraction tools, such as the Perl Plain Old Documentation system, are "literate programming tools". However, because these tools do not implement the "web of abstract concepts" hiding behind the system of natural-language macros, or provide an ability to the change the order the source code from a machine-imposed sequence to one convenient to the human mind, they cannot properly be called literate programming tools in the sense intended by Knuth. Example A classic example of literate programming is the literate implementation of the standard Unix wc word counting program. Knuth presented a CWEB version of this example in Chapter 12 of his Literate Programming book. The same example was later rewritten for the noweb literate programming tool. This example provides a good illustration of the basic elements of literate programming. Creation of macros The following snippet of the wc literate program shows how arbitrary descriptive phrases in a natural language are used in a literate program to create macros, which act as new "operators" in the literate programming language, and hide chunks of code or other macros. The mark-up notation consists of double angle brackets ("<<...>>")that indicate macros, the "@" symbol which indicates the end of the code section in a noweb file. The "<<*>>" symbol stands for the "root", topmost node the literate programming tool will start expanding the web of macros from. Actually, writing out the expanded source code can be done from any section or subsection (i.e. a piece of code designated as "<<name of the chunk>>=", with the equal sign), so one literate program file can contain several files with machine source code. The purpose of wc is to count lines, words, and/or characters in a list of files. The number of lines in a file is ......../more explanations/ Here, then, is an overview of the file wc.c that is defined by the noweb program wc.nw: <<*>>= <<Header files to include>> <<Definitions>> <<Global variables>> <<Functions>> <<The main program>> @ We must include the standard I/O definitions, since we want to send formatted output to stdout and stderr. <<Header files to include>>= #include <stdio.h> @ Note also that the unraveling of the chunks can be done in any place in the literate program text file, not necessarily in the order they are sequenced in the enclosing chunk, but as is demanded by the logic reflected in the explanatory text that envelops the whole program. Program as a Web - Macros are not just section names Macros are not the same as "section names" in standard documentation. Literate programming macros can hide any chunk of code behind themselves, and be used inside any low-level machine language operators, often inside logical operators such as "if", "while" or "case". This is illustrated by the following snippet of the wc literate program. The present chunk, which does the counting that is wc's raison d'etre, was actually one of the simplest to write. We look at each character and change state if it begins or ends a word. <<Scan file>>= while (1) { <<Fill buffer if it is empty; break at end of file>> c = *ptr++; if (c > ' ' && c < 0177) { /* visible ASCII codes */ if (!in_word) { word_count++; in_word = 1; } continue; } if (c == '\n') line_count++; else if (c != ' ' && c != '\t') continue; in_word = 0; /* c is newline, space, or tab */ } @ In fact, macros can stand for any arbitrary chunk of code or other macros, and are thus more general than top-down or bottom-up "chunking", or than subsectioning. Knuth says that when he realized this, he began to think of a program as a web of various parts. Order of human logic, not that of the compiler In a noweb literate program besides the free order of their exposition, the chunks behind macros, once introduced with "<<...>>=", can be grown later in any place in the file by simply writing "<<name of the chunk>>+=" and adding more content to it, as the following snippet illustrates. The grand totals must be initialized to zero at the beginning of the program. If we made these variables local to main, we would have to do this initialization explicitly; however, C globals are automatically zeroed. (Or rather,``statically zeroed.'' (Get it?) <<Global variables>>+= long tot_word_count, tot_line_count, tot_char_count; /* total number of words, lines, chars */ @ Record of the train of thought creates superior documentation The documentation for a literate program is produced as part of writing the program. Instead of comments provided as side notes to source code a literate program contains the explanation of concepts on each level, with lower level concepts deferred to their appropriate place, which allows for better communication of thought. The snippets of the literate wc above show how an explanation of the program and its source code are interwoven. Such exposition of ideas creates the flow of thought that is like a literary work. Knuth famously wrote a "novel" which explains the code of a computer strategy game, perfectly readable. Literate programming tools The first published literate programming environment was WEB, introduced by Donald Knuth in 1981 for his TeX typesetting system; it uses Pascal as its underlying programming language and TeX for typesetting of the documentation. The complete commented TeX source code was published in Knuth's TeX: The program, volume B of his 5-volume Computers and Typesetting. Knuth had privately used a literate programming system called DOC as early as 1979. He was inspired by the ideas of Pierre-Arnoul de Marneffe . The free CWEB, written by Knuth and Silvio Levy, is WEB adapted for C and C++, runs on most operating systems and can produce TeX and PDF documentation. Other implementations of the literate programming concept are noweb and FunnelWeb, both of which are independent of the programming language of the source code. Noweb is well-known for its simplicity: just 2 text markup conventions and 2 tool invocations are needed to use it, and it allows for text formatting in HTML rather than going through the TeX system. FunnelWeb is another program without dependency on TeX which can produce HTML documentation output. It has more complicated markup (with "@" escaping any FunnelWeb command), but has many more flexible options. The Leo text editor is an outlining editor which supports optional noweb and CWEB markup. The author of Leo actually mixes two different approaches: first, Leo is an outlining editor, which helps with management of large texts, second, Leo incorporates some of the ideas of literate programming, which in its pure form (i.e. the way it is used by Knuth Web tool and/or tools like "noweb") is possible only with some degree of inventiveness and the use of the editor in a way not exactly envisioned by its author (in modified @root nodes). However this and other extensions (@file nodes) make outline programming and text management successful and easy and in some ways similar to literate programming. The Haskell programming language has native support for semi-literate programming, inspired by CWEB but with a simpler implementation. When aiming for TeX output, one writes a plain LaTeX file where source code is marked by a given surrounding environment; LaTeX can be set up to handle that environment, while the Haskell compiler looks for the right markers to identify Haskell statements to compile, removing the TeX documentation as if they were comments. However, as described above, this is not literate programming in the sense intended by Knuth. Haskell's functional, modular nature makes literate programming directly in the language somewhat easier, but it is not nearly as powerful as one of the a WEB tools where "tangle" can reorganize in arbitrary ways. See also Sweave - an example of use of the "noweb"-like Literate Programming tool inside the R language for creation of dynamic statistical reports References Further reading (includes software). External links comp.programming.literate FAQ at Internet FAQ Archives Literate Programming newsgroup Literate Programming website LiteratePrograms a literate programming wiki. Select A literate programming example using noweb Softpanorama page on literate programming Haskell literate programming Specification of literate programming in the Haskell Report the accepted Haskell standard Noweb — A Simple, Extensible Tool for Literate Programming Lp4all — A Simple Literate Programming Tool with a wiki-like markup syntax | Literate_programming |@lemmatized literate:53 programming:35 approach:2 program:47 introduce:3 donald:2 knuth:14 alternative:1 structure:1 paradigm:2 conceive:1 represent:1 move:1 away:1 write:10 manner:1 order:7 impose:4 computer:5 instead:2 enable:1 programmer:5 develop:1 demand:2 logic:5 flow:3 thought:9 uninterrupted:1 exposition:4 ordinary:1 human:5 language:19 much:1 like:6 text:9 essay:1 macro:20 hide:5 abstraction:2 traditional:4 source:15 code:25 include:7 tool:16 use:12 en:1 tangle:3 form:3 suitable:1 compilation:1 execution:1 weave:2 formatted:2 documentation:14 first:4 generation:1 specific:1 late:2 one:8 agnostic:1 exist:1 concept:7 explanation:4 natural:3 english:1 interspersed:1 snippet:5 file:17 simply:2 title:1 explanatory:3 phrase:3 describe:2 create:5 solve:1 problem:1 chunk:11 low:3 level:4 similar:2 algorithm:1 pseudocode:1 typically:1 teach:1 science:1 arbitrary:5 become:1 precise:1 new:2 operator:4 fly:1 meta:2 top:2 underlie:2 preprocessor:2 substitute:1 hierarchy:1 rather:3 interconnect:1 web:9 produce:5 compilable:1 command:2 another:2 also:5 provide:6 ability:2 content:2 add:3 already:1 place:4 thereby:1 dispose:1 need:2 keep:1 mind:3 restriction:1 interrupt:1 advantage:1 method:1 accord:1 high:2 quality:1 since:2 force:1 explicitly:2 state:2 behind:5 make:4 poorly:1 think:2 design:1 decision:1 obvious:1 claim:3 rate:1 system:7 grow:2 naturally:1 process:4 creation:3 result:1 allow:4 author:3 restart:1 time:1 easily:1 understand:1 construction:1 differs:1 present:3 follow:2 compiler:3 must:3 decipher:1 associated:1 comment:6 capability:1 facilitate:1 thinking:1 general:2 give:2 bird:1 eye:1 view:1 increase:1 number:3 successfully:1 retain:1 applicability:1 large:2 scale:1 commercial:1 grade:1 prove:1 edition:1 tex:10 misconception:2 often:2 misunderstood:1 refer:1 format:1 common:1 voluminous:1 commentary:1 lead:1 extraction:1 perl:1 plain:2 old:1 however:4 implement:1 abstract:1 change:2 machine:3 sequence:2 convenient:1 cannot:1 properly:1 call:2 sense:2 intend:2 example:7 classic:1 implementation:3 standard:4 unix:1 wc:8 word:4 count:2 cweb:4 version:1 chapter:1 book:1 later:2 rewrite:1 noweb:11 good:2 illustration:1 basic:1 element:1 following:2 show:2 descriptive:1 act:1 mark:2 notation:1 consists:1 double:1 angle:1 bracket:1 indicate:2 symbol:2 end:3 section:4 stand:2 root:2 topmost:1 node:3 start:1 expand:2 actually:3 subsection:1 e:2 piece:1 designate:1 name:4 equal:1 sign:1 contain:2 several:1 purpose:1 line:3 character:2 list:1 overview:1 c:11 define:1 nw:1 header:2 definition:2 global:2 variable:3 function:1 main:2 want:1 send:1 output:3 stdout:1 stderr:1 stdio:1 h:1 note:2 unraveling:1 necessarily:1 enclose:1 reflect:1 envelop:1 whole:1 inside:3 logical:1 case:1 illustrate:1 counting:1 raison:1 etre:1 simple:3 look:2 begin:2 scan:1 fill:1 buffer:1 empty:1 break:1 ptr:1 visible:1 ascii:1 continue:2 n:1 else:1 newline:1 space:1 tab:1 fact:1 thus:1 bottom:1 subsectioning:1 say:1 realize:1 various:1 part:2 besides:1 free:2 illustrates:1 grand:1 total:2 initialize:1 zero:3 beginning:1 local:1 would:1 initialization:1 globals:1 automatically:1 statically:1 get:1 long:1 char:1 record:1 train:1 creates:1 superior:1 side:1 defer:1 appropriate:1 communication:1 interweave:1 idea:3 literary:1 work:1 famously:1 novel:1 explain:1 strategy:1 game:1 perfectly:1 readable:1 publish:2 environment:3 typeset:2 pascal:1 typesetting:1 complete:1 volume:2 b:1 privately:1 doc:1 early:1 inspire:2 pierre:1 arnoul:1 de:1 marneffe:1 silvio:1 levy:1 adapt:1 run:1 operate:1 pdf:1 funnelweb:3 independent:1 well:1 know:1 simplicity:1 markup:4 convention:1 invocation:1 formatting:1 html:2 go:1 without:1 dependency:1 complicate:1 escape:1 many:1 flexible:1 option:1 leo:4 editor:4 outline:3 support:2 optional:1 mixes:1 two:1 different:1 help:1 management:2 second:1 incorporate:1 pure:1 way:4 possible:1 degree:1 inventiveness:1 exactly:1 envision:1 modify:1 extension:1 successful:1 easy:2 haskell:7 native:1 semi:1 simpler:1 aim:1 latex:2 surrounding:1 set:1 handle:1 right:1 marker:1 identify:1 statement:1 compile:1 remove:1 functional:1 modular:1 nature:1 directly:1 somewhat:1 nearly:1 powerful:1 reorganize:1 see:1 sweave:1 r:1 dynamic:1 statistical:1 report:2 reference:1 far:1 read:1 software:1 external:1 link:1 comp:1 faq:2 internet:1 archive:1 newsgroup:1 website:1 literateprograms:1 wiki:2 select:1 softpanorama:1 page:1 specification:1 accept:1 extensible:1 syntax:1 |@bigram literate_programming:26 donald_knuth:2 stdio_h:1 tex_typeset:1 haskell_compiler:1 external_link:1 |
7,077 | Ann_Widdecombe | Ann Noreen Widdecombe (born 4 October 1947) is a British Conservative Party politician and, more recently, television presenter and novelist. She is the Member of Parliament for Maidstone and The Weald and a Privy Counsellor. She is a prominent member of the Conservative Christian Fellowship and an outspoken supporter of traditional family values. Early life Born in Bath, Somerset, Widdecombe is the daughter of a Ministry of Defence civil servant. She attended the Royal Navy School, Singapore Ann Widdecombe set to stand down; BBC News, 7 October 2007 and a convent school in Bath. She then read Latin at Birmingham University and later attended Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford to read philosophy, politics and economics (PPE). She worked for Unilever (1973-75) and then as an administrator at the University of London (1975-87) before entering parliament. Councillor From 1976 to 1978, Widdecombe was a Runnymede District councillor. She contested the seat of Burnley in the 1979 general election and then Plymouth Devonport in the 1983 general election against David Owen. Member of Parliament She was first elected to the House of Commons in the 1987 general election as member for the constituency of Maidstone (which became Maidstone and The Weald in 1997). Political views Widdecombe is a committed Christian who has made it clear that her views on some issues reflect this; for instance, she would refuse to be health secretary as long as this involved overseeing abortions. Along with John Gummer MP, she changed church membership from the Church of England to the Roman Catholic Church following the decision that women could become priests. BBC News | UK Politics | Widdecombe rejects abortion role She called for a zero tolerance policy of prosecution, albeit with only £100 fines as the punishment, for users of cannabis in her speech at the 2000 Conservative conference; which was well-received by rank-and-file Conservative delegates. However, she alleges that someone connected with Francis Maude promptly contacted journalists to alert them that fellow Conservative cabinet members were prepared to come out and indicate "something of ambivalence" towards their own past experiences with this drug. BBC News | UK POLITICS | Zero tolerance 'would not work' In 2003, together with fellow Roman Catholic MP Edward Leigh, Widdecombe proposed an amendment opposing repeal of Section 28 of the Local Government Act, which banned the promotion of homosexuality by local governments. Out of the 14 Parliamentary votes considered by the Public Whip website to concern equal rights for homosexuals, Widdecombe has taken the opposing position in 12 cases, not being present at the other two votes. http://www.publicwhip.org.uk/mp.php?mpid=1701&dmp=826 Publicwhip.org.uk She is a committed animal lover and one of the few Conservative MPs to have consistently voted for the ban on fox hunting. "Ann Widdecombe compared to 'Fox hunting - Ban'", Public Whip. Retrieved on 2009-03-21. She has expressed a variety of views on climate change, but she generally attacks calls for action to mitigate it and her views appear to have hardened over time. In 2007, she wrote that she did not want to belittle the issue but was sceptical of the claims that specific actions would prevent catastrophe Switching Lightbulbs won't change the world , then in 2008 that her doubts had been “crystalised” by the book An Appeal to Reason Yes, I am a heretic on global warming , before giving a statement in 2009 that "There is no climate change, hasn’t anybody looked out of their window recently?" Article including refutation of any global warming . In government Widdecombe joined John Major's government as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Social Security in 1990. In 1993 she became Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Department of Employment being promoted to Minister of State the following year. In 1995 she became Minister of State at the Home Office and Minister in Charge of Prisons and visited every single prison in Britain. Shadow Cabinet After the fall of the Conservative government to Labour in 1997 she served as shadow Health Secretary between 1998 and 1999 and later shadow Home Secretary between 1999 and 2001 under William Hague. Leadership contest and backbenches During the 2001 Conservative leadership election, she could not find sufficient Conservative MPs to support her as a leadership candidate. She first supported Michael Ancram, who was eliminated in the first round, and then Kenneth Clarke, who lost in the final round. She afterwards declined to serve in an Iain Duncan Smith shadow cabinet (although she indicated prior to the leadership contest that she wished to retire to the backbenches anyway). In the 2005 leadership election, she initially supported Kenneth Clarke again. Once he was eliminated, she turned support towards Liam Fox. Following Fox's subsequent elimination, she took time to reflect before finally declaring for David Davis. She expressed reservations over the eventual winner David Cameron, feeling that he did not have a proven track record like the other candidates for leadership, and she has been a leading figure in parliamentary opposition to his A List policy which she has said is "an insult to women". http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/text/article.html?in_article_id=401718&in_page_id=1770&in_main_section=&in_sub_section=&in_chn_id= Dailymail.co.uk At the October 2006 Conservative Conference, she was Chief Dragon in a political version of Dragons' Den, in which A-list candidates were invited to put forward a policy proposal which was then torn apart by her team of Rachel Elnaugh, Oliver Letwin and Michael Brown. http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/iain_dale/2006/10/when_youve_got_nothing_to_writ.html Commentisfree.guardian.co.uk In an interview with Metro in September 2006 she stated that if the parliament was of a normal length it was likely she would go at the next General Election. She confirmed her intention to stand down to The Observer'''s Pendennis diary in September 2007, and again in October 2007 after Prime Minister Gordon Brown quashed speculation of an Autumn 2007 general election. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7032992.stm Widdicombe is one of the 98 MPs who voted to keep their expense details secret. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article1816072.ece In May 2009 it was reported that Widdecombe was gathering support to be elected as an interim Speaker of the House of Commons until the next general election following Michael Martin's resignation. Personal life and family Widdecombe currently lives in London. Until very recently, she had a constituency home in the picturesque village of Sutton Valence Kent, http://www.fantasticfiction.co.uk/w/ann-widdecombe/ which she sold upon deciding to retire at the next general election. http://www.annwiddecombemp.com/ She shared her home in London with her widowed mother, Rita Widdecombe, until Rita's death from natural causes, on 1 May 2007, aged 95. Conservative MP's mother dies, aged 95. Retrieved from http://www.kentnews.co.uk/kent-news/Conservative-MP_s-mother-dies,-aged-95-newsinkent3663.aspx. Ann has a brother, Malcolm, who is a clergyman in Bristol. http://www.pipnjay.org.uk/ She has never married nor had any children. In November 2007 on BBC Radio 4 she described how a journalist once produced a profile on her with the assumption that she had had at least "one sexual relationship", to which Widdecombe replied: "Be careful, that's the way you get sued." BBC - Radio 4 Woman's Hour -Ann Widdecombe She has never confirmed nor denied being a virgin, simply stating: "I don't regard it as anybody else's business." YouTube - When Louis Met... Anne Widdecombe: Tour of Anne's House Religious views On the 2007 ITV programme, An Exploration of Faith, Widdecombe again emphasised her Catholic faith, citing her ardent belief in its doctrines, such as transubstantiation, and also condemning secularism as the enemy of modern society. Controversies Widdecombe has occasionally stirred up controversy with her words and policies. In 1990, following the assassination of the Conservative politician Ian Gow by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA); the Eastbourne by-election for his seat in the House of Commons was won by the Liberal Democrat David Bellotti. Upon the announcement, Widdecombe told the voters that the IRA would be "toasting their success". http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2001/mar/20/profiles.parliament16 In 1997, during the Conservative leadership election that picked William Hague, Widdecombe spoke out against Michael Howard, under whom she had served when he was Home Secretary. She famously remarked "there is something of the night about him". It was considered to be extremely damaging, and Howard was frequently portrayed as a vampire in satire from that time on, http://www.guardian.co.uk/cartoons/stevebell/0,7371,1319967,00.html Guardian.co.uk and came last in the poll. However, he went on to become party leader in 2003, and Ann Widdecombe said "I explained fully what my objections were in 1997 and I do not retract anything I said then. But this is 2005 and we have to look to the future and not the past." http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/webchats/webchat.html?in_page_id=1868&in_article_id=343672 Dailymail.co.uk In 2001, when Michael Portillo was running for leader of the Conservative Party, Widdecombe described him and his allies as 'backbiters'. She went on to say that should he be appointed leader, she would never give him her allegiance. Work outside Parliament Her non-political accomplishments include being a popular novelist. In 2002, she took part in the ITV programme Celebrity Fit Club. In March 2004 she briefly became the The Guardian newspaper's agony aunt, introduced with an Emma Brockes interview. http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,1179972,00.html Guardian.co.uk In 2005 BBC Two showed six episodes of The Widdecombe Project, an agony aunt television programme. In 2005, she appeared in a new series of Celebrity Fit Club, but this time as a panel member dispensing wisdom and advice to the celebrities taking part. Also in 2005, she presented a show Ann Widdecombe to the Rescue in which she acted as an agony aunt, dispensing no-nonsense advice to disputing families, couples, and others across the UK. She was the guest host of news quiz Have I Got News for You twice, in 2006 and 2007. Following her second appearance, Widdecombe vowed she would never appear on the show again due to comments made by panellist Jimmy Carr. She wrote, "His idea of wit is a barrage of filth and the sort of humour most men grow out of in their teens.... [T]here's no amount of money for which I would go through those two recording hours again. At one stage I nearly walked out." Ann Widdecombe in the Daily Express, as quoted by She did, however, stand by her appraisal of regular panellists Ian Hislop and Paul Merton, whom she has called "the fastest wits in showbusiness". In 2006, she launched a boycott against British Airways for suspending a worker who refused to hide her cross which ended when British Airways reversed their suspension. In November 2006, she moved into the house of an Islington Labour Councillor to experience life on a council estate, her response to her experience being "Five years ago I made a speech in the House of Commons about the forgotten decents. I have spent the last week on estates in the Islington area finding out that they are still forgotten". She awarded the 2007 University Challenge trophy. In the same year, she was cast as herself in "The Sound of Drums", the 12th episode of the third series of the science-fiction drama Doctor Who supporting Mr Saxon, the alias of the Master. Since 2007, Widdecombe has fronted a television series called Ann Widdecombe Versus, on ITV1, in which she speaks to various people about things related to her as an MP, with an emphasis on confronting those responsible for problems she wished to tackle. On 15 August 2007 she talked about prostitution, the next week, about benefits and the week after that, about truancy. A fourth episode was screened on 18 September 2008 in which Ann travelled around London and Birmingham talking to girl gangs. http://www.teletext.co.uk/tvplus/news/d3d037931e47dee762d226faa28f66df/Widdecombe+tackles+girl+gangs.aspx On 25 September 2008, she investigated the diet and weight-loss industry, celebrity magazines and cosmetic surgery. That episode also dealt with people's attitudes to body shape, along with people's experiences of being on diets, and having regained the fat they had lost after having achieved weight loss. Ann Widdecombe has made appearances on television and radio, and presented the Lent Talks on BBC Radio 4 on 12 March 2008. In 2005, she appeared in a discussion programme on Five to discuss who England's greatest monarch since the Norman Conquest had been - her choice of monarch was Charles II. She appeared in a television advert for the Rana Pasta Company. The advertisement topped a list of Worst Celebrity Ads compiled by Campaign Magazine. The top ten best and worst celeb ads revealed- Advertising-Services-News By Industry-News-The Economic Times She presented an episode of Channel 4's "Christianity - A History", first broadcast Sunday, 8th Feb 2009. http://www.channel4.com/catchup-player/player.htm?brandId=christianity-a-history&contractId=45624&episodeId=5 Bibliography Fiction The Clematis Tree by Ann Widdecombe (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000) ISBN 0-297-64572-2 An Act of Treachery by Ann Widdecombe (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2002) ISBN 0-297-64573-0 Father Figure by Ann Widdecombe (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005) ISBN 0-297-82962-9 An Act of Peace by Ann Widdecombe (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005) ISBN 0-297-82958-0 Non-fiction Inspired and Outspoken: The Collected Speeches of Ann Widdecombe edited by John Simmons (Politico's Publishing, 1999) ISBN 1-902301-22-6 Ann Widdecombe: Right from the Beginning by Nicholas Kochan (Politico's Publishing, 2000) ISBN 1-902301-55-2 References External links The Widdy Web Official Website'' Ann Widdecombe MP Biography from the Conservative Party ePolitix.com — Ann Widdecombe Guardian Unlimited Politics — Ask Aristotle: Ann Widdecombe MP TheyWorkForYou.com — Ann Widdecombe MP The Public Whip — Ann Widdecombe MP voting record BBC News — Ann Widdecombe profile 10 February, 2005 BBC News — The Widdecombe Project about her agony aunt television programme on BBC Two Buck Up! Ann Widdecombe's first agony aunt column for The Guardian in 2004 Ann Widdecombe's Weird Weekend from the BBC in 2001 The Grace Charity for M.E The Grace Charity for M.E of which Ann Widdecombe is a patron Open Directory Project — Ann Widdecombe directory category |- | Ann_Widdecombe |@lemmatized ann:28 noreen:1 widdecombe:48 born:1 october:4 british:3 conservative:16 party:4 politician:2 recently:3 television:6 presenter:1 novelist:2 member:6 parliament:5 maidstone:3 weald:2 privy:1 counsellor:1 prominent:1 christian:2 fellowship:1 outspoken:2 supporter:1 traditional:1 family:3 value:1 early:1 life:3 bear:1 bath:2 somerset:1 daughter:1 ministry:1 defence:1 civil:1 servant:1 attend:2 royal:1 navy:1 school:2 singapore:1 set:1 stand:3 bbc:12 news:13 convent:1 read:2 latin:1 birmingham:2 university:3 later:2 lady:1 margaret:1 hall:1 oxford:1 philosophy:1 politics:6 economics:1 ppe:1 work:3 unilever:1 administrator:1 london:4 enter:1 councillor:3 runnymede:1 district:1 contest:3 seat:2 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7,078 | Politics_of_Guadeloupe | Guadeloupe sends four deputies to the French National Assembly and three senators to the French Senate. One of the four National Assembly constituencies still includes Saint-Martin and Saint-Barthélemy even though they have seceded from Guadeloupe in 2007. This situation should last until 2012 when Saint-Martin and Saint-Barthélemy will send their own deputies to the French National Assembly. National holiday Bastille Day, 14 July (1789) Slavery Abolition Day 27 May (1848) Constitution French constitution. 28 September (1958) Legal system French Suffrage Universal at 18 years old Executive branch Chief of state President Nicolas Sarkozy represented by Prefect since 7 May 2007since 12 June 2006 Head of government President of the General Council Jacques GillotPresident of the Regional Council Eric Jalton since 26 March 2001since 22 April 2004 Elections French president elected by popular vote for five-year term;Prefect appointed by the French president on advice of the French Ministry of the Interior;General and Regional Council presidents elected by membership of those councils. Election results See regional elections Legislative branch Unicameral General Council (Conseil général; 42 seats)Unicameral Regional Council (Conseil régional; 41 seats) members elected by popular voteto serve six-year terms Elections Guadeloupe elects three representatives to the Sénat; elections last held September 2004, next due September 2013 Seats by party: 1 PS, 1 GUSR, 1 UMP Guadeloupe elects four representatives to the Assemblée nationale; elections last held June 10-17 2007, next due June 2012 Seats by party: UMP 1, PS 1, 1 GUSR (socialist), 1 left-wing General Council last held March 2004, next due 2010 Regional Council last held 28 March 2004, next due March 2008 to elect half the membership. Election results General Council Percent of vote by party: n/a Seats by party: Miscellaneous Left 22, PS 10, 2 Independents Miscellaneous Right 7, UMP 2Regional Council Percent of vote by party: PS 58.4%, UMP 41.6% Seats by party: PS 29, UMP 12 Judicial branch Court of Appeal (Cour d'Appel) in Basse-Terre;Assize Court (Cour d'assises) in Basse-Terre to try felonies, consisting of three judges and a popular jury;Several first instance courts of varying competence levels, in Basse-Terre, Pointe-à-Pitre, Saint-Martin and Grand-Bourg. Political parties Guadeloupe Communist Party (PCG) · FGPS · Progressive Democratic Party (PPDG) · Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) (formerly the Rassemblement pour la Republique, RPR) · Socialist Party (PS) · Union for French Democracy (UDF);· Guadeloupe unie, socialisme et réalités (GUSR) Pressure groups Union for the Liberation of Guadeloupe (ULPG) · General Federation of Guadeloupe Workers (CGT-G) · General Union of Guadeloupe Workers (UGTG) · Movement for Independent Guadeloupe (MPGI) · The Socialist Party Internationalmembership FZ · WCL · WFTU General Council of Guadeloupe The general council is composed of 43 seats; whose members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms. Composition Party seats•Miscellaneous Left 22•Socialist Party 10Miscellaneous Right 7Independents 2Union for a Popular Movement 2 Regional Council of Guadeloupe The regional council is composed of 31 seats; whose members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms. Composition Party seats•Socialist Party 29Union for a Popular Movement 12 Current Deputies Guadeloupe also elects 4 seats to the French National Assembly, the last elections were held in June 2007. ConstituencyMemberParty 1st Éric Jalton PS 2nd Gabrielle Louis-Carabin UMP 3rd Jeanny Marc GUSR 4th Victorin Lurel PS See also List of Presidents of the Regional Council of Guadeloupe References | Politics_of_Guadeloupe |@lemmatized guadeloupe:14 send:2 four:3 deputy:3 french:10 national:5 assembly:4 three:3 senator:1 senate:1 one:1 constituency:1 still:1 include:1 saint:5 martin:3 barthélemy:2 even:1 though:1 secede:1 situation:1 last:6 holiday:1 bastille:1 day:2 july:1 slavery:1 abolition:1 may:2 constitution:2 september:3 legal:1 system:1 suffrage:1 universal:1 year:5 old:1 executive:1 branch:3 chief:1 state:1 president:6 nicolas:1 sarkozy:1 represent:1 prefect:2 since:2 june:4 head:1 government:1 general:9 council:15 jacques:1 gillotpresident:1 regional:8 eric:1 jalton:2 march:4 april:1 election:8 elect:9 popular:8 vote:5 five:1 term:4 appoint:1 advice:1 ministry:1 interior:1 membership:2 result:2 see:2 legislative:1 unicameral:2 conseil:2 général:1 seat:11 régional:1 member:3 voteto:1 serve:3 six:3 representative:2 sénat:1 hold:5 next:4 due:4 party:15 p:6 gusr:4 ump:7 assemblée:1 nationale:1 socialist:5 leave:3 wing:1 half:1 percent:2 n:1 miscellaneous:3 independent:2 right:2 ps:2 judicial:1 court:3 appeal:1 cour:2 appel:1 basse:3 terre:3 assize:1 assises:1 try:1 felony:1 consist:1 judge:1 jury:1 several:1 first:1 instance:1 vary:1 competence:1 level:1 pointe:1 à:1 pitre:1 grand:1 bourg:1 political:1 communist:1 pcg:1 fgps:1 progressive:1 democratic:1 ppdg:1 union:4 movement:4 formerly:1 rassemblement:1 pour:1 la:1 republique:1 rpr:1 democracy:1 udf:1 unie:1 socialisme:1 et:1 réalités:1 pressure:1 group:1 liberation:1 ulpg:1 federation:1 worker:2 cgt:1 g:1 ugtg:1 mpgi:1 internationalmembership:1 fz:1 wcl:1 wftu:1 compose:2 whose:2 composition:2 current:1 also:2 constituencymemberparty:1 éric:1 gabrielle:1 louis:1 carabin:1 jeanny:1 marc:1 victorin:1 lurel:1 list:1 reference:1 |@bigram saint_barthélemy:2 nicolas_sarkozy:1 legislative_branch:1 conseil_général:1 assemblée_nationale:1 judicial_branch:1 basse_terre:3 cour_assises:1 wcl_wftu:1 |
7,079 | Andrey_Markov | Andrey (Andrei) Andreyevich Markov () (June 14, 1856 N.S. – July 20, 1922) was a Russian mathematician. He is best known for his work on theory of stochastic processes. His research later became known as Markov chains. He and his younger brother Vladimir Andreevich Markov (1871-1897) proved Markov brothers' inequality. His son, another Andrey Andreevich Markov (1903-1979), was also a notable mathematician, making contributions on constructive mathematics and recursive function theory. Biography Andrey Andreevich Markov was born in Ryazan as the son of the secretary of the public forest management of Ryazan, Andrey Grigorevich Markov, and his first wife, Nadezhda Petrovna Markova. In the beginning of the 1860s Andrey Grigorevich moved to St Petersburg to become an asset manager of the princess Ekaterina Aleksandrovna Valvatyeva. In 1866 Andrey Andreevich’s school life began with his entrance into Saint Petersburg’s fifth grammar school. Already during his school time Andrey was intensely engaged in higher mathematics. As a 17-year-old grammar school student he informed Bunyakovsky, Korkin and Yegor Zolotarev about an apparently new method to solve linear ordinary differential equations and was invited to the so-called Korkin Saturdays, where Korkin's students regularly met. In 1874 he finished the school and began his studies at the physico-mathematical faculty of St Petersburg University. Among his teachers were Yulian Sokhotski (differential calculus, higher algebra), Konstantin Posse (analytic geometry), Yegor Zolotarev (integral calculus), Pafnuty Chebyshev (number theory, probability theory), Aleksandr Korkin (ordinary and partial differential equations), Okatov (mechanism theory), Somov (mechanics) and Budaev (descriptive and higher geometry). In 1877 he was awarded the gold medal for his outstanding solution of the problem “About Integration of Differential Equations by Continuous Fractions with an Application to the Equation “ In the following year he passed the candidate examinations and remained at the university to prepare for the lecturer’s position. In April 1880 Markov defended his master thesis “About Binary Quadratic Forms with Positive Determinant“, which was encouraged by Aleksandr Korkin and Yegor Zolotarev. Five years later, in January 1885, there followed his doctoral thesis “About Some Applications of Algebraic Continuous Fractions“. His pedagogical work began after the defense of his master thesis in autumn 1880. As a privatdozent he lectured on differential and integral calculus. Later he lectured alternately on “introduction to analysis“, probability theory (succeeding Chebyshev who had left the university in 1882) and calculus of differences. From 1895/96 until 1905 he additionally lectured on differential calculus. One year after the defense of the doctoral thesis, he was appointed extraordinary professor (1886) and in the same year he was elected adjunct to the Academy of Sciences. In 1890, after the death of Viktor Bunyakovsky, Markov became extraordinary member of the academy. His promotion to an ordinary professor of St Petersburg University followed in autumn 1894. In 1896, he was elected ordinary member of the academy as the successor of Chebyshev. In 1905 he was appointed merited professor and got the right to retire which he immediately used. Till 1910, however, he continued to lecture calculus of differences. In connection with student riots in 1908, professors and lecturers of Saint Petersburg University were ordered to observe their students. Markov initially refused to accept this decree and wrote an explanation in which he declined to be an “agent of the governance”. Markov was rejected from a further teaching activity at the Saint Petersburg University, and he eventually decided to retire from the university. In 1913 the council of Saint Petersburg elected nine scientists honorary members of the university. Markov was among them, but his election was not affirmed by the minister of education. The affirmation was done only four years later, after the February revolution in 1917. Markov then resumed his teaching activities and lectured probability theory and calculus of differences until his death in 1922. Excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church In 1912 Markov in protest to Leo Tolstoy's excommunication from the Orthodox Church requested that he too be excommunicated. As such Markov was formally excommunicated from the Church. The Life and work of A.A. Markov. G.P. Basharin, A.N. Langville and V.A. Naumov See also Markov chain Markov chain Monte Carlo Gauss-Markov theorem Gauss–Markov process Hidden Markov model Markov information source Markov number Markov property Markov's inequality Markov brothers' inequality Markov process Markov blanket Markov network Markov decision process Chebyshev-Markov-Stieltjes inequalities Markov algorithm Subjunctive possibility References А. А. Марков. "Распространение закона больших чисел на величины, зависящие друг от друга". "Известия Физико-математического общества при Казанском университете", 2-я серия, том 15, ст. 135-156, 1906. A.A. Markov. "Extension of the limit theorems of probability theory to a sum of variables connected in a chain". reprinted in Appendix B of: R. Howard. Dynamic Probabilistic Systems, volume 1: Markov Chains. John Wiley and Sons, 1971. External links Biography of A.A. Markov Biography of A.A. Markov by his son, A.A. Markov-jnr | Andrey_Markov |@lemmatized andrey:7 andrei:1 andreyevich:1 markov:37 june:1 n:2 july:1 russian:2 mathematician:2 best:1 know:2 work:3 theory:8 stochastic:1 process:4 research:1 later:4 become:3 chain:5 young:1 brother:3 vladimir:1 andreevich:4 prove:1 inequality:4 son:4 another:1 also:2 notable:1 make:1 contribution:1 constructive:1 mathematics:2 recursive:1 function:1 biography:3 bear:1 ryazan:2 secretary:1 public:1 forest:1 management:1 grigorevich:2 first:1 wife:1 nadezhda:1 petrovna:1 markova:1 beginning:1 move:1 st:3 petersburg:7 asset:1 manager:1 princess:1 ekaterina:1 aleksandrovna:1 valvatyeva:1 school:5 life:2 begin:3 entrance:1 saint:4 fifth:1 grammar:2 already:1 time:1 intensely:1 engage:1 high:3 year:6 old:1 student:4 inform:1 bunyakovsky:2 korkin:5 yegor:3 zolotarev:3 apparently:1 new:1 method:1 solve:1 linear:1 ordinary:4 differential:6 equation:4 invite:1 call:1 saturday:1 regularly:1 meet:1 finish:1 study:1 physico:1 mathematical:1 faculty:1 university:8 among:2 teacher:1 yulian:1 sokhotski:1 calculus:7 algebra:1 konstantin:1 posse:1 analytic:1 geometry:2 integral:2 pafnuty:1 chebyshev:4 number:2 probability:4 aleksandr:2 partial:1 okatov:1 mechanism:1 somov:1 mechanic:1 budaev:1 descriptive:1 award:1 gold:1 medal:1 outstanding:1 solution:1 problem:1 integration:1 continuous:2 fraction:2 application:2 following:1 pass:1 candidate:1 examination:1 remain:1 prepare:1 lecturer:2 position:1 april:1 defend:1 master:2 thesis:4 binary:1 quadratic:1 form:1 positive:1 determinant:1 encourage:1 five:1 january:1 follow:2 doctoral:2 algebraic:1 pedagogical:1 defense:2 autumn:2 privatdozent:1 lecture:4 alternately:1 introduction:1 analysis:1 succeed:1 leave:1 difference:3 additionally:1 one:1 appoint:2 extraordinary:2 professor:4 elect:3 adjunct:1 academy:3 science:1 death:2 viktor:1 member:3 promotion:1 successor:1 merit:1 get:1 right:1 retire:2 immediately:1 use:1 till:1 however:1 continue:1 connection:1 riot:1 order:1 observe:1 initially:1 refuse:1 accept:1 decree:1 write:1 explanation:1 decline:1 agent:1 governance:1 reject:1 teaching:2 activity:2 eventually:1 decide:1 council:1 nine:1 scientist:1 honorary:1 election:1 affirm:1 minister:1 education:1 affirmation:1 four:1 february:1 revolution:1 resume:1 lectured:1 excommunication:2 orthodox:2 church:3 protest:1 leo:1 tolstoy:1 request:1 excommunicate:2 formally:1 g:1 p:1 basharin:1 langville:1 v:1 naumov:1 see:1 monte:1 carlo:1 gauss:2 theorem:2 hidden:1 model:1 information:1 source:1 property:1 blanket:1 network:1 decision:1 stieltjes:1 algorithm:1 subjunctive:1 possibility:1 reference:1 а:2 марков:1 распространение:1 закона:1 больших:1 чисел:1 на:1 величины:1 зависящие:1 друг:1 от:1 друга:1 известия:1 физико:1 математического:1 общества:1 при:1 казанском:1 университете:1 я:1 серия:1 том:1 ст:1 extension:1 limit:1 sum:1 variable:1 connect:1 reprint:1 appendix:1 b:1 r:1 howard:1 dynamic:1 probabilistic:1 system:1 volume:1 john:1 wiley:1 external:1 link:1 jnr:1 |@bigram markov_chain:4 constructive_mathematics:1 st_petersburg:3 saint_petersburg:4 ordinary_differential:1 differential_equation:3 differential_calculus:2 analytic_geometry:1 partial_differential:1 gold_medal:1 doctoral_thesis:2 leo_tolstoy:1 monte_carlo:1 wiley_son:1 external_link:1 |
7,080 | Geography_of_the_Dominican_Republic | The Dominican Republic (Spanish: República Dominicana) is a country in the West Indies that occupies the eastern two-thirds of the Hispaniola island. It has an area of 48,442 km², including offshore islands. The land border between the Dominican Republic and Haiti, that occupies the western one-third of the island, is 388 km long. The maximum length, east to west, is 390 km from Punta de Agua to Las Lajas, on the border with Haiti. The maximum width, north to south, is 265 km from Cape Isabela to Cape Beata. The capital, Santo Domingo, is located on the south coast. The Dominican Republic's shores are washed by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south. The Mona Passage, a channel about 130 km wide, separates the country (and the Hispaniola) from Puerto Rico. Climate The country is a tropical, maritime nation. Conditions are ameliorated in many areas by elevation and by the northeast trade winds, which blow steadily from the Atlantic all year long. The annual mean temperature is 25 °C; regional mean temperatures range from 18 °C in the heart of the Cordillera Central (Constanza) to as high as 27 °C in arid regions. Temperatures rarely rise above 32 °C, and freezing temperatures only occur in winter in the highest mountains. The average temperature in Santo Domingo in January is 24 °C and 27 °C in July. The rain season for the northern coast is from November to January. For the rest of the country, the rain season is from May to November. The average annual rainfall es 1,346 mm, with extremes of 2,500 mm or more in the mountainous northeast (the windward side of the island) and 500 mm in the southwestern valleys. The western valleys, along the Haitian border, remain relatively dry, with less than 760 mm of annual precipitation, due to the rain shadow effect caused by the central and northern mountain ranges. The northwestern and southeastern extremes of the country are also arid. The Dominican Republic is occasionally damaged by tropical storms and hurricanes, which originate in the mid-Atlantic and southeastern Caribbean from June until November (mainly from August to October) each year. Islands There are several smaller islands and cays that are part of the Dominican territory. The largest islands are: Saona, close to the southeastern coast of the Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea. It has an area of 117 km². Its Taíno name was Iai As shown in a map made by Andrés Morales in 1508 and published in 1516. In or Adamanay. Columbus named this island as Savona after the Italian city of the same name but the use during years has eliminated the letter v. Beata, in the southern coast of the Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea. It has an area of 27 km². Its Taíno name is unknown. Columbus named this island as Madama Beata. Catalina, very close to the southeastern coast of the Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea. It has an area of 9.6 km². Its Taíno name was Iabanea but some writers, including poets, say that it was called Toeya or Toella. It was discovered by Columbus who named it Santa Catalina. Relief Cordillera Central The Dominican Republic is a country with many mountains, and the highest peaks of the West Indies are found here. The chains of mountains show a direction northwest-southeast, except in the Southern peninsula (in Haiti) where they have a direction west-east. The mountains are separated by valleys with the same general direction. From north to south, the mountain ranges and valleys are: Cordillera Septentrional (in English, "Northern Range"). It runs parallel to the north coast, with extensions to the northwest, the Tortuga Island, and to the southeast, the Samaná Peninsula (with its Sierra de Samaná). Its highest mountain is Diego de Ocampo, close to Santiago, with 1,249 m. There are several small plains between this range and the Atlantic Ocean. Rivers are short and most of them flow to the north. The Cibao Valley (Dominican Republic) is the largest and the most important valley of the country. This long valley stretches from North Haiti, where is called Plaine du Nord, to Samaná Bay. It can be divided in two sections: the northwestern part is the Yaque del Norte Valley (or Línea Noroeste) and the eastern Yuna Valley (or Vega Real, English: Royal Valley). The Vega Real is the most fertile area in the country, with a high population density. The Cordillera Central (also called Sierra del Cibao) is the island's most rugged and imposing feature and is known in Haiti as the Massif du Nord ("Northern Massif"). The highest mountains of the West Indies are in this range: Pico Duarte, 3,098 m, and others above 3,000 m. Near the center of the island, this range turns southward and is called Sierra de Ocoa, finishing near the city of Azua de Compostela, on the Caribbean coast. Another branch, Cordillera Oriental or Sierra del Seibo, is separated from the main chain by a karstic region (Los Haitises) and with a west-east direction; it is located south of Samaná Bay. The San Juan Valley and Plain of Azua are big valleys south of the Cordillera Central with altitude from 0 to 600 m. The Sierra de Neiba, with Mount Neiba the highest mountain with 2,279 m. An extension to the southeast of Sierra de Neiba is the Sierra Martín García (Loma Busú, 1,350 m). The Hoya de Enriquillo or Neiba Valley is a remarkable valley, with a west-east direction, of low altitude (on average 50 m with some points below sea level) and with a great salt lake: the Enriquillo Lake. The Sierra de Bahoruco, called Massif de la Selle in Haiti. This southern group of mountains have a geology very different from the rest of the island. Llano Costero del Caribe (in English, "Caribbean Coastal Plain") is in the southeast of the island (and of the Dominican Republic). It is a large prairie east of Santo Domingo. A beach in the Barahona province Rivers and Lakes The 8 longest rivers of the Dominican Republic are: Yaque del Norte. With 296 km, it is the longest river of the Dominican Republic. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the Atlantic Ocean. Its watershed has an area of 7,044 km². Yuna. It is 209 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the east into Samaná Bay. Its watershed has an area of 5,498 km². Yaque del Sur. It is 183 km long and its sources are in the Cordillera Central. It flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 4,972 km². Ozama. It is 148 km long. Its sources are in Sierra de Yamasá (a branch of the Cordillera Central). It flows into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 2,685 km². Camú. It is 137 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows into the Yuna River. Its watershed has 2,655 km². Nizao. It is 133 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 974 km². San Juan. It is 121 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Yaque del Sur River. Its watershed has an area of 2,005 km². Mao. It is 105 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the north into the Yaque del Norte River. Its watershed has an area of 864 km². The Artibonite River is the longest river of the island but only 68 km are in the Dominican Republic. The largest lake of the Hispaniola, and of the West Indies, is the Lake Enriquillo. It is located in the Hoya de Enriquillo with an area of 265 km². There are three small islands within the lake. It is around 40 meters below sea level and is a saline lake with a higher concentration of salt than the sea water. Others lakes are Rincón (fresh water, area of 28.2 km²), Oviedo (brackish water, area of 28 km²), Redonda, Limón. References See also Dominican Republic www.dominicanweather.info Dominican Republic Weather Information www.dominicansearch.info Dominican Republic Search Engine www.flydominicanrepublic.com Dominican Republic Pilots Guide | Geography_of_the_Dominican_Republic |@lemmatized dominican:15 republic:14 spanish:1 república:1 dominicana:1 country:8 west:8 indies:1 occupy:2 eastern:2 two:2 third:2 hispaniola:6 island:16 area:16 include:2 offshore:1 land:1 border:3 haiti:7 western:2 one:1 km:13 long:13 maximum:2 length:1 east:6 punta:1 de:12 agua:1 las:1 lajas:1 width:1 north:7 south:9 cape:2 isabela:1 beata:3 capital:1 santo:3 domingo:3 locate:3 coast:7 shore:1 wash:1 atlantic:5 ocean:3 caribbean:10 sea:10 mona:1 passage:1 channel:1 wide:1 separate:3 puerto:1 rico:1 climate:1 tropical:2 maritime:1 nation:1 condition:1 ameliorate:1 many:2 elevation:1 northeast:2 trade:1 wind:1 blow:1 steadily:1 year:3 annual:3 mean:2 temperature:5 c:6 regional:1 range:7 heart:1 cordillera:14 central:13 constanza:1 high:8 arid:2 region:2 rarely:1 rise:1 freeze:1 occur:1 winter:1 mountain:10 average:3 january:2 july:1 rain:3 season:2 northern:4 november:3 rest:2 may:1 rainfall:1 es:1 mm:4 extreme:2 mountainous:1 windward:1 side:1 southwestern:1 valley:14 along:1 haitian:1 remain:1 relatively:1 dry:1 less:1 precipitation:1 due:1 shadow:1 effect:1 cause:1 northwestern:2 southeastern:4 also:3 occasionally:1 damage:1 storm:1 hurricane:1 originate:1 mid:1 june:1 mainly:1 august:1 october:1 several:2 small:3 cay:1 part:2 territory:1 large:4 saona:1 close:3 taíno:3 name:7 iai:1 show:2 map:1 make:1 andrés:1 morale:1 publish:1 adamanay:1 columbus:3 savona:1 italian:1 city:2 use:1 eliminate:1 letter:1 v:1 southern:3 unknown:1 madama:1 catalina:2 iabanea:1 writer:1 poet:1 say:1 call:5 toeya:1 toella:1 discover:1 santa:1 relief:1 peak:1 indie:3 find:1 chain:2 direction:5 northwest:2 southeast:4 except:1 peninsula:2 general:1 septentrional:1 english:3 run:1 parallel:1 extension:2 tortuga:1 samaná:5 sierra:9 diego:1 ocampo:1 santiago:1 plain:3 river:9 short:1 flow:9 cibao:2 important:1 stretch:1 plaine:1 du:2 nord:2 bay:3 divide:1 section:1 yaque:5 del:8 norte:3 línea:1 noroeste:1 yuna:3 vega:2 real:2 royal:1 fertile:1 population:1 density:1 rugged:1 imposing:1 feature:1 know:1 massif:3 pico:1 duarte:1 others:2 near:2 center:1 turn:1 southward:1 ocoa:1 finish:1 azua:2 compostela:1 another:1 branch:2 oriental:1 seibo:1 main:1 karstic:1 los:1 san:2 juan:2 big:1 altitude:2 neiba:4 mount:1 martín:1 garcía:1 loma:1 busú:1 hoya:2 enriquillo:4 remarkable:1 low:1 point:1 level:2 great:1 salt:2 lake:7 bahoruco:1 la:1 selle:1 group:1 geology:1 different:1 llano:1 costero:1 caribe:1 coastal:1 prairie:1 beach:1 barahona:1 province:1 lakes:1 source:8 watershed:8 sur:2 ozama:1 yamasá:1 camú:1 nizao:1 mao:1 artibonite:1 three:1 within:1 around:1 meter:1 saline:1 concentration:1 water:3 rincón:1 fresh:1 oviedo:1 brackish:1 redonda:1 limón:1 reference:1 see:1 www:3 dominicanweather:1 info:2 weather:1 information:1 dominicansearch:1 search:1 engine:1 flydominicanrepublic:1 com:1 pilot:1 guide:1 |@bigram dominican_republic:14 west_indies:1 santo_domingo:3 atlantic_ocean:3 mona_passage:1 puerto_rico:1 cordillera_central:12 annual_rainfall:1 windward_side:1 annual_precipitation:1 tropical_storm:1 west_indie:3 samaná_peninsula:1 cibao_valley:1 plaine_du:1 du_nord:2 samaná_bay:3 yaque_del:5 del_norte:3 massif_du:1 pico_duarte:1 de_compostela:1 cordillera_oriental:1 san_juan:2 de_neiba:2 lake_enriquillo:2 la_selle:1 coastal_plain:1 del_sur:2 brackish_water:1 |
7,081 | Isidore_of_Seville | Saint Isidore of Seville (Spanish: or , Latin: ) (c. 560 – April 4, 636) was Archbishop of Seville for more than three decades and is considered, as Montalembert put it in an oft-quoted phrase, "le dernier savant du monde ancien" ("the last scholar of the ancient world"). Montalembert, Charles F. Les Moines d'Occident depuis Saint Benoît jusqu'à Saint Bernard [The Monks of the West from Saint Benoit to Saint Bernard]. Paris: J. Lecoffre, 1860. Indeed, all the later medieval history-writing of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) were based on his histories. At a time of disintegration of classical culture, and aristocratic violence and illiteracy, he was involved in the conversion of the royal Visigothic Arians to Catholicism, both assisting his brother Leander of Seville, and continuing after his brother's death. Like Leander, he played a prominent role in the Councils of Toledo and Seville. The Visigothic legislation which resulted from these councils is regarded by modern historians as exercising an important influence on the beginnings of representative government. Life Childhood and education Isidore was born in Cartagena, Spain, to Severianus and Theodora, part of an influential family who were instrumental in the political-religious manoeuvring that converted the Visigothic kings from Arianism to Catholicism, and were all awarded sainthoods: His elder brother, Leander, was his immediate predecessor in the Catholic Metropolitan See of Seville, and while in office opposed king Liuvigild A younger brother, Fulgentius, was awarded the Bishopric of Astigi at the start of the new reign of the Catholic King Reccared. His sister Saint Florentina was a nun, and is said to have ruled over forty convents and one thousand religious. Isidore received his elementary education in the Cathedral school of Seville. In this institution, which was the first of its kind in Hispania, the trivium and quadrivium were taught by a body of learned men, among whom was the archbishop, Leander. With such diligence did he apply himself to study that in a remarkably short time mastered Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Whether Isidore ever embraced monastic life or not is still an open question, but though he himself may never have been affiliated with any of the religious orders, he esteemed them highly — on his elevation to the episcopate he immediately constituted himself protector of the monks and in 619 he pronounced anathema against any ecclesiastic who should in any way molest the monasteries. Bishop of Seville Statue of Isidore of Seville by José Alcoverro, outside of the Biblioteca Nacional de España, in Madrid. After the death of Leander, Isidore succeeded to the See of Seville. His long incumbency in this office was spent in a period of disintegration and transition. The ancient institutions and classic learning of the Roman Empire were fast disappearing. For almost two centuries the Goths had been in full control of Hispania, and their barbarous manners and contempt of learning threatened greatly to put back her progress in civilization. Realizing that the spiritual as well as the material well-being of the nation depended on the full assimilation of the foreign elements, Isidore set himself to the task of welding into a homogeneous nation the various peoples who made up the Gothic kingdom. To this end he availed himself of all the resources of religion and education. His efforts were attended with complete success. Arianism, which had taken deep root among the Visigoths, was eradicated, and the new heresy of Acephales was completely stifled at the very outset; religious discipline was everywhere strengthened. Second Synod of Seville (November 618 or 619) Isidore presided over the Second Council of Seville, begun November 13, 619, in the reign of King Sisebut. The bishops of Gaul and Narbonne attended, as well as the Hispanic prelates. In the Council's Acts the nature of Christ is fully set forth, countering Arian conceptions. Fourth National Council of Toledo At this council, begun December 5, 633, all the bishops of Hispania were in attendance. Isidore, though far advanced in years, presided over its deliberations, and was the originator of most of its enactments. The council probably expressed with tolerable accuracy the mind and influence of Isidore. The position and deference granted to the king is remarkable. The Church is free and independent, yet bound in solemn allegiance to the acknowledged king: nothing was said of allegiance to the Bishop of Rome. It was at the Fourth National Council of Toledo and through his influence that a decree was promulgated commanding and requiring all bishops to establish seminaries in their Cathedral Cities, along the lines of the school associated with Isidore already existing at Seville. Within his own jurisdiction he had availed himself of the resources of education to counteract the growing influence of Gothic barbarism. His was the quickening spirit that animated the educational movement of which Seville was the centre. The study of Greek and Hebrew, as well as the liberal arts, was prescribed. Interest in law and medicine was also encouraged. Through the authority of the fourth council this policy of education was made obligatory upon all the bishops of the kingdom. Works Isidore's Latin style in the Etymologiae and elsewhere, though simple and lucid, cannot be said to be classical, affected as it was by local Visigothic traditions. It discloses most of the imperfections peculiar to all ages of transition and particularly reveals a growing Visigothic influence. Etymologiae Page of Etymologiae, Carolingian manuscript (VIII century), Brussels, Royal Library of Belgium Isadore was the first Christian writer to essay the task of compiling for his co-religionists a summa of universal knowledge, in the form of his most important work, the Etymologiae (taking its title from the method he used in the transcription of his era's knowledge). It is also known by classicists as the Origines (the standard abbreviation being Orig.). This encyclopedia — the first known to be compiled in medieval civilization — epitomized all learning, ancient as well as modern, forming a huge compilation of 448 chapters in 20 volumes. In it many fragments of classical learning are preserved which otherwise would have been hopelessly lost but, on the other hand, some of these fragments were lost in the first place because Isidore’s work was so highly regarded that it superseded the use of many individual works of the classics themselves, which were not recopied and have therefore been lost. The fame of this work imparted a new impetus to encyclopedic writing, which bore abundant fruit in the subsequent centuries of the Middle Ages. It was the most popular compendium in medieval libraries. It was printed in at least 10 editions between 1470 and 1530, showing Isidore's continued popularity in the Renaissance. Until the twelfth century brought translations from Arabic sources, Isidore transmitted what western Europeans remembered of the works of Aristotle and other Greeks, although he understood only a limited amount of Greek. The Etymologiae was much copied, particularly into medieval bestiaries. The shape of the Earth The medieval T-O map represents the inhabited world as described by Isidore in his Etymologiae. Isidore taught in the Etymologiae that the Earth was round. His meaning was ambiguous and some writers think he referred to a disc-shaped Earth; his other writings make it clear, however, that he considered the Earth to be globular. Isidore, Etymologiae, XIV.ii.1; Wesley M. Stevens, "The Figure of the Earth in Isidore's De natura rerum", Isis, 71(1980): 268-277. He also admitted the possibility of people dwelling at the antipodes, considering them as legendary Isidore, Etymologiae, XIV.v.17. and noting that there was no evidence for their existence. Isidore, Etymologiae, IX.ii.133. Isidore's disc-shaped analogy continued to be used through the Middle Ages by authors clearly favouring a spherical Earth, e.g. the 9th century bishop Rabanus Maurus who compared the habitable part of the northern hemisphere (Aristotle's northern temperate clime) with a wheel, imagined as a slice of the whole sphere. See also: Flat Earth. On the Catholic Faith against the Jews Isidore's De fide catholica contra Iudeaos furthers St. Augustine's ideas on the Jewish presence in Christian society. Like Augustine, Isidore accepted the necessity of the Jewish presence because of their expected role in the anticipated Second Coming of Christ. In De fide catholica contra Iudeaos, Isidore exceeds the anti-rabbinic polemics of earlier theologians by criticizing Jewish practice as deliberately disingenuous. Other works His other works include Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum (a history of the Goths, Vandals and Suebi kings) his Chronica Majora (a universal history) De differentiis verborum, which amounts to brief theological treatise on the doctrine of the Trinity, the nature of Christ, of Paradise, angels, and men. On the Nature of Things (not the poem of Lucretius, but the book of astronomy and natural history dedicated to the Visigothic king Sisebut) Questions on the Old Testament. a mystical treatise on the allegorical meanings of numbers a number of brief letters Sententiae libri tres (Codex Sang. 228, 9th century) Afterlife Isidore (right) and Braulio (left) in an Ottonian illuminated manuscript from the 2nd half of 10th century. Isidore was the last of the ancient Christian philosophers, as he was the last of the great Latin Church Fathers. Some consider him to be the most learned man of his age, and he exercised a far-reaching and immeasurable influence on the educational life of the Middle Ages. His contemporary and friend, Braulio, Bishop of Saragossa, regarded him as a man raised up by God to save the Iberian peoples from the tidal wave of barbarism that threatened to inundate the ancient civilization of Hispania. The Eighth Council of Toledo (653) recorded its admiration of his character in these glowing terms: "The extraordinary doctor, the latest ornament of the Catholic Church, the most learned man of the latter ages, always to be named with reverence, Isidore". This tribute was endorsed by the Fifteenth Council of Toledo, held in 688. His remains were transferred to the Basilica of San Isidoro in Leon, when Seville was overrun during the Arab conquest of Spain. In Dante's Paradise (Paradiso''' X.130), he is mentioned among theologians and Doctors of the Church alongside the Scot Richard of St. Victor and the Englishman Bede the Venerable. He was canonized a saint by the Roman Catholic Church in 1598 by Pope Clement VIII and declared a Doctor of the Church in 1722 by Pope Innocent XIII. In 2003 he was proposed as the patron saint of the Internet, but was not among the top six vote totals in an Italian Internet poll. Santi e Beati The University of Dayton has named their implementation of the Sakai Project in honor of Saint Isidore. http://isidore.udayton.edu References External links Primary sources The Etymologiae (complete Latin text) Barney, Stephen A., Lewis, W. J., Beach, J. A. and Berghof, Oliver (translators). The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 0521837499, ISBN 9780521837491. (This is the first complete English translation of the Etymologiae.) Secondary sources Henderson, John. The Medieval World of Isidore of Seville: Truth from Words. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. ISBN 0-521-86740-1. Herren, Michael. "On the Earliest Irish Acquaintance with Isidore of Seville." Visigothic Spain: New Approaches. James, Edward (ed). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-19-822543-1. Englisch,Brigitte."Die Artes liberales im frühen Mittelalter." Stuttgart, 1994. Henry Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911 edition: Isidore of Seville Other material Order of St. Isidore of Seville Jones, Peter. "Patron saint of the internet". The Telegraph, August 27, 2006 (Review of The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville'', Cambridge University Press, 2006 (ISBN 0-521-83749-9)) Shachtman, Noah. "Searchin' for the Surfer's Saint". Wired, January 25, 2002 | Isidore_of_Seville |@lemmatized saint:11 isidore:36 seville:20 spanish:1 latin:5 c:1 april:1 archbishop:2 three:1 decade:1 consider:4 montalembert:2 put:2 oft:1 quote:1 phrase:1 le:2 dernier:1 savant:1 du:1 monde:1 ancien:1 last:3 scholar:1 ancient:5 world:3 charles:1 f:1 moines:1 occident:1 depuis:1 benoît:1 jusqu:1 à:1 bernard:2 monk:2 west:1 benoit:1 paris:1 j:3 lecoffre:1 indeed:1 late:2 medieval:6 history:5 writing:3 hispania:5 iberian:2 peninsula:1 comprise:1 modern:3 spain:4 portugal:1 base:1 time:2 disintegration:2 classical:3 culture:1 aristocratic:1 violence:1 illiteracy:1 involve:1 conversion:1 royal:2 visigothic:7 arians:1 catholicism:2 assist:1 brother:4 leander:5 continue:3 death:2 like:2 play:1 prominent:1 role:2 council:11 toledo:5 legislation:1 result:1 regard:2 historian:1 exercise:2 important:2 influence:6 beginning:1 representative:1 government:1 life:3 childhood:1 education:5 bear:1 cartagena:1 severianus:1 theodora:1 part:2 influential:1 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7,082 | DNA_virus | A DNA virus is a virus that has DNA as its genetic material and replicates using a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase. The nucleic acid is usually double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) but may also be single-stranded DNA (ssDNA). DNA viruses belong to either Group I or Group II of the Baltimore classification system for viruses. Single-stranded DNA is usually expanded to double-stranded in infected cells. Although Group VII viruses such as hepatitis B contain a DNA genome, they are not considered DNA viruses according to the Baltimore classification, but rather reverse transcribing viruses because they replicate through an RNA intermediate. Recent taxonomic proposals by the Herpesviridae Study Group Herpes viruses are double stranded DNA viruses assigned to Group I. The Herpesviridae Study Group has proposed that herpes viruses be assigned tefined order, Herpesvirales. They also propose that the currently unassigned family Herpesviridae be reassigned to the new herpes order. In addition, they propose that the families Alloherpesviridae and Malacoherpesviridae also be assigned to the new order. Herpesviridae Study Group Group I - dsDNA viruses Order Caudovirales Family Myoviridae - includes Enterobacteria phage T4 Family Podoviridae Family Siphoviridae - includes Enterobacteria phage λ Order Herpesvirales Family Alloherpesviridae Family Herpesviridae - includes human herpesviruses, Varicella Zoster virus Family Malacoherpesviridae Unassigned families Family Ascoviridae Family Adenoviridae - includes viruses which cause human adenovirus infection Family Asfarviridae - includes African swine fever virus Family Baculoviridae Family Coccolithoviridae Family Corticoviridae Family Fuselloviridae Family Guttaviridae Family Iridoviridae Family Lipothrixviridae Family Nimaviridae Family Papillomaviridae Family Phycodnaviridae Family Plasmaviridae Family Polyomaviridae - includes Simian virus 40, JC virus Family Poxviridae - includes Cowpox virus, smallpox Family Rudiviridae Family Tectiviridae Family Mimiviridae Unassigned genera Ampullavirus Salterprovirus Rhizidiovirus Sputnik virophage Group II - ssDNA viruses Unassigned bacteriophage families Family Inoviridae Family Microviridae Unassigned families Family Geminiviridae Family Circoviridae Family Nanoviridae Family Parvoviridae - includes Parvovirus B19 Unassigned genera Anellovirus See also Virus classification RNA virus Viroids References ""ICTVdb Index of Viruses: Virus Taxonomy, 8th Reports of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses: Listing in Taxonomic Order." (Website). U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library for Medicine, National Institutes of Health. Retrieved on 2007-09-28. | DNA_virus |@lemmatized dna:11 virus:23 genetic:1 material:1 replicate:2 use:1 dependent:1 polymerase:1 nucleic:1 acid:1 usually:2 double:3 strand:3 dsdna:2 may:1 also:4 single:2 ssdna:2 belong:1 either:1 group:9 ii:2 baltimore:2 classification:3 system:1 stranded:2 expand:1 infected:1 cell:1 although:1 vii:1 hepatitis:1 b:1 contain:1 genome:1 consider:1 accord:1 rather:1 reverse:1 transcribing:1 rna:2 intermediate:1 recent:1 taxonomic:2 proposal:1 herpesviridae:5 study:3 herpes:3 assign:3 propose:3 tefined:1 order:6 herpesvirales:2 currently:1 unassigned:6 family:36 reassign:1 new:2 addition:1 alloherpesviridae:2 malacoherpesviridae:2 caudovirales:1 myoviridae:1 include:8 enterobacteria:2 phage:2 podoviridae:1 siphoviridae:1 λ:1 human:2 herpesviruses:1 varicella:1 zoster:1 ascoviridae:1 adenoviridae:1 cause:1 adenovirus:1 infection:1 asfarviridae:1 african:1 swine:1 fever:1 baculoviridae:1 coccolithoviridae:1 corticoviridae:1 fuselloviridae:1 guttaviridae:1 iridoviridae:1 lipothrixviridae:1 nimaviridae:1 papillomaviridae:1 phycodnaviridae:1 plasmaviridae:1 polyomaviridae:1 simian:1 jc:1 poxviridae:1 cowpox:1 smallpox:1 rudiviridae:1 tectiviridae:1 mimiviridae:1 genus:2 ampullavirus:1 salterprovirus:1 rhizidiovirus:1 sputnik:1 virophage:1 bacteriophage:1 inoviridae:1 microviridae:1 geminiviridae:1 circoviridae:1 nanoviridae:1 parvoviridae:1 parvovirus:1 anellovirus:1 see:1 viroid:1 reference:1 ictvdb:1 index:1 taxonomy:2 report:1 international:1 committee:1 listing:1 website:1 u:1 national:3 center:1 biotechnology:1 information:1 library:1 medicine:1 institute:1 health:1 retrieve:1 |@bigram dna_polymerase:1 nucleic_acid:1 strand_dna:2 herpes_virus:2 |
7,083 | Intel_8088 | The Intel 8088 microprocessor was a variant of the Intel 8086 and was introduced on July 1, 1979. It had an 8-bit external data bus instead of the 16-bit bus of the 8086. The 16-bit registers and the one megabyte address range were unchanged, however. The original IBM PC was based on the 8088. History and description The 8088 was targeted at economical systems by allowing the use of an 8-bit data path and 8-bit support and peripheral chips; complex circuit boards were still fairly cumbersome and expensive when it was released. The prefetch queue of the 8088 was shortened to four bytes, from the 8086's six bytes, and the prefetch algorithm was slightly modified to adapt to the narrower bus. The Intel 80C88. Variants of the 8088 with more than 5 MHz maximum clock frequency include the 8088-2, which was fabricated using Intel's new enhanced NMOS process called HMOS and specified for a maximum frequency of 8 MHz. Later followed the 80C88, a fully static CHMOS design, which could operate from 0 to 8 MHz. There were also several other, more or less similar, variants from other manufacturers. For instance, the NEC V20 was a pin compatible and slightly faster (at the same clock frequency) variant of the 8088, designed and manufactured by NEC. Successive NEC 8088 compatible processors would run at up to 16 MHz. Performance Depending on the clock frequency, the number of memory wait states, as well as on the characteristics of the particular application program, the average performance for the Intel 8088 ranged from approximately 0.33 to 1 million instructions per second . Meanwhile, the mov and ALU ALU stands for one of the instructions add,adc,sub,sbc,cmp,and,or,xor. reg,reg instructions taking 2 and 3 cycles respectively yielded an absolute peak performance of between 1/3 and 1/2 MIPS per MHz, that is, somewhere in the range 3–5 MIPS at 10 MHz. Selection for use in the IBM PC The original IBM PC was the most influential microcomputer to use the 8088. It used a clock frequency of 4.77 MHz (4/3 the NTSC colorburst frequency). Some of IBM's engineers and other employees wanted to use the IBM 801 processor, some preferred the new Motorola 68000, Later used for the IBM Instruments 9000 Laboratory Computer while others argued for a small and simple microprocessor similar to what had been used in earlier personal computers. There were some rumours that (the then small) Microsoft somehow managed to persuade IBM to use the 8088, because it had more and better 16-bit capabilities than most other "8-bit" CPUs. However, IBM already had a history of using Intel chips in its products and had also acquired the rights to manufacture the 8086 family. In exchange for giving Intel the rights to its bubble memory designs. However, due to fierce competition from Japanese manufacturers who were able to undercut by cost, Intel soon left this market and changed focus to microprocessors Another factor was that the 8088 allowed the computer to be based on a modified 8085 design, as it could easily interface with existing, and quite economical, 8085-type components. 68000 components were not widely available at the time, though it could use Motorola 6800 components to an extent. The descendants of the 8088 include the 80188, 80186, 80286, 80386, and later software compatible processors, which are in use today. See below for a more complete list. See also x86 architecture IBM Personal Computer XT Motorola 68008 External links Intel Datasheet Notes and references | Intel_8088 |@lemmatized intel:9 microprocessor:3 variant:4 introduce:1 july:1 bit:7 external:2 data:2 bus:3 instead:1 register:1 one:2 megabyte:1 address:1 range:3 unchanged:1 however:3 original:2 ibm:9 pc:3 base:2 history:2 description:1 target:1 economical:2 system:1 allow:2 use:12 path:1 support:1 peripheral:1 chip:2 complex:1 circuit:1 board:1 still:1 fairly:1 cumbersome:1 expensive:1 release:1 prefetch:2 queue:1 shorten:1 four:1 byte:2 six:1 algorithm:1 slightly:2 modify:1 adapt:1 narrow:1 mhz:7 maximum:2 clock:4 frequency:6 include:2 fabricate:1 new:2 enhance:1 nmos:1 process:1 call:1 hmo:1 specify:1 later:3 follow:1 fully:1 static:1 chmos:1 design:4 could:3 operate:1 also:3 several:1 less:1 similar:2 manufacturer:2 instance:1 nec:3 pin:1 compatible:3 faster:1 manufacture:2 successive:1 processor:3 would:1 run:1 performance:3 depend:1 number:1 memory:2 wait:1 state:1 well:1 characteristic:1 particular:1 application:1 program:1 average:1 approximately:1 million:1 instruction:3 per:2 second:1 meanwhile:1 mov:1 alu:2 stand:1 add:1 adc:1 sub:1 sbc:1 cmp:1 xor:1 reg:2 take:1 cycle:1 respectively:1 yield:1 absolute:1 peak:1 mips:2 somewhere:1 selection:1 influential:1 microcomputer:1 ntsc:1 colorburst:1 engineer:1 employee:1 want:1 prefer:1 motorola:3 instrument:1 laboratory:1 computer:4 others:1 argue:1 small:2 simple:1 earlier:1 personal:2 rumour:1 microsoft:1 somehow:1 manage:1 persuade:1 good:1 capability:1 cpu:1 already:1 product:1 acquire:1 right:2 family:1 exchange:1 give:1 bubble:1 due:1 fierce:1 competition:1 japanese:1 able:1 undercut:1 cost:1 soon:1 leave:1 market:1 change:1 focus:1 another:1 factor:1 modified:1 easily:1 interface:1 exist:1 quite:1 type:1 component:3 widely:1 available:1 time:1 though:1 extent:1 descendant:1 software:1 today:1 see:2 complete:1 list:1 architecture:1 xt:1 link:1 datasheet:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram intel_microprocessor:1 ibm_pc:3 reg_reg:1 mhz_ntsc:1 external_link:1 |
7,084 | Muonium | Muonium particles are exotic atoms made up of an antimuon and an electron, and are given the chemical symbol . During the muon's lifetime, muonium can enter into compounds such as muonium chloride () or sodium muonide (). Names for muonium and hydrogen atoms and their ions iupac.org (PDF) Due to the mass difference between the antimuon and the electron, muonium is more similar to atomic hydrogen than positronium. Its Bohr radius and ionization energy are within 0.5% of hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium. Physical chemists consider muonium to be an isotope of hydrogen and, though it is short-lived, use it in a modified form of electron spin resonance spectroscopy for the analysis of chemical transformations and the structure of compounds with novel or potentially valuable electronic properties. (This form of electron spin resonance is called muon spin resonance or μSR.) There are variants of "muon spin resonance", e.g. muon spin rotation, which is affected by the presence of a magnetic field applied transverse to the muon beam direction, and Avoided Level Crossing (ALC), which is also called Level Crossing Resonance (LCR). The latter employs a magnetic field applied longitudinally to the beam direction, and monitors the relaxation of muon spins caused by magnetic oscillations with another magnetic nucleus. One author has considered "muonium" as the second radioisotope of hydrogen, after tritium. (C.J. Rhodes, Perkin Transactions 2, 2002) What is called "True muonium" , matter made of made of a muon and an anti-muon, is a theoretical exotic atom which has never been observed. It may may have been generated in the collision of electron and positron beams but not searched for in the particle debris. Stanley J. Brodsky and Richard F. Lebed. Production of the Smallest QED Atom: True Muonium (µ µ-). Physical Review Letters, 2009; DOI: See also Exotic atom Muon References | Muonium |@lemmatized muonium:9 particle:2 exotic:3 atom:5 make:2 antimuon:2 electron:5 give:1 chemical:2 symbol:1 muon:9 lifetime:1 enter:1 compound:2 chloride:1 sodium:1 muonide:1 name:1 hydrogen:5 ion:1 iupac:1 org:1 pdf:1 due:1 mass:1 difference:1 similar:1 atomic:1 positronium:1 bohr:1 radius:1 ionization:1 energy:1 within:1 deuterium:1 tritium:2 physical:2 chemist:1 consider:2 isotope:1 though:1 short:1 live:1 use:1 modified:1 form:2 spin:6 resonance:5 spectroscopy:1 analysis:1 transformation:1 structure:1 novel:1 potentially:1 valuable:1 electronic:1 property:1 call:3 μsr:1 variant:1 e:1 g:1 rotation:1 affect:1 presence:1 magnetic:4 field:2 apply:2 transverse:1 beam:3 direction:2 avoid:1 level:2 crossing:1 alc:1 also:2 cross:1 lcr:1 latter:1 employ:1 longitudinally:1 monitor:1 relaxation:1 cause:1 oscillation:1 another:1 nucleus:1 one:1 author:1 second:1 radioisotope:1 c:1 j:2 rhodes:1 perkin:1 transaction:1 true:2 matter:1 made:1 anti:1 theoretical:1 never:1 observe:1 may:2 generate:1 collision:1 positron:1 search:1 debris:1 stanley:1 brodsky:1 richard:1 f:1 lebed:1 production:1 small:1 qed:1 µ:2 review:1 letter:1 doi:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram chloride_sodium:1 hydrogen_atom:1 bohr_radius:1 deuterium_tritium:1 resonance_spectroscopy:1 magnetic_field:2 electron_positron:1 |
7,085 | Balfour_Declaration | Arthur James Balfour.The Balfour Declaration of 1917 (dated 2 November 1917) was a formal statement of policy by the British government stating that "His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country." The declaration was made in a letter from Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour to Baron Rothschild (Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild), a leader of the British Jewish community, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland, a Zionist organization. The letter reflected the position of the British Cabinet, as agreed upon in a meeting on 31 October 1917. It further stated that the declaration is a sign of "sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations." The statement was issued through the efforts of Chaim Weizmann and Nahum Sokolow, the principal Zionist leaders based in London but, as they had asked for the reconstitution of Palestine as “the” Jewish national home, the Declaration fell short of Zionist expectations. Balfour Declaration. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 12, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. The "Balfour Declaration" was later incorporated into the Sèvres peace treaty with Turkey and the Mandate for Palestine. The original document is kept at the British Library. The anniversary of the Declaration, 2 November, is widely commemorated in Israel and among Jews in the Jewish diaspora as Balfour Day. Text of the declaration The declaration, a typed letter signed in ink by Balfour, reads as follows: Text development and differing views The record of discussions that led up to the final text of the Balfour Declaration clarifies some details of its wording. The phrase "national home" was intentionally used instead of "state", and the British devoted some effort over the following decades, including Winston Churchill's 1922 White Paper, to denying that a state was the intention. However, in private, many British officials agreed with the interpretation of the Zionists that a state would be the eventual outcome. The initial draft of the declaration, contained in a letter sent by Rothschild to Balfour, referred to the principle "that Palestine should be reconstituted as the National Home of the Jewish people." In the final text, the word that was replaced with in to avoid committing the entirety of Palestine to this purpose. Similarly, an early draft did not include the commitment that nothing should be done which might prejudice the rights of the non-Jewish communities. These changes came about partly as the result of the urgings of Edwin Samuel Montagu, an influential anti-Zionist Jew and Secretary of State for India, who, among others, was concerned that the declaration without those changes could result in increased anti-Semitic persecution. The draft was circulated and during October the government received replies from various representatives of the Jewish community. Lord Rothschild took exception to the new proviso on the basis that it presupposed the possibility of a danger to non-Zionists, which he denied. Palestine Papers 1917-1922, Doreen Ingrams, page 13 At that time the British were busy making promises. At a war Cabinet meeting, held on 31 October 1917, Balfour suggested that a declaration favorable to Zionist aspirations would allow Great Britain "to carry on extremely useful propaganda both in Russia and America" Palestine Papers 1917-1922, Doreen Ingrams, page 16 The British also dropped Balfour Declaration leaflets written in Yiddish over Germany. 90th Anniversary Of Balfour Declaration Henry McMahon had exchanged letters with Hussein bin Ali, Sherif of Mecca, in 1915, in which he had promised Hussein control of Arab lands with the exception of "portions of Syria" lying to the west of "the districts of Damascus, Homs, Hama and Aleppo". Palestine lies to the south of these areas and wasn't explicitly mentioned. That modern-day Lebanese region of the Mediterranean coast was set aside as part of a future French Mandate. After the war, the extent of the coastal exclusion was hotly disputed. Hussein had protested that the Arabs of Beirut would greatly oppose isolation from the Arab state or states, but did not bring up the matter of Jerusalem or Palestine. Dr. Chaim Weizmann wrote in his autobiography Trial and Error that Palestine had been excluded from the areas that should have been Arab and independent. This interpretation was supported explicitly by the British government in the 1922 White Paper. Lord Grey had been the Foreign Secretary during the McMahon-Hussein negotiations. Speaking in the House of Lords on the 27th March, 1923, he made it clear that, for his part, that he entertained serious doubts as to the validity of the British government's interpretation of the pledges which he, as Foreign Secretary, had caused to be given to Sharif Hussein in 1915. He called for all of the secret engagements regarding Palestine to be made public. Report of a Committee Set Up To Consider Certain Correspondence Between Sir Henry McMahon and The Sharif of Mecca Many of the relevant documents in the National Archives were later declassified and published. Among them were the minutes of a Cabinet Eastern Committee meeting, chaired by Lord Curzon,which was held on 5 December 1918. Balfour was in attendance. The minutes revealed that in laying out the government's position Curzon had explained that: "Palestine was included in the areas as to which Great Britain pledged itself that they should be Arab and independent in the future". cited in Palestine Papers, 1917-1922, Doreen Ingrams, page 48 from the UK Archive files PRO CAB 27/24. Milner as the chief author In his posthumously published 1982 book The Anglo-American Establishment, Georgetown University history professor Carroll Quigley explained that the Balfour Declaration was actually drafted by Lord Alfred Milner. Quigley wrote: "This declaration, which is always known as the Balfour Declaration, should rather be called 'the Milner Declaration,' since Milner was the actual draftsman and was apparently, its chief supporter in the War Cabinet. This fact was not made public until 21 July 1936. At that time Ormsby-Gore, speaking for the government in Commons, said, 'The draft as originally put up by Lord Balfour was not the final draft approved by the War Cabinet. The particular draft assented to by the War Cabinet and afterwards by the Allied Governments and by the United States. . .and finally embodied in the Mandate, happens to have been drafted by Lord Milner. The actual final draft had to be issued in the name of the Foreign Secretary, but the actual draftsman was Lord Milner." Negotiation One of the main proponents of a Jewish homeland in Palestine was Dr. Chaim Weizmann, the leading spokesman for organized Zionism in Britain. Weizmann was a chemist who had developed a process to synthesize acetone via fermentation. Acetone is required for the production of cordite, a powerful propellant explosive needed to fire ammunition without generating tell-tale smoke. Germany had cornered supplies of calcium acetate, a major source of acetone. Other pre-war processes in Britain were inadequate to meet the increased demand in World War I, and a shortage of cordite would have severely hampered Britain's war effort. Lloyd-George, then Minister for Munitions, was grateful to Weizmann and so supported his Zionist aspirations. In his War Memoirs, Lloyd George wrote of meeting Weizmann in 1916 that Weizmann ... explained his aspirations as to the repatriation of the Jews to the sacred land they had made famous. That was the fount and origin of the famous declaration about the National Home for the Jews in Palestine .... As soon as I became Prime Minister I talked the whole matter over with Mr Balfour, who was then Foreign Secretary. However, this version of the story of the declaration's origins has been described as "fanciful", a fair assessment considering that discussions between Weizmann and Balfour had begun at least a decade earlier. In late 1905 Balfour had requested of his Jewish constituency representative, Charles Dreyfus, that he arrange a meeting with Weizman, during which Weizman asked for official British support for Zionism, and they were to meet again on this issue in 1914. Harry Defries, Conservative Party Attitudes to Jews 1900-1950, Routledge, 2001, ISBN 0714652210. pp.50-51. During the first meeting between Weizmann and Balfour in 1906, Balfour asked what Weizmann's objections were to the idea of a Jewish homeland in Uganda, (the Uganda Protectorate in East Africa in the British Uganda Programme), rather than in Palestine. According to Weizmann's memoir, the conversation went as follows: "Mr. Balfour, supposing I was to offer you Paris instead of London, would you take it?" He sat up, looked at me, and answered: "But Dr. Weizmann, we have London." "That is true," I said, "but we had Jerusalem when London was a marsh." He ... said two things which I remember vividly. The first was: "Are there many Jews who think like you?" I answered: "I believe I speak the mind of millions of Jews whom you will never see and who cannot speak for themselves." ... To this he said: "If that is so you will one day be a force." Weizmann, Trial and Error, p.111, as quoted in W. Lacquer, ''The History of Zionism", 2003, ISBN 1860649327. p.188 Conflicts and broken treaty commitments (contradictory assurances) The Anglo-French Declaration of November 1918 pledged that Great Britain and France would "assist in the establishment of indigenous Governments and administrations in Syria and Mesopotamia by "setting up of national governments and administrations deriving their authority from the free exercise of the initiative and choice of the indigenous populations". Balfour resigned as Foreign Secretary following the Versailles Conference in 1919, but continued in the Cabinet as Lord President of the Council. In a memorandum addressed to the new Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon, he stated that the Balfour Declaration contradicted the letters of the covenant (referring to the League Covenant) the Anglo-French Declaration, and the instructions of the King-Crane Commission. All of the other engagements contained pledges that the Arab populations could establish national governments of their own choosing according to the principle of self-determination. Balfour explained:"The contradiction between the letters of the Covenant [of the League of Nations] and the policy of the Allies is even more flagrant in the case of the ‘independent nation’ of Palestine than in that of the ‘independent nation‘ of Syria. For in Palestine we do not propose to even go through the form of consulting the wishes of the present inhabitants of the country though the American Commission is going through the form of asking what they are. The Four Great Powers [Britain, France, Italy and the United States] are committed to Zionism. And Zionism, be it right or wrong, good or bad, is rooted in age-long traditions, in present needs, and future hopes, of far profounder import than the desires and prejudices of the 700,000 Arabs who now inhabit that ancient land. In my opinion that is right. What I have never been able to understand is how it can be harmonized with the [Anglo-French] declaration, the Covenant, or the instruction to the [King-Crane] Commission of Enquiry. I do not think that Zionism will hurt the Arabs, but they will never say they want it. Whatever be the future of Palestine it is not now an ‘independent nation’, nor is it yet on the way to become one. Whatever deference should be paid to the views of those living there, the Powers in their selection of a mandatory do not propose, as I understand the matter, to consult them. In short, so far as Palestine is concerned, the Powers have made no statement of fact which is not admittedly wrong, and no declaration of policy which, at least in the letter, they have not always intended to violate. If Zionism is to influence the Jewish problem throughout the world Palestine must be made available for the largest number of Jewish immigrants. It is therefore eminently desirable that it should obtain the command of the water-power which naturally belongs to it whether by extending its borders to the north, or by treaty with the mandatory of Syria, to whom the southward flowing waters of Hamon could not in any event be of much value. For the same reason Palestine should be extended into the lands lying east of the Jordan. It should not, however, be allowed to include the Hedjaz Railway, which is too distinctly bound up with exclusively Arab Interests..." , Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1931, First series Vol 4. page 345 memorandum from Lord Balfour to Lord Curzon, August 11, 1919, and quoted by The Origin of the Palestine-Israeli Conflict 2nd Edition, 2002, Jews for Justice. Verified 24 Oct 2007. </blockquote> Controversy behind Declaration British public and government opinion became increasingly less favorable to the commitment that had been made to Zionist policy. In Feb 1922 Winston Churchill, a fervent Zionist himself, telegraphed Herbert Samuel asking for cuts in expenditure and noting:In both Houses of Parliament there is growing movement of hostility, against Zionist policy in Palestine, which will be stimulated by recent Northcliffe articles. I do not attach undue importance to this movement, but it is increasingly difficult to meet the argument that it is unfair to ask the British taxpayer, already overwhelmed with taxation, to bear the cost of imposing on Palestine an unpopular policy. CO 733/18, Churchill to Samuel, Telegram, Private and Personal, 25 February 1922. Cited Huneidi, Sahar "A Broken Trust, Herbert Samuel, Zionism and the Palestinians" 2001, ISBN 1-86064-172-5, p.57. Sir John Evelyn Shuckburgh of the new Middle East department of the Foreign Office discovered that the correspondence prior to the declaration was not available in the Colonial Office, 'although Foreign Office papers were understood to have been lengthy and to have covered a considerable period'." The 'most comprehensive explanation' of the origin of the Balfour Declaration the Foreign Office was able to provide was contained in a small 'unofficial' note of Jan 1923 affirming that:little is known of how the policy represented by the Declaration was first given form. Four, or perhaps five men were chiefly concerned in the labour-the Earl of Balfour, the late Sir Mark Sykes, and Messrs. Weizmann and Sokolow, with perhaps Lord Rothschild as a figure in the background. Negotiations seem to have been mainly oral and by means of private notes and memoranda of which only the scantiest records are available, even if more exists. Full text of note included CO 733/58, Secret Cabinet Paper CP 60 (23), 'Palestine and the Balfour Declaration, January 1923. FO unofficial note added 'little referring to the Balfour Declaration among such papers as have been preserved'. Shuckburgh's memo asserts that 'as the official records are silent, it can only be assumed that such discussions as had taken place were of an informal and private character'. Arab opposition The Arabs expressed disapproval in November 1918 at the parade marking the first anniversary of the Balfour Declaration. The Muslim-Christian Association protested the carrying of new 'white and blue banners with two inverted triangles in the middle'. They drew the attention of the authorities to the serious consequences of any political implications in raising the banners. Zu'aytir, Akram, Watha'iq al-haraka a-wataniyya al-filastiniyya (1918-1939), ed. Bayan Nuwayhid al-Hut. Beirut 1948. Papers, p. 5. Cited by Huneidi, Sahar "A Broken Trust, Herbert Samuel, Zionism and the Palestinians". ISBN 1-86064-172-5 p.32. Later that month, on the first anniversary of the occupation of Jaffa by the British, the Muslim-Christian Association sent a lengthy memorandum and petition to the military governor protesting once more any formation of a Zionist state. 'Petition from the Moslem-Christian Association in Jaffa, to the Military Governor, on the occasion of the First Anniversary of British Entry into Jaffa', 16 November 1918, Zu'aytir papers pp. 7-8. Cited by Huneidi p.32. References See also Napoleon and a Jewish state in Palestine Faisal-Weizmann Agreement British Mandate of Palestine Gathering of Israel 1947 UN Partition Plan Declaration of Independence (Israel), 14 May 1948 Madagascar Plan British Uganda Program Benjamin Freedman External links Original article reprinting the declaration from The Times, November 9, 1917 Balfour Declaration lexicon entry Knesset website Happy Birthday Balfour Declaration- 91 Years Later- Jerusalem Post Text of the 1922 White Paper from the Avalon Project Donald Macintyre, The Independent, 26 May 2005, "The birth of modern Israel: A scrap of paper that changed history" Balfour: 117 words that changed the face of the Middle East From the Balfour Declaration to Partition … to Two States? | Balfour_Declaration |@lemmatized arthur:2 james:1 balfour:35 declaration:38 date:1 november:6 formal:1 statement:3 policy:8 british:19 government:12 state:14 majesty:1 view:3 favour:1 establishment:3 palestine:29 national:8 home:5 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7,086 | Geography_of_Denmark | Denmark is located in Northern Europe (it is one of the Nordic countries) on the Jutland peninsula and several islands in the Baltic sea. It borders both the Baltic Sea and the North Sea along its 7,314 km coastline. Its size is comparable to that of Nova Scotia. Denmark has a 68 km border with Germany. Denmark experiences a temperate climate. This means that the winters are mild and windy and the summers are cool. The local terrain is generally flat with a few gently rolling plains. The territory of Denmark includes the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Its position gives Denmark complete control of the Danish Straits (Skagerrak and Kattegat) linking Baltic and North Seas. The country's natural resources include Petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, stone, gravel and sand. Environment Land use 60% of the land in Denmark is arable. Arable land: 60% Permanent crops: 0% Permanent pastures: 5% Forests and woodland: 10% Other: 25% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 4 350 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards Flooding is a threat in some areas of the country Current issues Denmark's towns and cities Air pollution, principally from vehicle and power plant emissions Nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of the North Sea Drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes and pesticides International agreements Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol Transnational issues Maritime claims map showing the location of Denmark including the Faroe Islands and Greenland (pdf) Contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles (44 km) Continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation Exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) Territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Other issues Iceland disputes the Faroe Islands' fisheries median line. Iceland, the United Kingdom, and Ireland dispute Denmark's claim that the Faroe Islands' continental shelf extends beyond 200 nautical miles or about 370 km. The Faroe Islands continue to study proposals for full independence. Uncontested sovereignty dispute with Canada over Hans Island in the Kennedy Channel between Ellesmere Island and Greenland. Denmark and Poland have failed to reach an agreement settling the boundary between the two countries. Denmark is currently investigating the extent of the continental shelf of Greenland, in the hope that Greenland's Exclusive Economic Zone can be expanded. One of the areas investigated is the geographical North Pole. Details Climate chart of Copenhagen. Population About a quarter of Danes live in the capital Copenhagen. See also List of islands of Denmark Rigsfællesskabet ISO 3166-2:DK NUTS:DK UN/LOCODE:DK | Geography_of_Denmark |@lemmatized denmark:13 locate:1 northern:1 europe:1 one:2 nordic:1 country:4 jutland:1 peninsula:1 several:1 island:10 baltic:4 sea:8 border:2 north:4 along:1 km:6 coastline:1 size:1 comparable:1 nova:1 scotia:1 germany:1 experience:1 temperate:1 climate:4 mean:1 winter:1 mild:1 windy:1 summer:1 cool:1 local:1 terrain:1 generally:1 flat:1 gently:1 roll:1 plain:1 territory:1 include:3 bornholm:1 rest:1 metropolitan:1 exclude:1 faroe:5 greenland:5 position:1 give:1 complete:1 control:1 danish:1 strait:1 skagerrak:1 kattegat:1 link:1 natural:3 resource:1 petroleum:1 gas:1 fish:1 salt:1 limestone:1 stone:1 gravel:1 sand:1 environment:1 land:4 use:1 arable:2 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:2 irrigated:1 hazard:1 flooding:1 threat:1 area:2 current:1 issue:3 town:1 city:1 air:7 pollution:9 principally:1 vehicle:1 power:1 plant:1 emission:1 nitrogen:2 phosphorus:1 drinking:1 surface:1 water:1 become:1 pollute:1 animal:1 waste:2 pesticide:1 international:1 agreement:2 party:1 oxide:1 sulphur:2 volatile:1 organic:2 compound:1 antarctic:2 treaty:1 biodiversity:1 change:2 desertification:1 endanger:1 specie:1 environmental:2 modification:1 hazardous:1 law:1 marine:2 dumping:1 life:1 conservation:1 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 ship:1 tropical:2 timber:2 wetland:1 whale:1 sign:1 ratify:1 persistent:1 pollutant:1 protocol:2 kyoto:1 transnational:1 maritime:1 claim:2 map:1 show:1 location:1 pdf:1 contiguous:1 zone:3 nautical:4 mile:4 continental:3 shelf:3 depth:2 exploitation:1 exclusive:2 economic:2 territorial:1 iceland:2 dispute:3 fishery:1 median:1 line:1 united:1 kingdom:1 ireland:1 extend:1 beyond:1 continue:1 study:1 proposal:1 full:1 independence:1 uncontested:1 sovereignty:1 canada:1 han:1 kennedy:1 channel:1 ellesmere:1 poland:1 fail:1 reach:1 settle:1 boundary:1 two:1 currently:1 investigate:2 extent:1 hope:1 expand:1 geographical:1 pole:1 detail:1 chart:1 copenhagen:2 population:1 quarter:1 dane:1 live:1 capital:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 rigsfællesskabet:1 iso:1 dk:3 nut:1 un:1 locode:1 |@bigram jutland_peninsula:1 baltic_sea:3 nova_scotia:1 temperate_climate:1 gently_roll:1 faroe_island:5 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 nitrogen_phosphorus:1 nitrogen_oxide:1 pollution_sulphur:2 pollution_volatile:1 volatile_organic:1 organic_compound:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 modification_hazardous:1 hazardous_waste:1 marine_dumping:1 dumping_marine:1 ozone_layer:1 tropical_timber:2 timber_tropical:1 timber_wetland:1 wetland_whale:1 pollution_persistent:1 persistent_organic:1 organic_pollutant:1 kyoto_protocol:1 contiguous_zone:1 zone_nautical:2 nautical_mile:4 mile_km:4 continental_shelf:3 exploitation_exclusive:1 |
7,087 | Destry_Rides_Again | Destry Rides Again is a western directed by George Marshall, starring Marlene Dietrich, James Stewart, Mischa Auer, Charles Winninger, Brian Donlevy, Allen Jenkins, Irene Hervey, Billy Gilbert, Bill Cody, Jr. and Una Merkel. In 1996, Destry Rides Again was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Plot Saloon owner Kent (Brian Donlevy), the unscrupulous boss of the western town of Bottleneck has Sheriff Keogh killed when he asks one too many questions about a rigged poker game. Kent, his henchmen and "Frenchy" (Marlene Dietrich), the dance hall queen now have a stranglehold over the local cattle rangers. The mayor, Hiram J Slade (Samuel S. Hinds), who is in with Kent, appoints the town drunk, Washington Dimsdale (Charles Winninger), as the new sheriff, assuming that he'll be easy to control. But what the mayor doesn't know is that Dimsdale was a deputy under famous lawman, Tom Destry and is able to call upon the equally formidable Tom Destry Jr (James Stewart) to be his deputy and make Bottleneck a lawful, respectable area. Destry confounds the townsfolk by refusing to strap on a gun, but he still carries out the "letter of the law" and wins over the doubters. A final confrontation between Destry and Kent's gang is inevitable and with "Frenchy" won over, a final gunfight ensues. The rule of law eventually wins out. Cast As appearing in screen credits (main roles identified): Destry Rides Again credits Actor RoleMarlene Dietrich Frenchy, the saloon singerJames Stewart Thomas Jefferson "Tom" Destry, Jr., the new deputyMischa Auer Boris Callahan, the henpecked Russian"Charlie" Winninger "Wash" (Washington Dimsdale), the new sheriffBrian Donlevy Kent, the saloon ownerAllen Jenkins "Gyp" WatsonWarren Hymer "Bugs" WatsonIrene Hervey Janice Tyndall Una Merkel Lily Belle - 'Mrs Callahan'Billy Gilbert "Loupgerou"Samuel S. Hinds Judge Slade, the mayor Jack Carson Jack Tyndall A full cast and production crew list is too lengthy to include, see: IMDb profile. Production Famed Western writer, Max Brand contributed the original novel, Destry Rides Again but the story soon became a typical "oater" with the town of Bottleneck set on a Hollywood sound stage. Other versions Universal Pictures released an earlier version, also titled Destry Rides Again (1932), directed by Benjamin Stoloff and starring Tom Mix. Destry Rides Again (1932) . A remake, Destry (1954), also was directed by George Marshall and starred Audie Murphy and Thomas Mitchell. A Broadway musical version of the story, Destry Rides Again, opened in New York at the Imperial Theater on April 23, 1959, and played 472 performances. Produced by David Merrick, the show had a book by Leonard Gershe and music and lyrics by Harold Rome and starred Andy Griffith as Destry and Dolores Gray as Frenchy. References Notes Bibliography Beaver, Jim. "James Stewart." Films in Review, October 1980. Coe, Jonathan. James Stewart: Leading Man. London: Bloomsbury, 1994. ISBN 0-7475-1574-3. Eliot, Mark. Jimmy Stewart: A Biography. New York: Random House, 2006. ISBN 1-4000-5221-1. The Jimmy Stewart Museum Home Page. The Jimmy Stewart Museum Home Page, Access date: 18 February 2007. Jones, Ken D., McClure, Arthur F. and Twomey, Alfred E. The Films of James Stewart. New York: Castle Books, 1970. Pickard, Roy. Jimmy Stewart: A Life in Film. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. ISBN 0-312-08828-0. Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds. "Stewart, James". International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers, 4th edition. London: St. James Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55862-450-3. Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds. "Stewart, James". St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, 5th edition. London: St. James Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55862-529-1. Robbins, Jhan. Everybody's Man: A Biography of Jimmy Stewart. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1985. ISBN 0-399-12973-1. Thomas, Tony. A Wonderful Life: The Films and Career of James Stewart. Secaucus, New Jersey: Citadel Press, 1988. ISBN 0-8065-1081-1. External links | Destry_Rides_Again |@lemmatized destry:14 ride:7 western:3 direct:3 george:2 marshall:2 star:4 marlene:2 dietrich:3 james:10 stewart:14 mischa:1 auer:2 charles:2 winninger:3 brian:2 donlevy:3 allen:1 jenkins:2 irene:1 hervey:2 billy:2 gilbert:2 bill:1 cody:1 jr:3 una:2 merkel:2 select:1 preservation:1 united:1 state:1 national:1 film:6 registry:1 library:1 congress:1 culturally:1 historically:1 aesthetically:1 significant:1 plot:1 saloon:3 owner:1 kent:5 unscrupulous:1 bos:1 town:3 bottleneck:3 sheriff:2 keogh:1 kill:1 ask:1 one:1 many:1 question:1 rigged:1 poker:1 game:1 henchman:1 frenchy:4 dance:1 hall:1 queen:1 stranglehold:1 local:1 cattle:1 ranger:1 mayor:3 hiram:1 j:1 slade:2 samuel:2 hind:2 appoint:1 drunk:1 washington:2 dimsdale:3 new:9 assume:1 easy:1 control:1 know:1 deputy:2 famous:1 lawman:1 tom:6 able:1 call:1 upon:1 equally:1 formidable:1 make:1 lawful:1 respectable:1 area:1 confound:1 townsfolk:1 refuse:1 strap:1 gun:1 still:1 carry:1 letter:1 law:2 win:3 doubter:1 final:2 confrontation:1 gang:1 inevitable:1 gunfight:1 ensues:1 rule:1 eventually:1 cast:2 appear:1 screen:1 credit:2 main:1 role:1 identify:1 actor:1 rolemarlene:1 singerjames:1 thomas:3 jefferson:1 deputymischa:1 boris:1 callahan:2 henpecked:1 russian:1 charlie:1 wash:1 sheriffbrian:1 ownerallen:1 gyp:1 watsonwarren:1 hymer:1 bug:1 watsonirene:1 janice:1 tyndall:2 lily:1 belle:1 mr:1 loupgerou:1 judge:1 jack:2 carson:1 full:1 production:2 crew:1 list:1 lengthy:1 include:1 see:1 imdb:1 profile:1 famed:1 writer:1 max:1 brand:1 contribute:1 original:1 novel:1 story:2 soon:1 become:1 typical:1 oater:1 set:1 hollywood:1 sound:1 stage:1 version:3 universal:1 picture:1 release:1 early:1 also:2 title:1 benjamin:1 stoloff:1 mix:1 remake:1 audie:1 murphy:1 mitchell:1 broadway:1 musical:1 open:1 york:5 imperial:1 theater:1 april:1 play:1 performance:1 produce:1 david:1 merrick:1 show:1 book:2 leonard:1 gershe:1 music:1 lyric:1 harold:1 rome:1 andy:1 griffith:1 dolores:1 gray:1 reference:1 note:1 bibliography:1 beaver:1 jim:1 review:1 october:1 coe:1 jonathan:1 leading:1 man:2 london:3 bloomsbury:1 isbn:7 eliot:1 mark:1 jimmy:5 biography:2 random:1 house:1 museum:2 home:2 page:2 access:1 date:1 february:1 jones:1 ken:1 mcclure:1 arthur:1 f:1 twomey:1 alfred:1 e:1 castle:1 pickard:1 roy:1 life:2 st:4 martin:1 press:4 prendergast:2 sara:2 ed:2 jam:1 international:1 dictionary:1 filmmaker:1 edition:2 encyclopedia:1 popular:1 culture:1 robbins:1 jhan:1 everybody:1 g:1 p:1 putnam:1 son:1 tony:1 wonderful:1 career:1 secaucus:1 jersey:1 citadel:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram destry_ride:7 marlene_dietrich:2 culturally_historically:1 historically_aesthetically:1 aesthetically_significant:1 thomas_jefferson:1 audie_murphy:1 david_merrick:1 andy_griffith:1 jimmy_stewart:5 external_link:1 |
7,088 | Albert_Pike | Albert Pike (December 29, 1809–April 2, 1891) was an attorney, soldier, writer, and Freemason. Pike is the only Confederate military officer or figure to be honored with an outdoor statue in Washington, D.C. (in Judiciary Square). Biography Pike was born in Boston, Massachusetts, son of Ben and Sarah (Andrews) Pike, and spent his childhood in Byfield and Newburyport, Massachusetts. His colonial ancestors included John Pike (1613-1688/1689), the founder of Woodbridge, New Jersey. Albert's descent from his immigrant ancestor John Pike is as follows: John Pike (1572–1654); John Pike (1613–1688/89); Joseph Pike (1638–1694); Thomas Pike (1682–1753/4); John Pike (1710–1755); Thomas Pike (1739–1836); Benjamin Pike (1780–?); Albert Pike (1809–1891). He attended school in Newburyport and Framingham until he was fifteen. In August 1825, he passed his entrance exams and was accepted at Harvard University though, when the college requested payment of tuition fees for the first two years, he chose not to attend. He began a program of self-education, later becoming a schoolteacher in Gloucester, North Bedford, Fairhaven and Newburyport. Hubbell, Jay B. The South in American Literature: 1607-1900. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1954: 640. In 1831 Pike left Massachusetts to travel west, first stopping in St. Louis and later moving on to Independence, Missouri. In Independence, he joined an expedition to Taos, New Mexico, hunting and trading. During the excursion his horse broke and ran, forcing Pike to walk the remaining 500 miles to Taos. After this he joined a trapping expedition to the Llano Estacado in New Mexico and Texas. Trapping was minimal, and after traveling about 1300 miles (650 on foot), he finally arrived at Fort Smith, Arkansas. Handbook of Texas Online, s.v. "Pike, Albert," http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/PP/fpi18.html (accessed December 15, 2008). Settling in Arkansas in 1833, he taught school and wrote a series of articles for the Little Rock Arkansas Advocate under the pen name of "Casca." The articles were popular enough that he was asked to join the staff of the newspaper. Later, after marrying Mary Ann Hamilton, he purchased part of the newspaper with the dowry. By 1835 he was the Advocate's sole owner. Under Pike's administration the Advocate promoted the viewpoint of the Whig party in a politically volatile and divided Arkansas. He then began to study law, and was admitted to the bar in 1837, selling the Advocate the same year. He was the first reporter for the Arkansas supreme court, and also wrote a book (published anonymously), titled The Arkansas Form Book, which was a guidebook for lawyers. Additionally, Pike wrote on several legal subjects, and continued producing poetry, a hobby he had begun in his youth in Massachusetts. His poems were highly regarded in his day, but are now mostly forgotten. Several volumes of his works were self-published posthumously by his daughter. In 1859 he received an honorary Ph.D. from Harvard, but declined it. "The Phoenix," Manly P. Hall Pike died in Washington, D.C., aged 81, and was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery (against his wishes—he had left instructions for his body to be cremated). In 1944 his remains were moved to the House of the Temple, headquarters of the Southern Jurisdiction of the Scottish Rite. Military career Statue at Judiciary Square, Washington, D.C. When the Mexican-American War started, Pike joined the cavalry and was commissioned as a troop commander, serving in the Battle of Buena Vista. He and his commander, John Selden Roane, had several differences of opinion. This situation led finally to a duel between Pike and Roane. Although several shots were fired in the duel, nobody was injured, and the two were persuaded by their seconds to discontinue it. After the war, Pike returned to the practice of law, moving to New Orleans for a time beginning in 1853. He wrote another book, Maxims of the Roman Law and some of the Ancient French Law, as Expounded and Applied in Doctrine and Jurisprudence. Although unpublished, this book increased his reputation among his associates in law. He returned to Arkansas in 1857, gaining some amount of prominence in the legal field and becoming an advocate of slavery, although retaining his affiliation with the Whig party. When that party dissolved, he became a member of the Know-Nothing party. Before the Civil War he was firmly against secession, but when the war started he nevertheless took the side of the Confederacy. At the Southern Commercial Convention of 1854, Pike said the South should remain in the Union and seek equality with the North, but if the South "were forced into an inferior status, she would be better out of the Union than in it." David Morris Potter, Don Edward. The impending crisis, 1848-1861. HarperCollins, 1976. (Page 467) He also made several contacts among the Native American tribes in the area, at one point negotiating an $800,000 settlement between the Creeks and other tribes and the federal government. This relationship was to influence the course of his Civil War service. At the beginning of the war, Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to the Native Americans. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one of the most important being with Cherokee chief John Ross, which was concluded in 1861. Pike was commissioned as a brigadier general on November 22, 1861, and given a command in the Indian Territory. With Gen. Ben McCulloch, Pike trained three Confederate regiments of Indian cavalry, most of whom belonged to the "civilized tribes", whose loyalty to the Confederacy was variable. Although victorious at the Battle of Pea Ridge (Elkhorn Tavern) in March, Pike's unit was defeated later in a counterattack, after falling into disarray. Also, as in the previous war, Pike came into conflict with his superior officers, at one point drafting a letter to Jefferson Davis complaining about his direct superior. After Pea Ridge, Pike was faced with charges that his troops had scalped soldiers in the field. Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Hindman also charged Pike with mishandling of money and material, ordering his arrest. Both these charges were later found to be considerably lacking in evidence; nevertheless Pike, facing arrest, escaped into the hills of Arkansas, sending his resignation from the Confederate Army on July 12. He was at length arrested on November 3 under charges of insubordination and treason, and held briefly in Warren, Texas, but his resignation was accepted on November 11 and he was allowed to return to Arkansas. Freemasonry He had in the interim joined a Masonic Lodge and become extremely active in the affairs of the organization, being elected Sovereign Grand Commander of the Scottish Rite's Southern Jurisdiction in 1859. He remained Sovereign Grand Commander for the remainder of his life (a total of thirty-two years), devoting a large amount of his time to developing the rituals of the order. Notably, he published a book called Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry in 1871, of which there were several subsequent editions. Pike is still sometimes regarded in America as an eminent ALBERT PIKE AND FREEMASONRY, March–April 2002 edition, California Freemason On-Line and influential Albert Pike, masonicinfo.com Freemason. Selected works See also List of American Civil War generals Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws References Footnotes External links Pike's Masonic philosophy Albert Pike: Hero or Scoundrel? About room where he is entombed Albert Pike did not found the Ku Klux Klan (Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon) Albert Pike commemorative Masonic Lodge - Located in Denver CO | Albert_Pike |@lemmatized albert:9 pike:39 december:2 april:2 attorney:1 soldier:2 writer:1 freemason:3 confederate:4 military:2 officer:2 figure:1 honor:1 outdoor:1 statue:2 washington:3 c:4 judiciary:2 square:2 biography:1 bear:1 boston:1 massachusetts:4 son:1 ben:2 sarah:1 andrew:1 spend:1 childhood:1 byfield:1 newburyport:3 colonial:1 ancestor:2 include:1 john:7 founder:1 woodbridge:1 new:4 jersey:1 descent:1 immigrant:1 follow:1 joseph:1 thomas:3 benjamin:1 attend:2 school:2 framingham:1 fifteen:1 august:1 pass:1 entrance:1 exam:1 accept:3 harvard:2 university:2 though:1 college:1 request:1 payment:1 tuition:1 fee:1 first:3 two:3 year:3 choose:1 begin:4 program:1 self:2 education:1 later:5 become:4 schoolteacher:1 gloucester:1 north:3 bedford:1 fairhaven:1 hubbell:1 jay:1 b:1 south:3 american:5 literature:1 durham:1 carolina:1 duke:1 press:1 leave:2 travel:2 west:1 stopping:1 st:1 louis:1 move:3 independence:2 missouri:1 join:5 expedition:2 taos:2 mexico:2 hunt:1 trading:1 excursion:1 horse:1 break:1 run:1 force:2 walk:1 remain:3 mile:2 trap:1 llano:1 estacado:1 texas:3 trapping:1 minimal:1 foot:1 finally:2 arrive:1 fort:1 smith:1 arkansas:9 handbook:2 online:2 v:1 http:1 www:1 tshaonline:1 org:1 article:3 pp:1 html:1 accessed:1 settle:1 teach:1 write:4 series:1 little:1 rock:1 advocate:5 pen:1 name:1 casca:1 popular:1 enough:1 ask:1 staff:1 newspaper:2 marry:1 mary:1 ann:1 hamilton:1 purchase:1 part:1 dowry:1 sole:1 owner:1 administration:1 promote:1 viewpoint:1 whig:2 party:4 politically:1 volatile:1 divided:1 study:1 law:5 admit:1 bar:1 sell:1 reporter:1 supreme:1 court:1 also:5 book:5 publish:3 anonymously:1 title:1 form:1 guidebook:1 lawyer:1 additionally:1 several:7 legal:2 subject:1 continue:1 produce:1 poetry:1 hobby:1 youth:1 poem:1 highly:1 regard:2 day:1 mostly:1 forget:1 volume:1 work:2 posthumously:1 daughter:1 receive:1 honorary:1 ph:1 decline:1 phoenix:1 manly:1 p:1 hall:1 die:1 age:1 bury:1 oak:1 hill:2 cemetery:1 wish:1 instruction:1 body:1 cremate:1 remains:1 house:1 temple:1 headquarters:1 southern:3 jurisdiction:2 scottish:3 rite:3 career:1 mexican:1 war:8 start:2 cavalry:2 commission:2 troop:2 commander:4 serve:1 battle:2 buena:1 vista:1 selden:1 roane:2 difference:1 opinion:1 situation:1 lead:1 duel:2 although:4 shot:1 fire:1 nobody:1 injure:1 persuade:1 second:1 discontinue:1 return:3 practice:1 orleans:1 time:2 another:1 maxim:1 roman:1 ancient:2 french:1 expound:1 apply:1 doctrine:1 jurisprudence:1 unpublished:1 increase:1 reputation:1 among:2 associate:1 gain:1 amount:2 prominence:1 field:2 slavery:1 retain:1 affiliation:1 dissolve:1 member:1 know:1 nothing:1 civil:3 firmly:1 secession:1 nevertheless:2 take:1 side:1 confederacy:2 commercial:1 convention:1 say:1 union:2 seek:1 equality:1 inferior:1 status:1 would:1 good:1 david:1 morris:1 potter:1 edward:1 impending:1 crisis:1 harpercollins:1 page:1 make:1 contact:1 native:2 tribe:2 area:1 one:3 point:2 negotiate:2 settlement:1 creek:1 federal:1 government:1 relationship:1 influence:1 course:1 service:1 beginning:1 appoint:1 envoy:1 capacity:1 treaty:2 important:1 cherokee:1 chief:1 ross:1 conclude:1 brigadier:1 general:2 november:3 give:1 command:1 indian:2 territory:1 gen:2 mcculloch:1 train:1 three:1 regiment:1 belong:1 civilize:1 tribes:1 whose:1 loyalty:1 variable:1 victorious:1 pea:2 ridge:2 elkhorn:1 tavern:1 march:2 unit:1 defeat:1 counterattack:1 fall:1 disarray:1 previous:1 come:1 conflict:1 superior:2 draft:1 letter:1 jefferson:1 davis:1 complain:1 direct:1 face:2 charge:4 scalp:1 maj:1 hindman:1 mishandling:1 money:1 material:1 order:2 arrest:3 find:2 considerably:1 lack:1 evidence:1 escape:1 send:1 resignation:2 army:1 july:1 length:1 insubordination:1 treason:1 hold:1 briefly:1 warren:1 allow:1 freemasonry:3 interim:1 masonic:3 lodge:3 extremely:1 active:1 affair:1 organization:1 elect:1 sovereign:2 grand:3 remainder:1 life:1 total:1 thirty:1 devote:1 large:1 develop:1 ritual:1 notably:1 call:1 moral:1 dogma:1 subsequent:1 edition:2 still:1 sometimes:1 america:1 eminent:1 california:1 line:1 influential:1 masonicinfo:1 com:1 select:1 see:1 list:1 choctaw:1 chickasaw:1 reference:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 philosophy:1 hero:1 scoundrel:1 room:1 entombed:1 ku:1 klux:1 klan:1 british:1 columbia:1 yukon:1 commemorative:1 locate:1 denver:1 co:1 |@bigram albert_pike:7 boston_massachusetts:1 newburyport_massachusetts:1 entrance_exam:1 tuition_fee:1 north_carolina:1 http_www:1 supreme_court:1 publish_posthumously:1 buena_vista:1 brigadier_general:1 jefferson_davis:1 maj_gen:1 masonic_lodge:2 choctaw_chickasaw:1 external_link:1 ku_klux:1 klux_klan:1 grand_lodge:1 columbia_yukon:1 |
7,089 | Concorde | The Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde aircraft was a turbojet-powered supersonic passenger airliner, a supersonic transport (SST). It was a product of an Anglo-French government treaty, combining the manufacturing efforts of Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation. First flown in 1969, Concorde entered service in 1976 and continued for 27 years. Concorde flew regular transatlantic flights from London Heathrow (British Airways) and Paris Charles de Gaulle (Air France) to New York JFK and Washington Dulles, profitably flying these routes at record speeds, in less than half the time of other airliners. Concorde also set many other records, including the official FAI "Westbound Around the World" and "Eastbound Around the World" world air speed records. Concorde was the more successful of the only two supersonic airliners to have ever operated commercially, the Tupolev Tu-144 being the other. The Tu-144 was nicknamed "Concordski" by Western Europeans for its outward similarity to Concorde. Soviet espionage efforts had resulted in the theft of Concorde blueprints, ostensibly to assist in the design of the Tu-144. Gordon, Yefim. Tupolev Tu-144. London: Midland, 2006. ISBN 1-85780-216-0. The Tu-144 ultimately flew first, achieved a higher maximum speed, but was hampered by higher fuel requirements that restricted its range compared to Concorde. With only 20 aircraft ultimately built, the costly development phase represented a substantial economic loss. Additionally, Air France and British Airways were subsidised by their governments to buy the aircraft. As a result of the type's only crash (on 25 July 2000), world economic effects arising from the 9/11 attacks, and other factors, operations ceased on 24 October 2003. The last "retirement" flight occurred on 26 November 2003. Concorde remains an icon of aviation history, and has acquired an unusual nomenclature for an aircraft. In common usage in the United Kingdom, the type is known as "Concorde" rather than "the Concorde" or "a Concorde". BBC Concorde page British Airways tribute Development Concorde's final flight, G-BOAF from Heathrow to Bristol, on 26 November 2003. The extremely high fineness ratio of the fuselage is evident Concorde on takeoff Pre-production Concorde number 101 on display at the Imperial War Museum Duxford, UK Concorde G-BOAB in storage at London Heathrow Airport following the end of all Concorde flying. This aircraft flew for 22,296 hours between its first flight in 1976 and its final flight in 2000. In the late 1950s, the United Kingdom, France, United States and Soviet Union were considering developing supersonic transport. Britain's Bristol Aeroplane Company and France's Sud Aviation were both working on designs, called the Type 223 and Super-Caravelle, respectively. Both were largely funded by their respective governments. "Early History." www.concordesst.com. Retrieved: 8 September 2007. The British design was for a thin-winged delta shape (which owed much to work by Dietrich Küchemann) for a transatlantic-ranged aircraft for about 100 people, while the French were intending to build a medium-range aircraft. The designs were both ready to start prototype construction in the early 1960s, but the cost was so great that the British government made it a requirement that BAC look for international co-operation. Approaches were made to a number of countries, but only France showed real interest. The development project was negotiated as an international treaty between the two countries rather than a commercial agreement between companies and included a clause, originally asked for by Britain, imposing heavy penalties for cancellation. A draft treaty was signed on 28 November 1962. By this time, both companies had been merged into new ones; thus, the Concorde project was between the British Aircraft Corp. and Aerospatiale. At first the new consortium intended to produce two versions of the aircraft, one long range and one short range. However, prospective customers showed no interest in the short-range version and it was dropped. The consortium secured orders (i.e., non-binding options) for over 100 of the long-range version from the premier airlines of the day: Pan Am, BOAC and Air France were the launch customers, with six Concordes each. Other airlines in the order book included Panair do Brasil, Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines, Lufthansa, American Airlines, United Airlines, Air Canada, Braniff, Singapore Airlines, Iran Air, Olympic Airways, Qantas, CAAC, Middle East Airlines and TWA. The aircraft was initially referred to in Britain as "Concorde," with the French spelling, but was officially changed to "Concord" by Harold Macmillan in response to a perceived slight by Charles de Gaulle. In 1967, at the French roll-out in Toulouse the British Government Minister for Technology, Tony Benn announced that he would change the spelling back to "Concorde." Benn's Concorde memories in The Guardian This created a nationalist uproar that died down when Benn stated that the suffixed "e" represented "Excellence, England, Europe and Entente (Cordiale)." In his memoirs, he recounts a tale of a letter from an irate Scotsman claiming: "you talk about 'E' for England, but part of it is made in Scotland." Given Scotland's contribution of providing the nose cone for the aircraft, Benn replied "it was also 'E' for 'Écosse' (the French name for Scotland) — and I might have added 'e' for extravagance and 'e' for escalation as well!" McIntyre 1992, p. 20. Construction of two prototypes began in February 1965: 001, built by Aerospatiale at Toulouse, and 002, by BAC at Filton, Bristol. Concorde 001 made its first test flight from Toulouse on 2 March 1969, piloted by Andre Turcat, and first went supersonic on 1 October. The first UK-built Concorde flew from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969, piloted by Brian Trubshaw. "1969: Concorde flies for the first time." On this day, BBC News Retrieved: 8 September 2007. As the flight programme progressed, 001 embarked on a sales and demonstration tour on 4 September 1971. Concorde 002 followed suit on 2 June 1972 with a tour of the Middle and Far East. Concorde 002 made the first visit to the United States in 1973, landing at the new Dallas-Fort Worth Regional Airport to mark that airport's opening. These trips led to orders for over 70 aircraft, but a combination of factors led to a sudden number of order cancellations: the 1973 oil crisis, acute financial difficulties of many airlines, a spectacular Paris Le Bourget air show crash of the competing Soviet Tupolev Tu-144, and environmental concerns such as the sonic boom, takeoff-noise and pollution. Only Air France and British Airways (the successor to BOAC) took up their orders, with the two governments taking a cut of any profits made. In the case of BA, 80% of the profit was kept by the government until 1984, while the cost of buying the aircraft was covered by a state loan. Payments for Concorde The United States cancelled its supersonic transport (SST) programme in 1971. Two designs had been submitted; the Lockheed L-2000, looking like a scaled-up Concorde, lost out to the Boeing 2707, which was intended to be faster, to carry 300 passengers and feature a swing-wing design. Other countries, such as India and Malaysia, ruled out Concorde supersonic overflights due to noise concerns. Concorde history Both European airlines flew demonstration and test flights from 1974 onwards. The testing of Concorde set records that have not been surpassed; the prototype, pre-production and first production aircraft undertook 5,335 flight hours. A total of 2,000 test hours were at supersonic speeds. Unit costs were £23 million (US$46 million) in 1977. Development cost was six times the projected amount. Counting the costs Design Concorde was an ogival (also "ogee") delta-winged aircraft with four Olympus engines based on those originally developed for the Avro Vulcan strategic bomber. The engines were jointly built by Rolls-Royce and SNECMA. Concorde was the first civil airliner to have an analogue fly-by-wire flight control system. It also employed a trademark droop snoot lowering nose section for visibility on approach. The principal designer who worked on the project was Pierre Satre, with Sir Archibald Russell as his deputy. Sir Archibald Russell, Aircraft Engineer (1904-1995) at rpec.co.uk, accessed 25 November 2008 These and other features permitted Concorde to have an average cruise speed of Mach 2.02 (about 2,140 km/h or 1,330 mph) with a maximum cruise altitude of 18,300 metres (60,000 feet), more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft. The average landing speed was 298 km/h (185 mph, 160 knots). The flight deck Concorde pioneered a number of technologies: For high speed and optimisation of flight: Double-delta (ogee/ogival) shaped wings Variable inlet ramps controlled by digital computers Supercruise capability Thrust-by-wire engines, predecessor of today's FADEC-controlled engines Droop-nose section for improved visibility in landing For weight-saving and enhanced performance: Mach 2.04 Concorde performance (~ cruising speed for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum, although turbojet engines are more efficient at high speed) Mainly aluminium construction for low weight and relatively conventional manufacture (higher speeds would have ruled out aluminium) Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle allowing "hands off" control of the aircraft from climbout to landing Fully electrically controlled analogue fly-by-wire flight controls systems Multifunction flight control surfaces High-pressure hydraulic system of 28 MPa (4,000 lbf/in²) for lighter hydraulic systems components Fully electrically controlled analogue brake-by-wire system Pitch trim by shifting fuel around the fuselage for centre-of-gravity control Parts made using 'sculpture milling' from single alloy billet reducing the part-number count, while saving weight and adding strength Concorde Technical Specs: The Delta Wing Lack of Auxiliary power unit (Relying on the fact that Concorde will be used for premium services to big airports, where a ground air start cart would be readily available) Flush fitting lights The Concorde programme's primary legacy is in the experience gained in design and manufacture which later became the basis of the Airbus consortium. Snecma Moteurs' involvement with the Concorde programme prepared the company's entrance into civil engine design and manufacturing, opening the way for Snecma to establish CFM International with General Electric and produce the successful CFM International CFM56 series engines. Although Concorde was a technological marvel when introduced into service in the 1970s, 30 years later its cockpit, cluttered with analogue dials and switches, looked dated. With no competition, there was no commercial pressure to upgrade Concorde with enhanced avionics or passenger comfort, as occurred in other airliners of the same vintage, for example the Boeing 747. The key partners, BAC (later to become BAE Systems) and Aerospatiale (which was later merged into EADS), were the joint owners of Concorde's type certificate. Responsibility for the Type Certificate transferred to Airbus with formation of Airbus SAS. Movement of centre of pressure G-AXDN, Duxford, close up of engines When any aircraft passes the critical mach of that particular airframe, the centre of pressure shifts rearwards. This causes a pitch down force on the aircraft, as the centre of mass remains where it was. The engineers designed the wings in a specific manner to reduce this shift. However, there was still a shift of about 2 metres. This could have been countered by the use of trim controls, but at such high speeds this would have caused a dramatic increase in the drag on the aircraft. Instead, the distribution of fuel along the aircraft was shifted during acceleration and deceleration to move the centre of mass, effectively acting as an auxiliary trim control. Engines To be economically viable, Concorde needed to be able to fly reasonably long distances, and this required high efficiency. For optimum supersonic flight, turbofan engines were considered, but rejected, as due to their large master cross-section they would cause excessive drag. Turbojets were found to be the best choice of engines. Rolls Royce Olympus history The quieter high bypass turbofan engines such as used on Boeing 747s could not be used. The engine chosen was the twin spool Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593, a version of the Olympus originally developed for the Vulcan bomber, developed into an afterburning supersonic engine for the BAC TSR-2 strike bomber and then adapted for Concorde. Concorde's ramp system schematics Concorde's ramp system The inlet design for Concorde's engines was critical. All conventional jet engines can take in air at only around Mach 0.5; therefore the air needs to be slowed from the Mach 2.0 airspeed that enters the engine inlet. In particular, Concorde needed to control the shock waves that this reduction in speed generates to avoid damage to the engines. This was done by a pair of intake ramps and an auxiliary flap, whose position was moved during flight to slow the air down. The ramps were at the top of the engine compartment and moved down and the auxiliary flap moved both up and down allowing air to flow in or out. During takeoff, when the engine's air demand was high, the ramps were flat at the top and the auxiliary flap was in, allowing more air to enter the engine. As the aircraft approached Mach 0.7, the flap closed; at Mach 1.3, the ramps came into effect, removing air from the engines which was then used in the pressurisation of the cabin. At Mach 2.0, the ramps had covered half their total possible distance. They also helped reduce the work done by the compressors as they not only compressed the air but also increased the air temperature. Engine failure causes large problems on conventional subsonic aircraft; not only does the aircraft lose thrust on that side but the engine is a large source of drag, causing the aircraft to yaw and bank in the direction of the failed engine. If this had happened to Concorde at supersonic speeds, it could theoretically have caused a catastrophic failure of the airframe. However, during an engine failure air intake needs are virtually zero, so in Concorde the immediate effects of the engine failure were countered by the opening of the auxiliary flap and the full extension of the ramps, which deflected the air downwards past the engine, gaining lift and streamlining the engine, minimising the drag effects of the failed engine. In tests, Concorde was able to shut down both engines on the same side of the aircraft at Mach 2 without any control problems. Concorde was tested with both engines on one wing shutdown successfully The aircraft used reheat (afterburners) at take-off and to pass through the transonic regime (i.e. "go supersonic") between Mach 0.95 and Mach 1.7, and were switched-off at all other times. The engines were capable of reaching Mach 2 without reheat, but it was discovered that it burnt more fuel that way, since the aircraft spent much longer flying in the high-drag transonic regime even though reheat is inefficient. Due to jet engines being highly inefficient at low speeds, Concorde burned two tonnes of fuel taxiing to the runway. "Are the skies turning green?" BBC News To conserve fuel only the two outer engines were run after landing. The thrust from two engines was sufficient for taxiing to the ramp due to low aircraft weight upon landing at its destination. However, when operating Concorde at its design point at Mach 2, it was the world's most efficient jet engine. Heating issues Beside engines, the hottest part of the structure of any supersonic aircraft is the nose. The engineers wanted to use (duralumin) aluminium throughout the aircraft, due to its familiarity, cost and ease of construction. The highest temperature that aluminium could sustain over the life of the aircraft was 127 °C, which limited the top speed to Mach 2.02. Concorde went through two cycles of heating and cooling during a flight, first cooling down as it gained altitude, then heating up after going supersonic. The reverse happened when descending and slowing down. This had to be factored into the metallurgical modelling. An expensive test rig was built that repeatedly heated up a full-size section of the wing, and then cooled it, and periodically samples of metal were taken for testing. This cost millions of pounds per year to run. In fact, owing to the heat generated by compression of the air as Concorde travelled supersonically, the fuselage would extend by as much as 300 mm (almost 1 ft), the most obvious manifestation of this being a gap that opened up on the flight deck between the flight engineer's console and the bulkhead. On all Concordes that had a supersonic retirement flight, the flight engineers placed their hats in this gap before it cooled, where the hats remain to this day. In the Seattle museum's Concorde a protruding cap was cut off by a thief in an apparent attempt to steal it, leaving a part behind. An amnesty led to the severed cap being returned. In order to keep the cabin cool, Concorde used the fuel as a heatsink for the heat from the air conditioning. The same method also cooled the hydraulics. During supersonic flight the windows in the cockpit became too hot to touch. Concorde also had restrictions on livery; the majority of the surface had to be painted with a special highly reflecting white paint to avoid overheating the aluminium structure due to the supersonic heating effects of Mach 2. ConcordeSST: orders In 1996, however, Air France briefly painted F-BTSD in a predominantly-blue livery (with the exception of the wings) as part of a promotional deal with Pepsi Cola. In this paint scheme, Air France were advised to remain at Mach 2 for no more than 20 minutes at a time, but there was no restriction at speeds under Mach 1.7. F-BTSD was chosen for the promotion because the aircraft was not then scheduled to operate any long flights that required extended Mach 2 operations. Concorde history (Pepsi) Structural issues Due to the high speeds at which Concorde travelled, large forces were applied to the aircraft structure during banks and turns. This caused twisting and the distortion of the aircraft's structure. This was resolved by the neutralisation of the outboard elevons at high speeds. Only the innermost elevons, which are attached to the strongest area of the wings, are active at high speed. Additionally, the narrow fuselage meant that the aircraft flexed more, particularly during takeoff. Pilots were able to look back down the cabin and see this occurring, but it was less visible from most of the passengers' viewpoints. The cabins of both Air France and British Airways featured lavatories and bulkheads midway down the cabin to reduce the appearance of the "long tube effect" to passengers in the aft of the aircraft. Brakes and undercarriage Due to a high average takeoff speed of , Concorde needed upgraded brakes. Like most airliners, Concorde used an anti-skid braking system which prevents the tyres from sliding when the brakes are applied for greater control during roll-out. The brakes, developed by Dunlop, were the first carbon-based brakes used on an airliner. They could bring Concorde, weighing up to 185 tons (188 tonnes) and traveling at , to a stop from an aborted takeoff within one mile (1600 m). This braking manoeuvrings brought the brakes to temperatures of 300 °C to 500 °C, requiring several hours for cooling. CONCORDE SST: Landing Gear Another issue during the research for Concorde was the undercarriage. It turned out that the undercarriage had to be unusually strong. This was due to the unusual loadings due to the high angle of attack that Concorde needed during take-off, due to its delta-wing. This increased the weight and required a major redesign. One interesting note about the main undercarriage is that if both were to just swing up to be stowed away they would hit each other and jam. The combined length of both undercarriages is greater than the distance between both undercarriage roots. This problem required that the undercarriage be first retracted vertically and then swung inwards to be tucked in the wing and fuselage belly. Brooklands Museum Range Concorde needed to travel between London and New York or Washington nonstop, and to achieve this the designers gave Concorde the greatest range of any supersonic aircraft. This was achieved by a combination of careful development of the engines to make them highly efficient at supersonic speeds, by very careful design of the wing shape to give a good lift to drag ratio, by having a modest payload and high fuel capacity, and by moving the fuel to trim the aircraft without introducing any additional drag. Nevertheless, soon after Concorde began flying, a Concorde "B" model was designed with slightly larger fuel capacity and slightly larger wings with leading-edge slats to improve aerodynamic performance at all speeds and featuring more powerful engines with sound deadening and without the fuel-hungry and noisy reheat. This would have given 500 km greater range even with greater payload, and would have opened up new commercial routes. This was cancelled due to poor sales of Concorde. Concorde B Increased radiation exposure The high altitude at which Concorde cruised meant passengers received almost twice the flux of extraterrestrial ionising radiation as those travelling on a conventional long-haul flight. Due to the proportionally reduced flight time, however, the overall equivalent dose was less than a conventional flight over the same distance. British Airway: Cosmic radiation Unusual solar activity led to an increase in incident radiation, so the flight deck had a radiometer and an instrument to measure the rate of decrease of radiation. If the level was too high, Concorde descended to below . The rate of decrease indicator indicated whether the aircraft needed to descend further, decreasing the amount of time the aircraft was at an unsafe altitude. Cabin pressurisation Concorde fuselage Airliner cabins are usually pressurised to 6-8,000 ft (1,800-2,400 m) elevation while the aircraft flies much higher. Concorde's pressurisation was set to an altitude at the lower end of this range, . Hepburn, A.N. "Human Factors in the Concord". Occupational Medicine, 17: 1967, pp. 47–51. Some passengers can have difficulty even with that pressurisation. A sudden reduction in cabin pressure is hazardous to all passengers and crew. Concorde's maximum cruising altitude was (though the typical altitude reached between London and New York was about ); subsonic airliners typically cruise below . Above , the lack of air pressure would give a 'time of useful consciousness' in even a conditioned athlete to no more than 10–15 seconds. A cabin breach could even reduce air pressure to below the ambient pressure outside the aircraft due to the Venturi effect, as the air is sucked out through an opening. At Concorde's altitude, the air density is very low; a breach of cabin integrity would result in a loss of pressure severe enough so that the plastic emergency oxygen masks installed on other passenger jets would not be effective, and passengers would quickly suffer from hypoxia despite quickly donning them. Concorde, therefore, was equipped with smaller windows to reduce the rate of loss in the event of a breach, a reserve air supply system to augment cabin air pressure, and a rapid descent procedure to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The FAA enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft and made note of Concorde's higher operating altitude, concluding that the best response to a loss of pressure would be a rapid descent. Pilots had access to CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure) which used masks that forced oxygen at higher pressure into the crew's lungs. Droop nose Concorde's famous drooping nose was a compromise between the need for a streamlined design to reduce drag and increase aerodynamic efficiency in flight and the need for the pilot to see properly during taxi, takeoff, and landing operations. A delta-wing aircraft takes off and lands with a high angle of attack (a high nose angle) compared to other wing planforms, due to the way the delta wing generates lift. The pointed nose would obstruct the pilots' view of taxiways and runways, so Concorde's nose was designed to allow for different positioning for different operations. The droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor that was retracted into the nose prior to the nose being lowered. When the nose was raised back to horizontal, the visor was raised ahead of the front cockpit windscreen for aerodynamic streamlining in flight. A controller in the cockpit allowed the visor to be retracted and the nose to be lowered to 5° below the standard horizontal position for taxiing and takeoff. Following takeoff and after clearing the airport, the nose and visor were raised. Shortly before landing, the visor was again retracted and the nose lowered to 12.5° below horizontal for maximum visibility. Upon landing, the nose was quickly raised to the five-degree position to avoid the possibility of damage. On rare occasions, the aircraft could take off with the nose fully down. Air France fleet: Aircraft no. 209 A final possible position had the visor retracted into the nose but the nose in the standard horizontal position. This setup was used for cleaning the windscreen and for short subsonic flights. Concorde nose The two prototype Concordes had two fixed "glass holes" on their retractable visors. British Prototype 002 : G-BSST page, Exterior image of G-BSST, Fleet Air Arm Museum, Yeovilton, UK. The USA Federal Aviation Administration objected to that restrictive visibility and demanded a different design before it would permit Concorde to serve US airports, which led to the redesigned visor used on the production aircraft and the four "pre-production" aircraft (101, 102, 201, and 202). Flight characteristics Concorde's cockpit layout British Airways Concorde interior before 2000 Concorde toilet facilities While commercial jets take eight hours to fly from New York to Paris, the average supersonic flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours. In transatlantic flight, Concorde travelled more than twice as fast as other aircraft — other aircraft frequently appeared to be flying backwards. In regular service, Concorde employed an efficient cruise-climb flight profile. As aircraft lose weight from consuming fuel, they can fly at progressively higher altitudes. This is (generally) more efficient, so conventional airliners employ a stepped climb profile, where air traffic control will approve a change to a higher flight level as the flight progresses. During a landing approach Concorde was on the "back side" of the drag force curve, where raising the nose would increase the sink rate. The delta-shaped wings allowed Concorde to attain a higher angle of attack than conventional aircraft, as it allowed the formation of large low pressure vortices over the entire upper wing surface, maintaining lift. This low pressure caused Concorde to disappear into a self-induced bank of fog on humid days. These vortices formed only at low air speeds, meaning that during the initial climb and throughout the approach Concorde experienced light turbulence and buffeting. Interestingly, the vortex lift created by Concorde's wing just prior to touchdown supplied its own mild turbulence. With no other civil traffic operating at its cruising altitude of about , dedicated oceanic airways or "tracks" were used by Concorde to cross the Atlantic. These SST, ("Super-Sonic Transport"), tracks were designated: Track Sierra Mike (SM); A uni-directional track used by westbound flights of both Air France and British Airways. Track Sierra November (SN); A uni-directional track used by eastbound flights of both Air France and British Airways. Track Sierra Oscar (SO); A bi-directional track used by westbound Air France flights which might conflict with westbound British Airways flights routing simultaneously on Track SM, and by eastbound Air France flights which might conflict with eastbound British Airways flights routing simultaneously on Track SN. Track Sierra Papa (SP); A uni-directional seasonal track used by westbound British Airways flights routing from London Heathrow to Barbados. Due to the nature of high altitude winds, these SST tracks were fixed in terms of their co-ordinates, unlike the North Atlantic Tracks at lower altitudes whose co-ordinates alter daily according to forecast weather patterns. Concorde would also be cleared in a block, allowing for a slow climb from 45,000 to during the oceanic crossing as the fuel load gradually decreased. Prestwick Oceanic Area Control Centre: Manual of Air Traffic Services (Part 2). NATS Concorde actually flew fast enough that the weight of everyone onboard was temporarily reduced by about 1% when flying east. This was due to centrifugal effects since the airspeed added to the rotation speed of the Earth. Flying west, the weight increased by about 0.3%, because it cancelled out the normal rotation and, with it, the normal centrifugal force and replaced it with a smaller rotation in the opposite direction. The Rotating Earth Concorde flew high enough that the weight of everyone onboard was reduced by an additional 0.6% due to the increased distance from the centre of the Earth. BA flights flown by Concorde added "Concorde" in addition to the standard "Speedbird" callsign to notify Air Traffic Control of the aircraft's unique abilities and restrictions. BA Tribute to Concorde. The takeoff scene at the end of the video contains a clip of the ATC communication with the "Speedbird Concorde". The flight numbers of BA's Concorde flights to/from the USA were 001–004; these BA Concordes therefore used callsigns "Speedbird Concorde 1" through to "Speedbird Concorde 4". The service to/from Barbados, special charter flights and test flights prior to a return to service following maintenance used the prefix "Speedbird Concorde" followed by the relevant four digit flight number. With the retirement of Concorde, the BA flight numbers 001 - 004 are now unused. Air France Concordes used the standard "Airfrans" callsign.. Operational history Scheduled flights began on 21 January 1976 on the London-Bahrain and Paris-Rio (via Dakar) routes. The U.S. Congress had just banned Concorde landings in the US, mainly due to citizen protest over sonic booms, preventing launch on the coveted transatlantic routes. However, the U.S. Secretary of Transportation, William Coleman, gave special permission for Concorde service to Washington Dulles International Airport, and Air France and British Airways simultaneously began service to Dulles on 24 May 1976. Concorde events Concorde 1977 When the U.S. ban on JFK Concorde operations was lifted in February 1977, New York banned Concorde locally. The ban came to an end on 17 October 1977 when the Supreme Court of the United States declined to overturn a lower court's ruling rejecting the Port Authority's efforts to continue the ban (The noise report noted that Air Force One, at the time a Boeing VC-137, was louder than Concorde at subsonic speeds and during takeoff and landing.). Time Magazine Scheduled service from Paris and London to New York's John F. Kennedy Airport began on 22 November 1977. Flights operated by BA were generally numbered "BA001" (London to New York), "BA002" (New York to London), "BA003" (London to New York) and "BA004" (New York to London). Air France flight numbers were generally "AF001" (New York to Paris) and "AF002" (Paris to New York). In 1977, British Airways and Singapore Airlines shared a Concorde for flights between London and Singapore International Airport via Bahrain. The aircraft, BA's Concorde G-BOAD, was painted in Singapore Airlines livery on the port side and British Airways livery on the starboard side. Aircraft 210: G-BOAD The service was discontinued after three return flights because of noise complaints from the Malaysian government; it could only be reinstated on a new route bypassing Malaysian airspace in 1979. A dispute with India prevented Concorde from reaching supersonic speeds in Indian airspace, so the route was eventually declared not viable and discontinued in 1980. During the Mexican oil boom, Air France flew Concorde twice-weekly to Mexico City's Benito Juárez International Airport via Washington, DC or New York City, from September 1978 to November 1982. The worldwide economic crisis during that period resulted in this route's cancellation; the last flights were almost empty. The routing between Washington or New York and Mexico City included a deceleration, from Mach 2.02 to Mach 0.95, to cross Florida subsonically and avoid unlawfully sonic-booming it; then a reacceleration to cross the Gulf of Mexico at Mach 2.02. British Airways later implemented this new routing on 1 April 1989, with G-BOAF, on an Around-The-World luxury tour charter. From time to time, Concorde came back to the region on similar chartered flights to Mexico City and Acapulco. From 1978 to 1980, Braniff International Airways leased 10 Concordes, Braniff SST five each from Air France and British Airways. These were used on subsonic flights between Dallas-Fort Worth and Washington Dulles International Airport, flown by Braniff flight crews. Air France and British Airways crews then took over for the continuing supersonic flights to London and Paris. The aircraft were registered in both the United States and their home countries: a sticker covered up the European registration for the few hours it was being operated by Braniff, retaining the AF/BA full colour schemes. The flights were not profitable and were usually less than 50% booked, which forced Braniff to end its tenure as the only U.S. Concorde operator in May 1980. By around 1981 in the UK, the future for Concorde looked bleak. British government had lost money operating Concorde every year, and moves were afoot to cancel the service entirely. A cost projection came back with greatly reduced metallurgical testing costs, as the test rig for the wings had built up enough data to last for 30 years and could be shut down, but still, having lost money for so many years, the government was not keen to continue. In late 1983, the managing director of BA, Sir John King, managed to get the government to sell the aircraft outright to (the then state owned, later privatised) BA for £16.5 million plus the first year's profits. Backroom boys — Francis Spufford After doing a market survey and discovering that their target customers thought that Concorde was more expensive than it actually was, BA progressively raised prices to match these perceptions. NOVA transcript It is reported that BA then ran Concorde at a profit, unlike their French counterparts. The plane was reckoned to make an operating profit for British Airways. BBC NEWS | Business | Why economists don't fly Concorde BA's profits have been reported to be up to £50 million in the most profitable year, with a total revenue of £1.75 billion, before costs of £1 billion. Between 1984 and 1991, British Airways flew a thrice-weekly Concorde service between London and Miami, stopping at Washington's Dulles International Airport. The routing from Dulles to Miami was flown subsonically as far as Carolina Beach VOR; then there was a very rapid climb to 60,000 ft (estimated at per minute) and Mach 2.02 that was possible due to the aircraft's very light weight: an average of only about 25-30 passengers and fuel only for the short Dulles-Miami sector. After about 6-8 minutes at Mach 2.02, deceleration and descent was begun into Miami. On several occasions, bad weather at Dulles and a light passenger payload out of Miami enabled nonstop Miami-London sectors to be flown. The fastest such flight took just 3 hours 47 minutes to fly over from Miami to London, with 70 passengers. On such trips, the flight plan was filed to Shannon, Ireland, with en route re-clearance on to London secured later in the flight after the minimum required fuel for London was clearly present. This flight was farther than a sector often claimed as the farthest ever flown nonstop by Concorde: a special charter for Middle Eastern VIPs from Washington to Nice, France. In 1985, British Airways landed a Concorde at Cleveland Hopkins International Airport for a special flight between Cleveland Hopkins and London Heathrow. When it made its Cleveland appearance, it brought Cleveland international attention and also paved the way for Hopkins Airport to become an international airport. In 2000, Concorde was scheduled to return to Cleveland for a special flight, but, due to the crash of Concorde Flight 4590 in Paris, this flight was never operated. (BA cancelled all charter flights thereafter until its Concorde retirement in October 2003.) The 1985 flight was three hours and ten minutes from Cleveland to London. It had to fly subsonic from Cleveland to New York, and this route added some time. There was talk of adding a Concorde flight to Cleveland, but due to Cleveland's airport being near a residential area, this plan was not carried out. Cleveland National Air Show timeline Concorde G-BOAF. The final flight of Concorde landing at Filton Airfield, near Bristol, on 26 November 2003. On 12-13 October 1992, in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of Columbus' first New World landing, Concorde Spirit Tours (USA) chartered Air France Concorde F-BTSD and circumnavigated the world in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3 seconds, from Lisbon, Portugal, including six refuelling stops at Santo Domingo, Acapulco, Honolulu, Guam, Bangkok and Bahrain. Concorde SST timeline The Eastbound record was set by the same Air France Concorde F-BTSD under charter to Concorde Spirit Tours (USA), on 15-16 August 1995. This special promotional flight circumnavigated the world from New York/JFK International Airport in a time of 31 hours 27 minutes 49 seconds, including six refuelling stops at Toulouse, Dubai, Bangkok, Andersen AFB (Guam), Honolulu and Acapulco. The History of Concorde Concorde continues to hold both records. By its 30th flight anniversary on 2 March 1999 Concorde had clocked up 920,000 flight hours, with more than 600,000 supersonic, much more than all of the other supersonic aircraft put together in the Western world. http://www.janes.com/transport/news/jae/jae000725_1_n.shtml Up to 2003, Air France and British Airways continued to operate the New York services daily. Concorde also flew to Barbados's Grantley Adams International Airport during the winter holiday season. Until the AF Paris crash ended virtually all charter services by both AF and BA, several UK and French tour operators operated numerous charter flights to various European destinations on a regular basis. Paris crash On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590, registration , crashed in Gonesse, France, killing all 100 passengers and nine crew on board the flight, and four people on the ground. It was the only fatal incident involving the type. According to the official investigation conducted by the French accident investigation bureau (BEA), the crash was caused by a titanium strip, part of a thrust reverser, that fell from a Continental Airlines DC-10 that had taken off about four minutes earlier. This metal fragment punctured a tyre on the left main wheel bogie. The tyre exploded, and a piece of rubber hit the fuel tank and broke an electrical cable. The impact caused a hydrodynamic shockwave that fractured the fuel tank some distance from the point of impact. This caused a major fuel leak from the tank, which then ignited due to severed electrical wires which were sparking. The crew shut down engine number 2 in response to a fire warning but were unable to retract the landing gear, hampering the aircraft's climb. With engine number 1 surging and producing little power, the aircraft was unable to gain height or speed, entering a rapid pitch-up then a violent descent, rolling left. The impact occurred with the stricken aircraft tail-low, crashing into the Hotelissimo Hotel in Gonesse. Endres 2001, pp. 110-113. Others have disputed the BEA report, citing evidence that the Air France Concorde was overweight, had unbalanced distribution in the fuel tanks, and lacked a critical spacer in the landing gear which caused it to veer. They came to the conclusion that the aircraft veered off course on the runway, which reduced take-off speed below the crucial minimum. iasa.com.au Prior to the accident, Concorde had been arguably the safest operational passenger airliner in the world in terms of passenger deaths-per-kilometres travelled with zero. After the accident, the death rate was 12.5 fatal events per million flights, more than three times that of the second worst aircraft. However, no aircraft's safety can be accurately measured from a single incident, and safety improvements were made in the wake of the crash. The crash of the Air France Concorde nonetheless proved to be the beginning of the end for the type. Perception of Risk in the Wake of the Concorde Accident, Issue 14, Airsafe Journal, Revised 6 January 2001. The accident led to modifications, including more secure electrical controls, Kevlar lining to the fuel tanks and specially-developed burst-resistant tyres. In July 2008, a French prosecutor filed involuntary manslaughter charges against Continental Airlines and five persons, and a judge ordered them to stand trial. The defendants include two Continental employees, two employees of Aerospatiale and an employee of the French civil aviation authority. A Continental spokesman called the charges "outrageous". AP News 3 July 2008 5 Face Trial in Concorde Crash That Killed 113, New York Times, 3 July 2008. The trial, which is still pending, has been postponed several times. Return to service The first test flight after the modifications departed from London Heathrow on 17 July 2001, piloted by BA Chief Concorde Pilot Mike Bannister. During the 3:20 hr flight over the mid-Atlantic towards Iceland, Bannister attained Mach 2.02 and before returning to RAF Brize Norton. The test flight, intended to resemble the London-New York route, was declared a success and was watched on live TV, and by crowds on the ground at both locations. Foxnews The first BA passenger flight took place on 11 September 2001, and was in the air during the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States. This was not a revenue flight, as all the passengers were BA employees. ConcordeSST: return to flight Normal commercial operations resumed on 7 November 2001 by BA and AF (aircraft and ), with service to New York JFK, where passengers were welcomed by then-mayor Rudy Giuliani. Withdrawal from service Concorde G-BOAD on a barge beneath Verrazano Narrows Bridge in New York City in November 2003, bound for the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum Air France Concorde at Charles De Gaulle International Airport On 10 April 2003, Air France and British Airways simultaneously announced that they would retire Concorde later that year. They cited low passenger numbers following the 25 July 2000 crash, the slump in air travel following the September 11 attacks and rising maintenance costs. That same day, Sir Richard Branson offered to buy British Airways' Concorde fleet at their "original price of £1" for service with his Virgin Atlantic Airways. Branson claimed this to be the same token price that British Airways had paid the British Government, but BA denied this and refused the offer. The real cost of buying the aircraft was £26 million each but the money for buying the aircraft was lent by the government (which in turn took 80% of the profits). Subsequently BA bought two aircraft for a book value of £1 as part of the £16.5 million buy out in 1983. 'Did Concorde make a profit for British Airways?' Branson wrote in The Economist (23 October 2003) that his final offer was "over £5 million" and that he had intended to operate the fleet "for many years to come." Any hope of Concorde remaining in service was further thwarted by Airbus' unwillingness to provide maintenance support for the ageing airframes. It has been suggested that Concorde was not withdrawn for the reasons usually given, but that during the grounding of Concorde it became apparent to the airlines that they could actually make more revenue carrying their first class passengers subsonically. Concorde: An Untimely and Unnecessary Demise Rob Lewis suggested that the precipitous Air France retirement of its own Concorde fleet was the direct result of a secret conspiracy between Air France Chairman/CEO Jean-Cyril Spinetta and then-AIRBUS CEO Noel Forgeard, and stemmed as much from a fear of being found criminally liable under French law for future AF Concorde accidents as it did from simple economics. Further, on the British Airways side, a lack of engineering (maintenance) commitment to Concorde by then-Director of Engineering Alan MacDonald was cited as undermining BA's resolve to continue operating Concorde from within. The Betrayal of Concorde Lewis, Rob. Supersonic Secrets: The Unofficial Biography of the Concorde. London: Expose, a division of Secret Books Limited, 2003. ISBN 0-95466-170-2. Air France Air France made its final commercial Concorde landing in the United States in New York City from Paris on 30 May 2003. Fire trucks sprayed the traditional arcs of water above F-BTSD on the tarmac of John F. Kennedy airport. The final passenger flight for the airline's SSTs was a charter around the Bay of Biscay. During the following week, on 2 June and 3 June 2003, F-BTSD flew a final round-trip from Paris to New York and back for airline staff and long-time employees in the airline's Concorde operations. Air France set for final flights - 23/5/03 Air France's final Concorde flight took place on 27 June 2003 when F-BVFC retired to Toulouse. Concorde Fox-Bravo Arrives at Final Home - 21 July 2003 An auction of Concorde parts and memorabilia for Air France was held at Christie's in Paris on 15 November 2003. Thirteen hundred people attended, with several lots exceeding their predicted values by an order of magnitude. After the end-of-service, French Concorde F-BVFC was retired to Toulouse, and kept functional (including engine runs) for a short while, in case taxi runs were required in support of the French judicial enquiry into the 2000 crash. The aircraft is now fully retired and no longer functional. It is open to the public. French Concorde F-BTSD has been retired to the "Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace" at Le Bourget (near Paris) and, unlike the other museum Concordes, a few of the systems are being kept functional, so that for instance the famous "droop nose" can still be lowered and raised. This led to rumours that they could be prepared for future flights for special occasions. UK Times: This is not a flight of fancy Without the necessary maintenance organisation, or spares, this is no longer possible. British Airways British Airways Concorde, at Heathrow Airport British Airways' last Concorde departure from Grantley Adams International Airport in Barbados was on 30 August 2003. BA conducted a mini North American farewell tour in October 2003. G-BOAG visited Toronto Pearson International Airport on 1 October 2003, after which it flew to New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport as part of the tour. G-BOAD visited Boston's Logan International Airport on 8 October 2003, and G-BOAG visited Washington Dulles International Airport on 14 October 2003. Final trip to Washington for Concorde - 14/10/03 G-BOADs flight to Boston set a record for the fastest transatlantic flight from east to west, making the trip from London Heathrow in 3 hours, 5 minutes, 34 seconds. Concorde Sets Another (two) Records - 8/10/03 Concorde (G-BOAC) at the Manchester International Airport Aviation Viewing Park In a final week of farewell flights around the United Kingdom, Concorde visited Birmingham on 20 October, Belfast on 21 October, Manchester on 22 October, Cardiff on 23 October, and Edinburgh on 24 October. Each day the aircraft made a return flight out and back into Heathrow to the cities concerned, often overflying those cities at low altitude. Over 650 competition winners and 350 special guests were carried. On 22 October, Heathrow ATC arranged for the inbound flight BA9021C, a special from Manchester, and BA002 from New York to land simultaneously on the left and right runways respectively. On the evening of 23 October 2003, the Queen consented to the illumination of Windsor Castle as Concorde's last west-bound commercial flight departed London and flew overhead. This is an honour normally reserved for major state events and visiting dignitaries. British Airways retired its aircraft the next day, 24 October. G-BOAG left New York to a fanfare similar to that given for Air France's "F-BTSD", while two more made round trips, G-BOAF over the Bay of Biscay, carrying VIP guests including many former Concorde pilots, and G-BOAE to Edinburgh. The three aircraft then circled over London, having received special permission to fly at low altitude, before landing in sequence at Heathrow. The two round-trip aircraft landed at 4:01 and 4:03 p.m. BST, followed at 4:05 by the one from New York. All three aircraft then spent 45 minutes taxiing around the airport before finally disembarking the last supersonic fare-paying passengers. The captain of the New York to London flight was Mike Bannister. Mike Bannister (left) in the cockpit of BA002 All of BA's Concorde fleet have been grounded, have lost their airworthiness certificates and have been drained of hydraulic fluid. Ex-chief Concorde pilot and manager of the fleet, Jock Lowe, estimated in 2004 it would cost £10-15 million to make G-BOAF (at Filton) airworthy again. BA maintains ownership of their fleet, and has stated that they will not fly again, as Airbus ended support of the aircraft in 2003. http://www.britishairways.com/concorde/faq.html#17 On 1 December 2003, Bonhams held an auction of British Airways' Concorde artifacts at Kensington Olympia, in London. Items sold included a Machmeter, nose cone, pilot and passenger seats, cutlery, ashtrays and blankets used on board. Proceeds of about £750,000 resulted, with the first half-million going to Get Kids Going!, a charity which gives disabled children and young people the opportunity to participate in sport. BA announced in March 2007 that they would not be renewing their contract for the prime advertising spot at entrance to London's Heathrow Airport, where, since 1990, a 40% scale model of Concorde was located. BAA, the owners of the site, wanted to charge £1.6 million per year to let it. The Concorde model was removed and transported for display in Surrey, under the care of the local Brooklands Museum. ConcordeSST.com news story on the model being moved Restoration A dedicated group of French volunteer engineers is keeping one of the youngest Concordes (F-BTSD) in near-airworthy condition at the Le Bourget Air and Space Museum in Paris. Although only a "static" example, Concorde G-BBDG was restored from essentially a shell at the Brooklands Museum in Surrey. The Brooklands Concorde Project Environmental impact People's reaction to the prospect of severe overhead noise represented a significant change socially. Prior to Concorde's flight trials, the developments made by the civil aviation industry were largely accepted by governments and their respective electorates. However, the opposition to Concorde's noise, particularly on the eastern coast of the United States, forged a new political agenda on both sides of the Atlantic, with scientists and technology experts across a multitude of industries beginning to take the environmental and social impact more seriously. Although Concorde led directly to the introduction of a general noise abatement programme for aircraft flying out of John F Kennedy Airport, it was later found that Concorde was actually quieter than some aircraft, partly due to the pilots temporarily throttling back their engines to reduce noise during overflight of residential areas. Endres 2001, p. 90. Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated chemical interactions with other ozone-depleting chemicals, are understood to produce a net degradation to the ozone layer at the stratospheric altitudes it cruised. Ozone depletion FAQ It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the two is highly restricted. The small fleet size meant that any net ozone-layer degradation caused by Concorde was for all practical purposes negligible. From this perspective, Concorde's technical leap forward can be viewed as boosting the public's (and the media's) understanding of conflicts between technology and the environment. In France, the use of acoustic fencing alongside TGV tracks might not have been achieved without the 1970s furore over aircraft noise. In Britain, the CPRE have issued tranquillity maps since 1990 and public agencies are starting to do likewise. Concorde travelled, per passenger, for each imperial gallon of fuel Powerplant — . This efficiency is comparable to a Gulfstream G550 business jet ( per passenger), Fuel efficiency of airplanes but much less efficient than a Boeing 747-400 ( per passenger). Boeing 747-400 Public perception Parade flight at Queen's Golden Jubilee Concorde was normally perceived as a privilege of the rich, but special circular or one-way (with return by coach or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts. The presence of a Concorde flying overhead would frequently temporarily halt day-to-day business as people would stop to watch as the plane flew by. A noteworthy example can be found in the TV programme Scrapheap Challenge, where the mechanics drop all their tools and wave as Concorde flies over the yard. The aircraft was usually referred to by the British as simply "Concorde", Concorde - British Airways Farewell to Concorde whilst in France it was known as "le Concorde" due to "le", the definite article, Oxford Language Dictionaries Online - French Resources: Glossary of Grammatical Terms being used in French grammar to distinguish a proper name from a common noun of the same spelling. Centre National de Ressources Textuelle et Lexicalles - Définition de LE, LA: article défini Reverso Dictionnaire: La majuscule dans les noms propres ("Capital letters within proper names") In French, the common noun concorde means "agreement, harmony, or peace" Ferrar 1980, p. 114. concorde s.f. concord, unity, harmony, peace. and the aircraft's name was almost certainly chosen for its allusion to the collaboration between the British and French governments. Concorde's pilots and British Airways in official publications and videos often refer to Concorde both in the singular and plural as "she" or "her." British Airways - Celebrate Concorde videos Video including Raymond Baxter commentating as Concorde flies for first time: "She rolls ... She flies!" HM The Queen and HRH The Duke of Edinburgh disembark Concorde Concorde remains a powerful symbol, both for its technology and sculptural shape. It is a symbol of great national pride to many in Britain and France; in France it was thought of as a French aircraft, in Britain as British. Design Quest As a symbol of national pride, an example from the BA fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal events, major air shows and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the Red Arrows. On the final day of commercial service, public interest was so great that grandstands were erected at London's Heathrow Airport to afford a view of the final arrivals. Crowds filled the boundary road around the airport and there was extensive media coverage. Thirty-seven years after her first test flight, Concorde was announced the winner of the Great British Design Quest, organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating design icons such as the Mini, mini skirt, Jaguar E-type, Tube map and the Supermarine Spitfire. Concorde beats Tube map to become Britain's favourite design By Louise Jury Comparison with other supersonic aircraft The only other supersonic airliner in direct competition with Concorde was the Soviet Tupolev Tu-144. It entered service earlier, and was retired in 1978. Lockheed, North American Aviation and Boeing prepared supersonic airliner studies, but only the Boeing 2707 proceeded even to the mock-up stage, the sole American entry into the supersonic transport sweepstakes. Winchester 2005, p. 84. As a result of a rushed development programme, the first prototype of the Tu-144 was substantially different from the preproduction machines, and even these were cruder and less refined than Concorde, with notably higher cabin noise. The Tu-144S had a significantly smaller range than Concorde, largely due to its low-bypass turbofan engines. It required reheat to maintain Mach 2.0 and cruised at Mach 1.6. Tupolev Tu-144 The vehicle had poor control at low speeds because of a simpler, dedicated supersonic wing design. In addition, the Tu-144 required parachutes to land while Concorde had sophisticated anti-lock brakes. The Tu-144 also had two crashes, one at the 1973 Paris Air Show, which made further sales impossible, and another during a pre-delivery test flight. Later production versions had retractable canards for better low speed control, and a research version used turbojet engines that gave them nearly the fuel efficiency and similar range to Concorde. It had 126 seats. With a top speed of Mach 2.35 (made possible due to titanium and steel leading edges) and a cruise of Mach 2.16 it was potentially a more competitive aircraft, but it did not sell. The American designs (Boeing 2707 and Lockheed L-2000) were to have been larger, seating 300. They were also intended to reach higher speeds of up to Mach 3.0, which would have made the construction more difficult: high temperatures ruled out the use of duralumin with design calculations that showed that the extra speed would have only cut Concorde's transatlantic travel by 20 minutes. Running a few years behind Concorde, the winning Boeing 2707 was redesigned to a cropped delta layout; the extra cost of these changes helped to kill the project. The discovery from flights of the XB-70 Valkyrie that sonic booms were quite capable of reaching the ground and the experience from the Oklahoma City sonic boom tests debacle led to the same environmental concerns that contributed to hindering commercial success of Concorde. The American government cancelled the project in 1971, after having spent more than $1 billion. Where is Boeing Going? The only other large supersonic aircraft comparable to Concorde are strategic bombers, principally the Russian Tupolev Tu-22/Tu-22M and Tu-160 and the American B-1B Lancer; only the Russian designs are capable of sustained Mach 2 flight and none of these aircraft are designed for extended supersonic flight like Concorde. Possible replacements In November 2003, EADS, parent company of the Airbus aircraft manufacturing company, announced that it was considering working with Japanese companies to develop a larger, faster replacement for Concorde. Firm considers 'son of Concorde' However, recent news reports suggest only $1m is being invested every year into research, much less than the $1bn needed for the development of a viable supersonic airliner. In October 2005, JAXA, the Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency, undertook aerodynamic testing of a scale model of an airliner designed to carry 300 passengers at Mach 2 (working name NEXST). If pursued to commercial deployment, it would be expected to be in service around 2020 - 2025. Japan tests supersonic jet model The British company Reaction Engines Limited, with 50% money, are engaged in a research programme called LAPCAT, which is examining a design for a hydrogen-fuelled plane carrying 300 passengers called the A2, capable of flying nonstop from Brussels to Sydney at Mach 5+ in 4.6 hours. In May 2008, it was reported that Aerion had $3 billion of preorder sales on its supersonic business jet. Orders for Aerion's Concorde executive jet are more than $3 billion Research into supersonic business jets continues. Operators Air France Singapore Airlines (short term wet lease) British Airways Braniff International Airways (short term lease) Specifications Concorde G-BOAC {{aircraft specifications | plane or copter? = plane | jet or prop? = jet | ref = | crew = 3 (pilot, co -pilot and flight engineer) Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde, aircraft-info.net | capacity = 92-120 passengers (128 in high-density layout Kelly 2005, p. 52. Note: 128 was the maximum number of passengers certified. ). BA and AF Concordes had 100 seats. with AF removing 8 seats after the safety modifications of CY2000-2001 due to weight considerations. | length main = 202 ft 4 in ConcordeSST: Dimensions | length alt = 61.66 m | span main = 84 ft 0 in | span alt = 25.6 m | height main = 40 ft 0 in | height alt = 12.2 m) Fuselage internal length: Fuselage max external width: Fuselage max internal width: Fuselage max external height: Fuselage max internal height:' | area main = 3,856 ft2 | area alt = 358.25 m2 | empty weight main = 173,500 lb | empty weight alt = 78,700 kg | max take-off weight main = 408,000 lb | max take-off weight alt = 185,070 kg | useful load main = 245,000 lb | useful load alt = 111,130 kg | more general = Maximum fuel load: Maximum taxiing weight: | engine (jet)=Rolls-Royce/SNECMA Olympus 593 Mk 610 | type of jet = afterburning turbojets | number of jets = 4 | thrust main = 32,000 lbf | thrust alt = 140 kN | afterburning thrust main = 38,050 lbf | afterburning thrust alt = 169 kN | max speed main = Mach 2.2 Richard Seaman aircraft museum (comparison with Tu-144) | max speed alt = ~1,450 mph, 2,330 km/h | cruise speed main = Mach 2.02 | cruise speed alt = ~1,320 mph | ceiling main = 60,000 ft | ceiling alt = 18,300 m | climb rate main = 5,000 ft/min. | climb rate alt = 25.41 m/s | range main = 3,900 nmi | range alt = 4,500 mi, 7,250 km | loading main = | loading alt = | thrust/weight = 0.373 | lift to drag = Low speed- 3.94, Approach- 4.35, 250 kn, 10,000 ft- 9.27, Mach 0.94- 11.47, Mach 2.04- 7.14 | fuel consumption = for max. range (max. fuel/max. range): 46.85 lb/mi (13.2 kg/km) | more performance = Maximum nose tip temperature:' }} Popular culture Concorde has numerous appearances in various media. Particularly notable or extended appearances include the following. The Concorde: Airport '79 film: Concorde starred in this film sequel in the Airport series. The Concorde used for the live-action aerial filming was the Air France Concorde that crashed 21 years later on 25 July 2000. Aircraft 203: F-BTSC The Concorde Affair (Concorde Affaire in orig.) Italy (1979) film: Director: Ruggero Deodato. A chapter is dedicated to Concorde in Jeremy Clarkson's book, I Know You Got Soul. See also References Notes Bibliography Barfiel, Norman. "Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde (Aircraft in Profile number 250)". Aircraft in Profile, Volume 14. Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1974, pp. 73–113. ISBN 0-85383-023-1. Beniada, Frederic. Concorde. St Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2006. ISBN 0-7603-2703-3. Calvert, Brian. Flying Concorde, The Full Story. London: Crowood Press, 2002. ISBN 1-84037-352-0. Endres, Günter. Concorde. St Paul, Minnestota: MBI Publishing Company, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-1195-1. Ferrar, Henry, ed. The Concise Oxford French-English dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press, 2nd Edition, 1980. ISBN 0-19-864157-5. Kelly, Neil. The Concorde Story: 34 Years of Supersonic Air Travel. West Molesey, Surrey, UK: Merchant Book Company Ltd., 2005. ISBN 1-90477-905-0. Knight, Geoffrey. Concorde: The Inside story. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976. ISBN 0-297-77114-0. McIntyre, Ian. Dogfight: The Transatlantic Battle over Airbus. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 1992. ISBN 0-275-94278-3. Orlebar, Christopher. The Concorde Story. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-85532-667-1. Towey, Barrie, ed. Jet Airliners of the World 1949-2007. Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd, 2007. ISBN 0-85130-348-X. Winchester, Jim. The World's Worst Aircraft: From Pioneering Failures to Multimillion Dollar Disasters''. London: Amber Books Ltd., 2005. ISBN 1-904687-34-2. External links British Airways Concorde page Braniff Airways Concorde page Concorde on Aircraft-Info.net Some rare 1975 - 2003 Concorde brochures Design Museum (UK) Concorde page FAA Document on high altitude flight CBS News Coverage of Concorde 15 October 2003 Aeroflight Aircraft of the World The SST Rise and Fall | Concorde |@lemmatized aérospatiale:4 bac:7 concorde:252 aircraft:100 turbojet:5 power:3 supersonic:39 passenger:31 airliner:17 transport:7 sst:8 product:1 anglo:1 french:21 government:16 treaty:3 combine:1 manufacturing:3 effort:3 british:50 corporation:1 first:23 fly:42 enter:5 service:24 continue:8 year:16 regular:3 transatlantic:8 flight:109 london:34 heathrow:13 airway:43 paris:17 charles:3 de:7 gaulle:3 air:76 france:45 new:37 york:29 jfk:4 washington:10 dulles:8 profitably:1 route:10 record:8 speed:39 less:7 half:3 time:22 also:14 set:7 many:6 include:13 official:3 fai:1 westbound:5 around:11 world:14 eastbound:5 successful:2 two:20 ever:2 operate:12 commercially:1 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7,090 | Baghdad | Baghdad ( ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is coterminous. Having a municipal population estimated at 6.5 million, it is the largest city in Iraq and the second largest (after Cairo) in the Arab World. Located on the River Tigris, the city dates back to the 8th century. Once the centre of the Muslim world, Baghdad is of renewed interest because of the ongoing Iraq War. Name There have been several rival proposals as to its specific etymology. The most reliable and most widely accepted among these is that the name is a Middle Persian compound of Bag "god" + dād "given", translating to "God-given" or "God's gift", whence Modern Persian Baɣdād. Another leading proposal is that the name comes from Middle Persian Bāgh-dād "The Given Garden". The name is pre-Islamic and the origins are unclear, but it is related to previous settlements, which did not have any political or commercial power, making it a virtually new foundation in the time of the Abbasids. Mansur called the city “Madinat as-Salam”, or “City of Peace”, as a reference to paradise. This was the official name on coins, weights, and other things. History Foundation Founding of Baghdad On 30 July 762 the caliph Abu Ja'far Al-Mansur founded the city. Times History of the World, Times Books, London 2000 Mansur believed that Baghdad was the perfect city to be the capital of the Islamic empire under the Abbasids. Mansur loved the site so much he is quoted saying, “This is indeed the city that I am to found, where I am to live, and where my descendants will reign afterward". Wiet, Gastron. Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate. Univ. of Oklahoma Press,1971. The city's growth was helped by its location, which gave it control over strategic and trading routes (along the Tigris to the sea and east-west from the Middle East to the rest of Asia). Monthly trade fairs were also held in this area. Another reason why Baghdad provided an excellent location was due to the abundance of water and its dry climate. Water exists on both north and south ends of the city gates, allowing all households to have a plentiful supply, which was very uncommon during this time. Baghdad reached its greatest prosperity during the reign of the caliph Harun al-Rashid in the early 9th century. Baghdad eclipsed Ctesiphon, the capital of the Persian Empire, which was located some 30 km (20 miles) to the southeast, which had been under Muslim control since 637, and which became quickly deserted after the foundation of Baghdad. The site of Babylon, which had been deserted since the 2nd century BC, lies some 90 km (55 miles) to the south. The making of Baghdad In its early years the city was known as a deliberate reminder of an expression in the Qu'ran, when it refers to Paradise Wiet, pg. 13 . Four years before Baghdad's foundation, in 758, Mansur assembled engineers, surveyors, and art constructionists from around the world to come together and draw up plans for the city. Over 100,000 construction workers came to survey the plans; many were distributed salaries to start the building of the grand city. The framework of the city itself is two large semicircles about twelve miles (19 km) in diameter. July was chosen as the starting time because two astronomers, Naubaknt and Mashallah, believed that the city should be built under the sign of the lion, Leo Wiet, pg. 12 . Leo is significant because he is the element of fire and symbolises productivity, proudness, and expansion. The bricks used to make the city were 18” on all four sides. Abu Hanifa was the counter of the bricks and he developed a canal, which brought water to the work site for the use of both human consumption and the manufacturing of the bricks. Also, throughout the city marble was used to make the buildings and marble steps led down to the river’s edge. Within the city there were many parks, gardens, villas, and beautiful promenades which gave the city an elegant and classy finish “Yakut: Baghdad under the Abbasids, c. 1000CE” . The city was designed as a circle about 2 km in diameter, leading it to be known as the "Round City". The original design shows a ring of residential and commercial structures along the inside of the city walls, but the final construction added another ring, inside the first. http://islamicceramics.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/Abbasid/baghdad.htm In the centre of the city lay the mosque, as well as headquarters for guards. The purpose or use of the remaining space in the center is unknown. The circular design of the city was a direct reflection of the traditional Arab urban design. The ancient Sasanian city of Gur is nearly identical in its general circular design, radiating avenues, and the government buildings and temples at the centre of the city. The surrounding wall The four surrounding walls of Baghdad were named Kufa, Basra, Khurasan, and Damascus; named because their gates pointed in the directions of these destinations Wiet, pg. 14 . The distance between these gates was a little less than a mile and a half. Each gate had double doors that were made of iron; since the doors were so heavy it took several men to open and close them. The wall itself was about thick at the base and about thick at the top. Also, the wall was high, which included the merlons, a solid part of an embattled parapet usually pierced by embrasures. This wall was surrounded by another impressive wall that consisted of and was extremely thick. The second wall had towers and rounded merlons, which surrounded the towers. This outer wall was protected by solid glacis, which is made out of bricks and quicklime. Beyond the outer wall was a water filled moat Weit, pg. 14 . Golden Gate Palace In the middle of Baghdad, in the central square was the Golden Gate Palace. The Palace was the residence of the caliph and his family. In the central part of the building was a green dome that was high. Surrounding the palace was an esplanade, a waterside building, in which only the caliph could come riding on horseback. In addition, the palace was near other mansions and officer’s residences. Near the Gate of Syria a building served as the home for the guards. It was made of brick and marble. The palace governor lived in the latter part of the building and the commander of the guards in the front. In 813, after the death of caliph Amin the palace was no longer used as the home for the caliph and his family Wiet, pg. 15 . The roundness points to the fact that it was based on Arab. See: Encyclopedia Iranica, Columbia University, p.413. The two designers who were hired by al-Mansur to plan the city's design were Naubakht, Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, and Mashallah, a Jew from Khorasan, Iran[Need validation]. The Abbasids and the round city The Abbasid Caliphate was based on them being the descendants of the uncle of Muhammad and being part of the Quraysh tribe. They used Shi’a resentment, Khurasanian movement, and appeals to the ambitions and traditions of the newly conquered Persian aristocracy to overthrow the Umayyads Atlas of the Medieval World pg. 78 . The Abbasids sought to combine the hegemony of the Arabic tribes with the imperial, court, ceremonial, and administrative structures of the Persians. The Abbasids considered themselves the inheritors of two traditions: the Arabian-Islamic (bearers of the mantle of Muhammad) and the Persian (successors to the Sassanid monarchs). These two things are evident from the construction, which is modeled after Persian structures and the need of Mansur to place the capital in a place that was representative of Arab-Islamic identity by building the House of Wisdom, where ancient texts were translated from their original language, such as Greek, to Arabic. Mansur is credited with the “Translation Movement” for this. The Arab structures are exemplified in how the city was built: round, which is why it is called the “Round City”. It is also near the ancient Sassanid imperial seat of Ctesiphon on the Tigris River Atlas of the Medieval World pg. 79 . A centre of learning (8th to 9th centuries) Within a generation of its founding, Baghdad became a hub of learning and commerce. The House of Wisdom was an establishment dedicated to the translation of Greek, Middle Persian and Syriac works. Scholars headed to Baghdad from all over the Abbasid empire, facilitating the introduction of Greek and Indian science into the Arabic and Islamic world at that time. Baghdad was likely the largest city in the world from shortly after its foundation until the 930s, when it was tied by Córdoba. Largest Cities Through History Several estimates suggest that the city contained over a million inhabitants at its peak. Matt T. Rosenberg, Largest Cities Through History. Many of the One Thousand and One Nights tales are set in Baghdad during this period. A portion of the population of Baghdad were non-Arabs such as Persians, Assyrians and Greeks. These communities gradually adapted Arabic language. The end of the Abbasids in Baghdad By the 10th century, the city's population was between 1.2 million George Modelski, World Cities: –3000 to 2000, Washington DC: FAROS 2000, 2003. ISBN 2-00309-499-4. See also Evolutionary World Politics Homepage. and 2 million. Baghdad's early meteoric growth eventually slowed due to troubles within the Caliphate, including relocations of the capital to Samarra (during 808–819 and 836–892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by the Iranian Buwayhids (945–1055) and Seljuk Turks (1055–1135). The Seljuks were a clan of the Oghuz Turks from the Siberian steppes that converted to the Sunni branch of Islam. In 1040, they destroyed the Ghaznavids, taking over their land and in 1055, Tughril Beg, the leader of the Seljuks, took over Baghdad. The Seljuks expelled the Buyids dynasty of Shiites that ruled for some time and took over power and control of Baghdad. They ruled as Sultans in the name of the Abbasid caliphs (they saw themselves as being part of the Abbasid regime) Tughril Beg saw himself as the protector of the Abbasid Caliphs Atlas of the Medieval World pg. 170 . On February 10, 1258, Baghdad was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu, a grandson of Chingiz Khan during the sack of Baghdad. Central Asian world cities, George Modelski Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting. The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliph Al-Musta'sim, and destroyed large sections of the city. The canals and dykes forming the city's irrigation system were also destroyed. The sack of Baghdad put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate, a blow from which the Islamic civilization never fully recovered. At this point Baghdad was ruled by the Il-Khanids, the Mongol emperors of Iran. In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked, by Timur ("Tamerlane"). Ian Frazier, Annals of history: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad, The New Yorker 25 April 2005. p.5 When his forces took Baghdad, he spared almost no one, and ordered that each of his soldiers bring back two severed human heads. New Book Looks at Old-Style Central Asian Despotism, EurasiaNet Civil Society, Elizabeth Kiem, April 28, 2006 It became a provincial capital controlled by the Jalayirid (1400–1411), Kara Koyunlu (1411–1469), Ak Koyunlu (1469–1508), and the Iranian Safavid (1508–1534) dynasties. Ottoman Baghdad (16th to 19th centuries) In 1534, Baghdad was captured by the Ottoman Turks. Under the Ottomans, Baghdad fell into a period of decline, partially as a result of the enmity between its rulers and Persia, which did not accept the Turkish control of the city. Between 1623 and 1638, it was once again in Iranian hands. For a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the Middle East. The city saw relative revival in the latter part of the 18th century under a Mamluk government. The Nuttall Encyclopedia reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000. 20th century Baghdad and southern Iraq were once again brought under Ottoman rule in 1638 and remained so until captured by the British during World War I in 1917. It became the capital of the kingdom of Iraq under British control in 1921. Iraq was given formal independence in 1932, and increased autonomy in 1946. In July 1958 the Iraqi Army staged a coup under Abdul Karim Kassem. The King Faisal II, and his Prime Minister Nuri al-Said, among others, were killed. The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950 of which 140,000 were Jewish. During the 1970s Baghdad experienced a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the price of petroleum, Iraq's main export. New infrastructure including modern sewerage, water, and highway facilities were built during this period. However, the Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money was diverted to the army and thousands of residents were killed. Iran launched a number of missile attacks against Baghdad. In 1991 the Gulf War caused damage to Baghdad's transportation, power, and sanitary infrastructure. Geography and climate The city is located on a vast plain bisected by the River Tigris. The Tigris splits Baghdad in half, with the eastern half being called 'Risafa' and the Western half known as 'Karkh'. The land on which the city is built is almost entirely flat and low-lying, being of alluvial origin due to the periodic large floods which have occurred on the river. Baghdad has a hot arid climate (Koppen climate classification BWh) and is, in terms of maximum temperatures, one of the hottest cities in the world. In the summer from June to August, the average maximum temperature is as high as 44 °C (111 °F) accompanied by blazing sunshine: rainfall is almost completely unknown at this time of year. Temperatures exceeding 50 °C (122 °F) in the shade are by no means unheard of, and even at night temperatures in summer are seldom below 24 °C (75 °F) Though the humidity is very low (usually under 10%) due to Baghdad's distance from the marshy Persian Gulf, dust storms from the deserts to the west are a normal occurrence during the summer. In the winter, from December to February, by contrast, Baghdad has maximum temperatures averaging 15 to 16 °C (59 to 61 °F). Minima can indeed be very cold: the average January minimum is around 4 °C (39 °F) but temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) are not uncommon during this season. Annual rainfall, almost entirely confined to the period from November to March, averages around 140 millimetres (5.5 in), but has been as high as 575 millimetres (23 in) and as low as 23 millimetres (~1 in). On January 11 of 2008, light snow fell across Baghdad for the first time in memory, caused by temperatures falling below zero degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit). Afp.google.com, First snow for 100 years falls on Baghdad Administrative divisions The city of Baghdad has 89 official neighbourhoods within 9 districts. These official subdivisions of the city served as administrative centres for the delivery of municipal services but until 2003 had no political function. Beginning in April 2003, the U.S. controlled Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) began the process of creating new functions for these. The process initially focused on the election of neighbourhood councils in the official neighbourhoods, elected by neighbourhood caucuses. CPA convened a series of meetings in each neighbourhood to explain local government, to describe the caucus election process and to encourage participants to spread the word and bring friends, relatives and neighbours to subsequent meetings. Each neighbourhood process ultimately ended with a final meeting where candidates for the new neighbourhood councils identified themselves and asked their neighbours to vote for them. Once all 88 (later increased to 89) neighbourhood councils were in place, each neighbourhood council elected representatives from among their members to serve on one of the city's nine district councils. The number of neighbourhood representatives on a district council is based upon the neighbourhood’s population. The next step was to have each of the nine district councils elect representatives from their membership to serve on the 37 member Baghdad City Council. This three tier system of local government connected the people of Baghdad to the central government through their representatives from the neighbourhood, through the district, and up to the city council. The same process was used to provide representative councils for the other communities in Baghdad Province outside of the city itself. There, local councils were elected from 20 neighbourhoods (Nahia) and these councils elected representatives from their members to serve on six district councils (Qada). As within the city, the district councils then elected representatives from among their members to serve on the 35 member Baghdad Regional Council. The final step in the establishment of the system of local government for Baghdad Province was the election of the Baghdad Provincial Council. As before, the representatives to the Provincial Council were elected by their peers from the lower councils in numbers proportional to the population of the districts they represent. The 41 member Provincial Council took office in February, 2004 and served until national elections held in January 2005, when a new Provincial Council was elected. This system of 127 separate councils may seem overly cumbersome but Baghdad Province is home to approximately seven million people. At the lowest level, the neighbourhood councils, each council represents an average of 75,000 people. The nine District Advisory Councils (DAC) are as follows http://images.usatoday.com/news/graphics/troop_surge/flash.swf : Adhamiyah Karkh DefenseLink News Article: Soldier Helps to Form Democracy in Baghdad Karadah Zafaraniya Residents Get Water Project Update - DefendAmerica News Article http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2006-03-26-councils-work_x.htm Kadhimyah DefendAmerica News - Article Mansour Sadr City (Thawra) Democracy from scratch | csmonitor.com Rasheed Leaders Highlight Successes of Baghdad Operation - DefendAmerica News Article Rusafa New Baghdad (Tisaa Nissan) (9th of April) NBC 6 News - 1st Cav Headlines The city comprises the following smaller neighborhoods which may make up sectors of any of the districts above. The following is a selection of neighborhoods: Al-Ghazaliya Al-A'amiriya Dora Karrada Al-Jadriya Zayouna Al-Saydiya Hurriya City Al-Sa'adoon Al-Shu'ala Bab Al-Moatham Bab Al-Sharqi Al-Baya' Al-Za'franiya Hayy Ur Sha'ab Hayy Al-Jami'a Al-Adel Al Khadhraa Hayy Al-Jihad Hayy Al-A'amel Hayy Aoor Al-Horaya Hayy Al-Shurtta Yarmouk Jesr Diyala Abu Disher Raghiba Khatoun Arab Jijur Al-Awashosh Al-Fathel Al-Ubedy Al-Wazireya Culture Baghdad has always played an important role in Arab cultural life and has been the home of noted writers, musicians and visual artists. The dialect of Arabic spoken in Baghdad today differs from that of other large urban centres in Iraq, having features more characteristic of nomadic Arabic dialects (Verseegh, The Arabic Language). It is possible that this was caused by the repopulating of the city with rural residents after the multiple sacks of the late Middle Ages. Institutions Some of the important cultural institutions in the city include: Iraqi National Orchestra Rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the Second Gulf War, but have since returned to normal. National Theatre of Iraq The theatre was looted during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, but efforts are underway to restore the theatre. Five women confront a new Iraq | csmonitor.com The live theatre scene received a boost during the 1990s when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 movie theatres were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions. In Baghdad, Art Thrives As War Hovers Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the Academy of Music, Institute of Fine Arts and the Music and Ballet school Baghdad. Baghdad is also home to a number of museums which housed artifacts and relics of ancient civilizations; many of these were stolen, and the museums looted, during the widespread chaos immediately after U.S. forces entered the city. During the 2003 occupation of Iraq, AFN Iraq ("Freedom Radio") broadcast news and entertainment within Baghdad, among other locations. There is also a private radio station called "Dijlah" (named after the Arabic word for the Tigris River) that was created in 2004 as Iraq's first independent talk radio station. Radio Dijlah offices, in the Jamia neighbourhood of Baghdad, have been attacked on several occasions. Gunmen storm independent radio station in latest attack against media in Iraq - International Herald Tribune Sights and monuments Points of interest include the National Museum of Iraq whose priceless collection of artifacts were looted during the 2003 invasion, and the iconic Hands of Victory arches. Multiple Iraqi parties are in discussions as to whether the arches should remain as historical monuments or be dismantled. Thousands of ancient manuscripts in the National Library were destroyed when the building burnt down during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The Al Kadhimain Shrine in the northwest of Baghdad (in Kadhimiya) is one of the most important Shi'ite religious sites in Iraq. It was finished in 1515 and the 7th (Musa ibn Jafar al-Kathim) and the 9th Imams (Mohammad al-Jawad) were buried there. One of the oldest buildings is the 12th century or 13th century Abbasid Palace. The palace is part of the central historical area of the city and close to other historically important buildings such as the Saray Building and Al-Mustansiriyah School (From the Abbasid Period). There are other landmarks in Baghdad, each of which marks a certain historical era: Baghdad Tower now the Ma'amoon Telecommunication Center tower, the tower used to be the highest point in the city and from where all Baghdad can be seen. The construction of the tower marks a period of the post-Gulf-war of 1991 reconstruction efforts. The Two Level Bridge in Jadriyah (Jisr Abul Tabqain). Even though planning for this bridge began before Saddam's take over, the bridge was never built. As part of recent reconstruction efforts, the long planned bridge was built. It connects Al-Doura area with the rest of Baghdad and compliments the 14th of July Bridge. Sahat Al Tahrir (Liberation Square) in central Baghdad. Saray souq Baghdadi Museum (wax museum) Mustansiriya School, a 13th century Abbasid structure Al-Zawra'a Park in Al-Mansour Area and almost in a central location of Baghdad. Kahramana and the 40 Thieves Square. Al-Rasheed Hotel Al Jundi Al Majhool Monument (The Monument to the Unknown Soldier). Al Shaheed Monument. Monument to the Iraqi soldiers killed in the Iran–Iraq War, located on the east bank of the Tigris. A wide road built under Saddam as a parade route, and across it is the Hands of Victory, which is a pair of enormous crossed swords cast from weapons of soldiers who died in the Iran–Iraq War under Saddam's command. Baghdad Zoo The Baghdad Zoo was the largest zoo in the Middle East. Within eight days following the 2003 invasion, however, only 35 of the 650 to 700 animals in the facility survived. This was a result of theft of some animals for human food, and starvation of caged animals that had no food or water. Survivors included larger animals like bears, lions, and tigers. Not withstanding the chaos brought by the invasion, South African Lawrence Anthony and some of the zoo keepers cared for the animals and fed the carnivores with donkeys they had bought locally. Eventually, Bremer ordered protection of the zoo, and American engineers helped reopen the facility. Sport Baghdad is home to some of the most successful football teams in Iraq, the biggest being Al Quwa Al Jawiya (Airforce club), Al Zawra, Al Shurta (Police) and Al Talaba (Students). The largest stadium in Baghdad is Al Shaab Stadium which was opened in 1966. Another, but much larger stadium, is still in the opening stages of construction. The city has also had a strong tradition of horseracing ever since World War I, known to Baghdadis simply as 'Races'. There are reports of pressures by the Islamists to stop this tradition due to the associated gambling. Reconstruction efforts Most Iraqi reconstruction efforts have been devoted to the restoration and repair of badly damaged urban infrastructure. More visible efforts at reconstruction through private development, like architect and urban designer Hisham N. Ashkouri's Baghdad Renaissance Plan and Sindbad Hotel Complex and Conference Center. ARCADD There are also plans to build a giant Ferris wheel akin to the London Eye. Iraq's Tourism Board also is seeking investors to develop a "romantic" island on the River Tigris in Baghdad that was once a popular honeymoon spot for newlywed Iraqis. The project would include a six-star hotel, spa, an 18-hole golf course and a country club. In addition, the go-ahead has been given to build numerous architecturally unique skyscrapers along the Tigris that would develop the city's financial centre in Kadhehemiah. In October, 2008, the Baghdad Metro began service. It connects the center to the southern neighborhood of Dora. Baghdad's major streets Source: stripes.com Haifa Street Hilla Road -- Runs from the south into Baghdad via Yarmouk (Baghdad) Caliphs Street -- site of historical mosques and churches. Sadoun Street -- stretching from Liberation Square to Masbah Mohammed Al-Qassim highway near Adhamiyah Abu Nuwas Street -- runs along the Tigris from the from Jumhouriya Bridge to the 14 July Suspended Bridge Damascus Street -- goes from Damascus Square to the International Airport Road Mutanabbi Street -- A street with numerous books, named after the 10th century Iraqi poet Al-Mutanabbi Rabia Street Arbataash Tamuz (14th July) Street (Mosul Road) Muthana al-Shaibani Street Bor Saeed (Port Said) Street Thawra Street Al Qanat Street -- runs through Baghdad north-south Al Khat al Sare'a - Mohammed al Qasim (high speed lane) - runs through Bagdhad, north-south Al Sinaa Street (Industry Street) runs by the University of Technology - centre of computers trade in Baghdad. Al Nidhal Street Al Rasheed Street -- city centre Baghdad Al Jamhuriah Street -- city centre Baghdad Falastin (Palestine) Street Tariq el Muaskar -- (Al Rasheed Camp Road) Matar Baghdad Al-Dawli (airport road) Jihadd (johnny america) Road -- center of Baghdad Town twinning (twinned cities) Amman, Jordan Beirut, Lebanon Cairo, Egypt Denver, United States of America http://www.sister-cities.org/icrc/directory/MiddleEast/Iraq Sana'a, Yemen Iraqi capital of Baghdad twinned with North Yemen counterpart of Sanaa [Yemen news items 1989:Twinning] See also List of places in Iraq Firdus Square Baghdad Arabic Baghdad Airport Road Baghdad bridge stampede Baghdad Security Plan Reconstruction of Iraq Baghdad Renaissance Plan Sindbad Hotel Complex and Conference Centre References Further reading By Desert Ways to Baghdad, by Louisa Jebb (Mrs. Roland Wilkins), 1908 (1909 ed) (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & format) A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the Garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & format) External links Map of Baghdad Iraq Image - Baghdad Satellite Observation Interactive map Iraq - Urban Society Envisioning Reconstruction In Iraq Description of the original layout of Baghdad Ethnic and sectarian map of Baghdad - Healingiraq Baghdad Renaissance Plan UAE Investors Keen On Taking Part In Baghdad Renaissance Project Man With A Plan: Hisham Ashkouri be-x-old:Багдад | Baghdad |@lemmatized baghdad:102 capital:8 iraq:30 governorate:1 coterminous:1 municipal:2 population:7 estimate:3 million:5 large:14 city:69 second:3 cairo:2 arab:8 world:16 locate:4 river:7 tigris:10 date:2 back:2 century:12 centre:11 muslim:2 renew:1 interest:2 ongoing:1 war:10 name:10 several:4 rival:1 proposal:2 specific:1 etymology:1 reliable:1 widely:1 accept:2 among:5 middle:8 persian:11 compound:1 bag:1 god:3 dād:2 give:7 translate:2 gift:1 whence:1 modern:2 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7,091 | Frigate | Sailing frigate and its rigging A frigate () is a warship. The term has been used for warships of many sizes and roles over the past few centuries. In the 18th century, the term referred to ships which were as long as a ship-of-the-line and were square-rigged on all three masts (full rigged), but were faster and with lighter armament, used for patrolling and escort. In most cases, they carried all their armament upon a single gun deck, while ships-of-the-line possessed multiple gun decks. In the late 19th century (beginning about 1858 with the construction of prototypes by the British and French navies), the armoured frigate was a type of ironclad warship and for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. In modern navies, frigates are used to protect other warships and merchant-marine ships, especially as anti-submarine warfare (ASW) combatants for amphibious expeditionary forces, underway replenishment groups, and merchant convoys. But ship classes dubbed "frigates" have also more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers and even battleships. The rank Frigate Captain derives from the name of this type of ship. Age of sail Origins Boudeuse, of Louis Antoine de Bougainville The term "frigate" (Italian: fregata; Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese/Sicilian: fragata; Dutch: "fregat") originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. Henderson, James: Frigates Sloops & Brigs. Pen & Sword Books, London, 2005. ISBN 1-84415-301-0 In 1583, during the Eighty Years' War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch. This soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sail-only vessels that came to be referred to as frigates. Because most regular navies required ships of greater endurance than the Dunkirker frigates could provide, the useful term 'frigate' was soon applied less exclusively to any relatively fast and elegant sail-only ship, such that much later even the mighty English was described as 'a delicate frigate' after modifications in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first regular navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates. The Dutch navy had three principal tasks in the struggle against Spain: to protect Dutch merchant ships at sea, to blockade the ports of Spanish-held Flanders to damage trade and halt enemy privateering, and to fight the Spanish fleet and prevent troop landings. The first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet. The first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. Geofrrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West 1500-1800, p. 99 By the later stages of the Eighty Years War the Dutch had switched entirely from the heavier ships still used by the English and Spanish to the lighter frigates, carrying around 40 guns and weighing around 300 tons. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, triggering most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar innovations. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as 'frigates', the largest of which were two-decker 'great frigates' of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as 'great ships' of the time; however, most other frigates at the time were used as 'cruisers': independent fast ships. The term 'frigate' implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed (see hull speed) and also, in turn, helped the development of the broadside tactic in naval warfare. At this time a further design evolved, reintroducing oars to create the galley frigate such as the Charles Galley of 1676 which was rated as a 32 gun fifth rate but also had a bank of 40 oars set below the upper deck which could be used to propel the ship in the absence of a favourable wind. In French, the term 'frigate' became a verb, meaning 'to build long and low', and an adjective, adding further confusion. Rodger, N.A.M: The Command of the Ocean - a Naval History of Britain, 1649-1815. Allen Lane, London, 2004. ISBN 0-7139-9411-8 According to the rating system of the Royal Navy, laid down in the 1660s, frigates were usually of the fifth rate, though small 28-gun frigates were classed as sixth rate. Classic design A Magicienne class frigate The classic sailing frigate, well-known today for its role in the Napoleonic wars, can be traced back to French developments in the second quarter of the 18th century. The French-built Médée of 1740 is often regarded as the first example of this type. These ships were square-rigged and carried all their main guns on a single gun deck which replaced the upper gun deck on earlier similarly-sized two-decked ships. The lower deck, known as the "gun deck", now carried no armament, and functioned as a "berth deck" where the crew lived, and was in fact placed below the waterline of the new frigates. The new sailing frigates were able to fight with all their guns when the seas were so rough that comparable two-deckers had to close the gun-ports on their lower decks (see the Action of 13 January 1797, for an example of when this was decisive). Like the larger 74 which was developed at the same time, the new frigates sailed very well and were good fighting vessels due to a combination of long hulls and low upperworks compared to vessels of comparable size and firepower. The Royal Navy captured a handful of the new French frigates during the early stages of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) and were impressed by them, particularly for their inshore handling capabilities. They soon built copies and started to adapt the type to their own needs, setting the standard for other frigates as a superpower. Royal Navy frigates of the late 18th century were based on the 1780-vintage Perseverance class, which displaced around 900 tons and carried 36 guns; this successful class was followed by the Tribune class batch of fifteen ships starting in 1801 that displaced over 1,000 tons and carried 38 guns. In 1797, the US Navy's first six major ships were 44-gun frigates (or "super-frigates"), which actually carried fifty-six to sixty 24-pounder long guns and 36-pounder or 48-pounder carronades on two decks, and were exceptionally powerful and tough. These ships were so well-respected that they were often seen as equal to 4th-rate ships of the line and, after a series of losses at the outbreak of the War of 1812, Royal Navy fighting instructions ordered British frigates (usually of 38 guns or less) to never engage American frigates at any less than a 2:1 advantage. The , better known as "Old Ironsides" and preserved as a museum ship by the US Navy, is the oldest commissioned frigate afloat, and is a surviving example of a frigate from the Age of Sail. These ships were created in a response to deal with the Barbary Coast pirates and in conjunction with the Naval Act of 1794 . The six ships when built had a very distinctive building pattern which was used to minimize "hogging". Hogging was when the wood on the ship’s hull by the keel would begin to bow and interfere with the streamlined design of the ship and begin to slow it down Archibald, Roger. 1997. Six ships that shook the world. American Heritage of Invention & Technology 13, (2): 24. . The way developed to get around this for the six ships in the U.S. Navy was to redesign the hull so that all the weight from the guns was upon the keel itself. The man who came up with this proposal was Joshua Humphreys and in his proposal he said that only live oak should be used to build these ships, a tree that grew only in America. The method was to use diagonal riders, eight on each side that at a 45 degree angle. These beams of the live oak were about two feet wide and around a foot thick and acted as support and helped to maintain the shape of the hull and prevent any flexibility and to minimize impacts Archibald, Roger. 1997. Six ships that shook the world. American Heritage of Invention & Technology 13, (2): 24. . During the time when these six ships were built, these ideas were considered revolutionary and incorporated many other updates and changes to how a frigate was built in the late 17th-early 18th century. Another idea proposed was designing a three-layer hull method where the planks along the sides of the hull were laid horizontally across the ribs, making a crossing or checker board pattern. After all was said and done, the sides of the ship could be as thick as 25 inches, which was able to absorb even the worst of attacks from enemy ships. This is the reason why the USS Constitution gained the nickname "Old Ironsides". Role Frigates were perhaps the hardest-worked of warship types during the Age of Sail. While smaller than a ship-of-the-line, they were formidable opponents for the large numbers of sloops and gunboats, not to mention privateers or merchantmen. Able to carry six months' stores, they had very long range; and vessels larger than frigates were considered too valuable to operate independently. Frigates scouted for the fleet, went on commerce-raiding missions and patrols, conveyed messages and dignitaries. Usually frigates would fight in small numbers or singly against other frigates. They would avoid contact with ships-of-the-line; even in the midst of a fleet engagement it was bad etiquette for a ship of the line to fire on an enemy frigate which had not fired first. For officers in the Royal Navy a frigate was a desirable posting. Frigates often saw action, which meant a greater chance of glory, promotion, and prize money. Unlike larger ships that were placed in ordinary, frigates were kept in service in peacetime as a cost-saving measure and to provide experience to frigate captains and officers which would be useful in wartime. Frigates could also carry marines for boarding enemy ships or for operations on shore. Frigate armament ranged from 22 guns on one deck to 60 guns on two decks. Common armament was 32 to 44 long guns, from 8- to 24-pounders (3.6 to 11 kg), plus a few carronades (large bore short-range guns). The fictitious, but representative, ironclad frigate USS Abraham Lincoln, from the novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea Frigates remained a crucial element of navies until the mid-19th century. The first ironclads were classified as 'frigates' because of the number of guns they carried. However, terminology changed as iron and steam became the norm, and the role of the frigate was assumed first by the protected cruiser and then by the destroyer. Frigates are often the vessel of choice in historical naval novels, such at the Patrick O'Brian Aubrey–Maturin series, C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower series and Alexander Kent's Richard Bolitho series. The motion picture Master and Commander features a reconstructed historic frigate, HMS Rose, to depict Aubrey's frigate HMS Surprise. Age of steam French paddle frigate Descartes Vessels classed as frigates continued to play a great role in navies with the adoption of steam power in the 19th century. In the 1830s navies experimented with large paddle steamers equipped with large guns mounted on one deck, which were termed 'paddle frigates'. From the mid-1840s frigates which more closely resembled the traditional sailing frigate were built with steam engines and screw propellers. These 'screw frigates', built first of wood and later of iron, continued to perform the traditional role of the frigate until late in the 19th century. From 1859, armour was added to ships based on existing frigate and ship of the line designs. The additional weight of the armour on these first ironclad warships meant that they could have only one gun deck, and they were technically frigates, even though they were more powerful than existing ships-of-the-line and occupied the same strategic role. The phrase 'armoured frigate' remained in use for some time to denote a sail-equipped, broadside-firing type of ironclad. Towards the end of the 19th century, the term 'frigate' fell out of use. Armoured vessels were designated as either 'battleships' or 'armoured cruisers', while unarmoured vessels including frigates and sloops were classified as 'unprotected cruisers'. Second World War Modern frigates are related to earlier frigates only by name. The term "frigate" was readopted during World War II by the Royal Navy to describe a new type of anti-submarine escort vessel that was larger than a corvette, but smaller than a destroyer. The frigate was introduced to remedy some of the shortcomings inherent in the corvette design: limited armament, a hull form not suited to open-ocean work, a single shaft which limited speed and maneuverability, and a lack of range. The frigate was designed and built to the same mercantile construction standards (scantlings) as the corvette, allowing manufacture by yards unused to warship construction. The first frigates of the River class (1941) were essentially two sets of corvette machinery in one larger hull, armed with the latest Hedgehog anti-submarine weapon. The frigate possessed less offensive firepower and speed than a destroyer, but such qualities were not required for anti-submarine warfare. Submarines were slow, and ASDIC sets did not operate effectively at speeds of over 20 knots. Rather, the frigate was an austere and weatherly vessel suitable for mass-construction and fitted with the latest innovations in anti-submarine warfare. As the frigate was intended purely for convoy duties, and not to deploy with the fleet, it had limited range and speed. The contemporaneous German Flottenbegleiter ("fleet escorts"), also known as "F-Boats" were essentially frigates. prinzeugen.com "Frigate: An Online Photo Album". Retrieved on: 11 February 2008. They were based on a pre-war Oberkommando der Marine concept of vessels which could fill roles such as fast minesweeper, minelayer, merchant escort and anti-submarine vessel. Because of the Treaty of Versailles their displacement was officially limited to 600 tons, although in reality they exceeded this by about 100 tons. F-boats had two stacks and two 105 mm gun turrets. The design was flawed because of its narrow beam, sharp bow and unreliable high pressure steam turbines. F-boats suffered relatively heavy losses and were succeeded in operational duties later in the war by Type 35 and Elbing class torpedo boats. Flottenbegleiter remained in service as advanced training vessels. It was not until the Royal Navy's Bay class of 1944 that a British design bearing the name of frigate was produced for fleet use, although it still suffered from limited speed. These frigates were similar to the United States Navy's (USN) destroyer escorts (DE), although the latter had greater speed and offensive armament to better suit them to fleet deployments. American DEs serving in the British Royal Navy were rated as frigates, and British-influenced Tacoma class frigates serving in the USN were classed as patrol frigates (PF). One of the most successful post-1945 designs was the British Leander class frigate, which was used by several navies. Modern Age Guided missile role |Modern frigates The introduction of the surface-to-air missile after the Second World War made relatively small ships effective for anti-aircraft warfare (AAW): the "guided missile frigate." In the USN, these vessels were called "Ocean Escorts" and designated "DE" or "DEG" until 1975 - a holdover from the World War II Destroyer Escort or DE. Other navies maintained the use of the term "frigate." From the 1950s to the 1970s, the USN commissioned ships classed as guided missile frigates which were actually AAW cruisers built on destroyer-style hulls. Some of these ships—the Bainbridge-, Truxtun-, California- and Virginia- classes—were nuclear-powered. These were larger than any previous frigates and the use of the term frigate here is much more analogous to its original use. All such ships were reclassified as guided missile cruisers (CG / CGN) or, in the case of the smaller Farragut-class, as guided missile destroyers (DDG) in 1975. The last of these particular frigates were struck from the Naval Vessel Register in the 1990s. Nearly all modern frigates are equipped with some form of offensive or defensive missiles, and as such are rated as guided-missile frigates (FFG). Improvements in surface-to-air missiles (e.g., the Eurosam Aster 15) allow modern guided-missile frigates to form the core of many modern navies and to be used as a fleet defence platform, without the need for specialised AAW frigates. Anti-submarine role At the opposite end of the spectrum, some frigates are specialised for anti-submarine warfare (ASW). Increasing submarine speeds towards the end of the Second World War (see German Type XXI submarine) greatly reduced the margin of speed superiority of frigate over submarine. The frigate could no longer be slow and powered by mercantile machinery and consequently postwar frigates, such as the Whitby class, were faster. Such ships carry improved sonar equipment, such as the variable depth sonar or towed array, and specialised weapons such as torpedoes, forward-throwing weapons such as Limbo and missile-carried anti-submarine torpedoes such as ASROC or Ikara. Surface-to-air missiles such as Sea Sparrow and surface-to-surface missiles such as Exocet give them defensive and offensive capabilities. The Royal Navy's original Type 22 frigate is an example of a specialised ASW frigate. Especially for ASW, most modern frigates have a landing deck and hangar aft to operate helicopters, eliminating the need for the frigate to close with unknown sub-surface threats, and using fast helicopters to attack nuclear submarines which may be faster than surface warships. For this task the helicopter is equipped with sensors such as sonobuoys, wire-mounted dipping sonar and magnetic anomaly detectors to identify possible threats, and torpedoes or depth-charges to attack them. With their onboard radar helicopters can also be used to reconnoitre over-the-horizon targets and, if equipped with anti-ship missiles such as Penguin or Sea Skua, to attack them. The helicopter is also invaluable for search and rescue operation and has largely replaced the use of small boats or the jackstay rig for such duties as transferring personnel, mail and cargo between ships or to shore. With helicopters these tasks can be accomplished faster and less dangerously, and without the need for the frigate to slow down or change course. Further developments De Zeven Provinciën class frigate. Stealth technology has been introduced in modern frigate design. Frigate shapes are designed to offer a minimal radar cross section, which also lends them good air penetration; the maneuverability of these frigates has been compared to that of sailing ships. Examples are the French La Fayette-class with the Aster 15 missile for anti-missile capabilities, the German F125 class and Sachsen class frigates and also the Turkish Milgem type corvettes and TF-2000 type Frigates with the MK-41 VLS. The modern French Navy applies the term frigate to both frigates and destroyers in service. Pennant numbers remain divided between F-series numbers for those ships internationally recognized as frigates and D-series pennant numbers for those more traditionally recognized as destroyers. This can result in some confusion as certain classes are referred to as frigates in French service while similar ships in other navies are referred to as destroyers. This also results in some recent classes of French ships being among the largest in the world to carry the rating of frigate. Also in the German Navy frigates were used to replace aging destroyers; however in size and role the new German frigates exceed the former class of destroyers. The future German F125 class frigate will be the largest class of frigates worldwide with a displacement of 7,200 tons. The same was done in the Spanish Navy, which went ahead with the deployment of the first Aegis frigates, the F-100 class frigates. Some new classes of frigates are optimized for high-speed deployment and combat with small craft rather than combat between equal opponents; an example is the U.S. Littoral Combat Ship. Gallery See also List of frigate classes List of frigate classes by country United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald Lists Note that Algerian, Tripolitan and Tunisian sail frigates are listed under Turkey. All Italian city-state frigates are listed under Italy. Sail frigates(1640-1860)Steam frigates(1830-1880)Modern frigates(1940-present)Current frigates Australia Australia Austria Austria Canada Canada China China Croatia Croatia Denmark Denmark Egypt Egypt FinlandFrance Germany Germany Germany Germany Greece Greece Greece India Iran Italy Italy Italy Italy Malaysia Malaysia Montenegro Netherlands Netherlands New Zealand New Zealand Norway Norway Pakistan Pakistan Peru Peru Peru Portugal Portugal Portugal Portugal Romania Romania Romania Romania Russia Russia Singapore Spain Spain Spain Sweden Turkey Turkey TurkeyUnited Kingdom United States United States United States United States Republic of China (Taiwan) Taiwan Yugoslavia Yugoslavia References Notes Bibliography Bennett, G. The Battle of Trafalgar, Barnsley (2004). ISBN 1-84415-107-7 Constam, Angus & Bryan, Tony, British Napoleonic Ship-Of-The-Line, Osprey Publishing, 2001 184176308X Gardiner, Robert & Lambert, Andrew, (Editors), Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The Steam Warship, 1815-1905 (Conway's History of the Ship series), Book Sales, 2001 Gresham, John D., "The swift and sure steeds of the fighting sail fleet were its dashing frigates", Military Heritage magazine, (John D. Gresham, Military Heritage, February 2002, Volume 3, No.4, pp. 12 to 17 and p. 87). Rodger, N. A. M. The Command of the Ocean, a Naval History of Britain 1649-1815, London (2004). ISBN 0-713-99411-8 Lambert, Andrew Battleships in Transition, the Creation of the Steam Battlefleet 1815-1860, published Conway Maritime Press, 1984. ISBN 0-85177-315-X Lavery, Brian. The Ship of the Line, Volume 1: The Development of the Battlefleet, 1650–1850. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1983. ISBN 0870216317. Lavery, Brian. The Ship of the Line, Volume 2: Design, Construction and Fittings. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1984. ISBN 0870219537. Mahan, A.T., The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783, Cosimo, Inc., 2007 Marriot, Leo. Royal Navy Frigates 1945-1983 , Ian Allan, 1983, ISBN 0-7110-1322-5 Rodger, N.A.M. The Command of the Ocean, a Naval History of Britain 1649-1815, London (2004). ISBN 0-713-99411-8 Sondhaus, L. Naval Warfare, 1815-1914 Winfield, Rif. The 50-Gun Ship. London: Caxton Editions, 1997. ISBN 1840673656, ISBN 1861760256 Lavery, B. Ship. Dorling Kindersly, Ltd (2004). ISBN 1-4053-1154-1 External links Michael Philips, Notes on Sailing Warships, 2000. Frigates from battleships-cruisers.co.uk - history and pictures of United Kingdom frigates since World War II Frigates from Destroyers OnLine - pictures, history, crews of United States frigates since 1963 The Development of the Full-Rigged Ship From the Carrack to the Full-Rigger | Frigate |@lemmatized sail:14 frigate:134 rig:5 warship:10 term:12 use:22 many:3 size:4 role:11 past:1 century:11 refer:5 ship:61 long:7 line:11 square:2 three:3 mast:1 full:3 fast:6 light:3 armament:9 patrol:3 escort:7 case:2 carry:15 upon:3 single:3 gun:27 deck:16 possess:2 multiple:1 late:8 begin:3 construction:5 prototype:1 british:7 french:10 navy:32 armoured:4 type:14 ironclad:5 time:7 powerful:3 vessel:17 afloat:2 modern:11 protect:3 merchant:4 marine:3 especially:3 anti:12 submarine:14 warfare:7 asw:4 combatant:1 amphibious:1 expeditionary:1 force:1 underway:1 replenishment:1 group:1 convoy:2 class:30 dub:1 also:12 closely:2 resembled:1 corvette:6 destroyer:14 cruiser:8 even:5 battleship:4 rank:1 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7,092 | Intel_8080 | AMD clone NEC 8080AF (second source). The Intel 8080 was an early microprocessor designed and manufactured by Intel. The 8-bit microprocessor was released in April 1974 running at 2 MHz (at up to 500,000 instructions per second), and is generally considered to be the first truly usable microprocessor. It was implemented using non-saturated enhancement-load NMOS, demanding extra voltages. Description Programming model i8080 microarchitecture. The Intel 8080 was the successor to the Intel 8008. It used the same basic instruction set as the 8008 (developed by Computer Terminal Corporation) and was source code compatible with its predecessor, but added some handy 16-bit operations to the instruction set as well. The 8080's large 40 pin DIP packaging permitted it to provide a 16-bit address bus and an 8-bit data bus, allowing easy access to 64 kilobytes of memory. Registers The processor had seven 8-bit registers, (A, B, C, D, E, H, and L) where A was the 8-bit accumulator and the other six could be used as either byte-registers or as three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE, HL) depending on the particular instruction. Some instructions also enabled HL to be used as (a limited) 16-bit accumulator. It also had a 16-bit stack pointer to memory (replacing the 8008's internal stack), and a 16-bit program counter. Commands/instructions Like in many other 8-bit processors, all instructions were encoded in a single byte (including register-numbers, but excluding immediate data), for simplicity. Some of them were followed by one or two bytes of data, which could be an immediate operand, a memory address, or a port number. Like larger processors, it had automatic CALL and RET instructions for multi-level procedure calls and returns (which could even be conditionally executed, like jumps) and instructions to save and restore any 16-bit register-pair on the machine stack. There were also eight one-byte call instructions (RST) for subroutines located at the fixed addresses 00h, 08h, 10h,...,38h. These were intended to be supplied by external hardware in order to invoke a corresponding interrupt-service routine, but were also often employed as fast system calls. The most sophisticated command was XTHL, which was used for exchanging the register pair HL with the value stored at the address indicated by the stack pointer. 8-bit instructions Most 8-bit operations could only be performed on the 8-bit accumulator (the A register). For dyadic 8-bit operations, the other operand could be either an immediate value, another 8-bit register, or a memory cell addressed by the 16-bit register pair HL. Direct copying was supported between any two 8-bit registers and between any 8-bit register and a HL-addressed memory cell. Due to the regular encoding of the MOV-instruction (using a quarter of available opcode space) there were redundant codes to copy a register into itself (MOV B,B, for instance), which was of little use, except for delays. However, what would have been a copy from the HL-addressed cell into itself (i.e., MOV M,M) was instead used to encode the HLT instruction (halting execution until an external reset or interrupt). 16-bit operations Although the 8080 was generally an 8-bit processor, it also had limited abilities to perform 16-bit operations: Any of the three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE, HL) or SP could be loaded with an immediate 16-bit value (using LXI), incremented or decremented (using INX and DCX), or added to HL (using DAD). The XCHG operation exchanged the values of HL and DE. By adding HL to itself, it was possible to achieve the same result as a 16-bit arithmetical left shift with one instruction. The only 16 bit instructions that affect any flag is DAD, which sets the CY (carry) flag in order to allow for programmed 24-bit or 32-bit arithmetics (or larger), needed to implement floating point arithmetics, for instance. Input/output scheme Input output port space The 8080 supported up to 256 input/output (I/O) ports, accessed via dedicated I/O instructions—taking port addresses as operands. This I/O mapping scheme was regarded as an advantage, as it freed up the processor's limited address space. Many CPU architectures instead use a common address space without the need for dedicated I/O instructions, although a drawback in such designs may be that special hardware must be used to insert wait states as peripherals are often slower than memory. However, in some simple 8080 computers, I/O was indeed addressed as if they were memory cells, "memory mapped", leaving the I/O commands unused. I/O addressing could also sometimes employ the fact that the processor would output the same 8-bit port address to both the lower and the higher address byte (i.e. IN 05h would put the address 0505h on the 16-bit address bus). Similar I/O-port schemes were used in the backward compatible Zilog Z80 and Intel 8085 as well as the closely related x86 families of microprocessors. Separate stack space One of the bits in the processor state word (see below) indicates that the processor is accessing data from the stack. Using this signal, it is possible to implement a separate stack memory space. However this feature was seldom used. The internal state word For more advanced systems, during one phase of its working loop the processor set its "internal state byte" on the data bus. This byte contains flags which indicate whether the memory or I/O port is accessed and whether it was necessary to handle an interrupt. The interrupt system state (enabled or disabled) was also output on a separate pin. For simple systems, where the interrupts were not used, it is possible to find cases where this pin is used as an additional single-bit output port (the popular Radio86RK computer made in USSR, for instance). Pin usage The address bus had its own 16 pins, and the data bus had 8 pins that were possible to use without any multiplexing. Using the two additional pins (read and write signals), it was possible to assemble simple microprocessor devices very easily. Only the separate IO space, interrupts and DMA required additional chips to decode the processor pin signals. However the processor load capacity was limited, and even simple computers frequently contained bus amplifiers. The processor required three power sources (-5, +5 and +12 Volt(V)) and two non-interlacing high-amplitude synchronization signals. However at least the late Soviet version КР580ВМ80А was able to work with a single +5 V power source, the +12 V pin being connected to +5 V and the -5 V pin to ground. The processor consumed about 1.3 watts (W) of power. The pinout table, from the chip's accompanying documentation, described the pins as follows: Pin number Signal Type Comment 1A10 OutputAddress bus 10 2GND -Ground 3D4 Bidirectional Bidirectional data bus. The processor also transiently sets here the "processor state", providing information about what the processor is currently doing: D0 reading interrupt command. In response to the interrupt signal, the processor was reading and executing a single arbitrary command with this flag raised. Normally the supporting chips provided the subroutine call command (CALL or RST), transferring control to the interrupt handling code. D1 reading (low level means writing) D2 accessing stack (probably a separate stack memory space was initially planned) D3 doing nothing, has been halted by the HLT command D4 writing data to an output port D5 reading the first byte of an executable command D6 reading data from an input port D7 reading data from memory 4D5 5D6 6D7 7D3 8D2 9D1 10D0 11-5 V -The -5 V power supply. This must be the first power source connected and the last disconnected, otherwise the processor will be damaged. 12R InputReset. The signal forces execution of commands, located at address 0000. The content of other processor registers is not modified. This is an inverting input (the active level being logical 0) 13DMA InputDirect memory access request. The processor is requested to switch the data and address bus to the high impedance ("disconnected") state. 14INT InputInterrupt request 15<td>CLC2 InputThe second phase of the clock generator signal 16ACK INT OutputThe processor had two commands for setting 0 or 1 level on this pin. The pin normally was supposed to be used for interrupt control. However in simple computers it was sometimes used as a single bit output port for various purposes. 17RD OutputRead (the processor reads from memory or input port) 18WR OutputWrite (the processor writes to memory or output port). This is an inverted output, the active level being logical zero. 19S OutputActive level indicates that the processor has put the "state word" on the data bus. The various bits of this state word provide additional information for supporting the separate address and memory spaces, interrupts, and direct memory access. This signal is required to pass through additional logic before it can be used to write the processor state word from the data bus into some external register. 205 V-The + 5 V power supply 21ACK DMA OutputDirect memory access confirmation. The processor switches data and address pins into the high impedance state, allowing another device to manipulate the bus 22CLC1 InputThe first phase of the clock generator signal 23RDY InputWait. With this signal it was possible to suspend the processor's work. It was also used to support the hardware-based step-by step debugging mode. 24WAIT OutputWait (indicates that the processor is in the waiting state) 25A0 Output Address bus 26A1 27A2 2812 V -The +12 V power supply. This must be the last connected and first disconnected power source. 29A3 Output The address bus, can switch into high impedance state on demand 30A4 31A5 32A6 33A7 34A8 35A9 36A15 37A12 38A13 39A14 40A11 Literature, used for this table: http://tehno-doc.nm.ru/mikroshem_rus/kr580/kr580vm80a.html http://www.radiomaster.ru/stati/radio/k580/14_k580.php Physical implementation The 8080 integrated circuit used non-saturated enhancement load nMOS gates, demanding extra voltages (for the load-gate bias). It was manufactured in a silicon gate process using a minimum feature size of 6 µm. A single layer of metal was used to interconnect the approximately 6,000 transistors Reichel-Orbital museum - CPU Collection in the design, but the higher resistance polysilicon layer required to implement transistor gates was also used for some interconnects. The die size was approximately 20 mm². The industrial impact Applications and successors The 8080 was used in many early microcomputers, such as the MITS Altair 8800 Computer, Processor Technology SOL-20 Terminal Computer and IMSAI 8080 Microcomputer, forming the basis for machines running the CP/M operating system (the later, fully compatible and more capable, Zilog Z80 processor would capitalize on this, with Z80 & CP/M becoming the dominant CPU & OS combination of the period much like x86 & MS-DOS for the PC a decade later). Even in 1979 after introduction of the Z80 and 8085 processors, five manufacturers of the 8080 were selling an estimated 500,000 units per month at a price around $3 to $4 per unit. <ref> Sol Libes BYTE News...''' in BYTE, ISSN 0360-5280, Volume 4 No. 11, November 1979 pg. 82 </ref> The first single-board microcomputer (see the May 1976 issue of Radio-Electronics) called the "dyna-micro" was based on the Intel C8080A, and also used Intel's first EPROM, the C1702A. The dyna-micro was re-branded by E&L Instruments of Derby, CT in 1976 as the "MMD-1" (Mini-Micro Designer 1) and was made famous as the example microcomputer in the very popular 8080 "BugBook" series of the time. One of the early uses of the 8080 was made in the late 1970s by Cubic-Western Data of San Diego, CA in its Automated Fare Collection Systems custom designed for mass transit systems such as BART and others around the world. An early industrial use of the 8080 was as the "brain" of the DatagraphiX Auto-COM (Computer Output Microfiche) line of products which took large amounts of user data from reel-to-reel tape and imaged it onto microfiche. The Auto-COM instruments also included an entire automated film cutting, processing, washing, and drying sub-system - quite a feat, both then and in the 21st century, to all be accomplished successfully with only an 8-bit microprocessor running at a clock speed of less than 1MHz with a 64K byte memory limit. In addition, several early arcade video games were built around the 8080 microprocessor. Space Invaders was perhaps the most popular such title. Shortly after the launch of the 8080, the Motorola 6800 competing design was introduced, and after that, the MOS Technology 6502 variation of the 6800. Zilog introduced the Z80, which had a compatible machine-language instruction set and initially used the same assembly language as the 8080, but for legal reasons, Zilog developed a syntactically-different (but code compatible) alternative assembly language for the Z80. At Intel, the 8080 was followed by the compatible and electrically more elegant 8085, and later by the assembly language compatible 16-bit 8086 and then the 8/16-bit 8088, which was selected by IBM for its new PC to be launched in 1981. Later NEC made an NEC V20 processor (an 8088 clone) which supported 8080 emulation mode. Thus, the 8080, via its ISA, made a lasting impact on computer history. The Soviet Union manufactured their own design based on 8080 microprocessor named KP580ИK80 (later marked as KP580BM80), where even the pins were placed identically. This processor was the base of the Radio86RK (Радио 86РК in Russian), probably the most popular amateur single-board computer in the Soviet Union. Radio86RK's predecessor was the Micro-80 (Микро-80 in Russian), and its successor the Orion-128 (Орион-128 in Russian) which had a graphical display. Both were built on the KP580 processor. According to some sources, the Soviet analog had two undocumented instructions, specific to itself; however, these were not widely known. Another model compatible with Intel 8080A, named MMN8080, was produced at Microelectronica Bucharest in Romania CPU-world: Soviet chips and their western analogs . Industry change The 8080 also changed how computers were created. When the 8080 was introduced, computer systems were usually created by computer manufacturers such as Digital Equipment Corporation, Hewlett Packard, or IBM. A manufacturer would produce the entire computer, including processor, terminals, and system software such as compilers and operating system. The 8080 was actually designed for just about any application except'' a complete computer system. Hewlett Packard developed the HP 2640 series of smart terminals around the 8080. The HP 2647 was a terminal which ran BASIC on the 8080. Microsoft would create the first popular programming language for the 8080, and would later acquire DOS for the IBM-PC. The 8080 and 8085 gave rise to the 8086 which was designed as a source compatible (not binary compatible) extension of the 8085. PCs based upon the 8086 design and its successors evolved into workstations and servers of 16, 32 and 64 bits, with advanced memory protection, segmentation, and multiprocessing features, blurring the difference between small and large computers (the 80286 and 80386's protected mode were important in doing so). The size of chips has grown so that the size and power of large x86 chips is not much different from high end architecture chips, and a common strategy to produce a very large computer is to network many x86 processors. The basic architecture of the 8080 and its successors has replaced many proprietary midrange and mainframe computers, and withstood challenges of technologies such as RISC. Most computer manufacturers have abandoned producing their own processors below the highest performance points. Though x86 may not be the most elegant, or theoretically most efficient design, the sheer market force of so many dollars going into refining a design has made the x86 family today, and will remain for some time, the dominant processor architecture, even bypassing Intel's attempts to replace it with incompatible architectures such as the iAPX 432 and Itanium. History Federico Faggin was the originator of the 8080 architecture in early 1972, proposed it to Intel's management and pushed for its implementation. He finally got the permission to develop it six months later. Faggin hired Masatoshi Shima from Japan who did the detailed design under his direction. Stan Mazor contributed a couple of instructions to the instruction set. Patent Cultural impact Asteroid 8080 Intel is named as a pun and praise on the name of Intel 8080. Microsoft's published phone number, 425-882-8080, was chosen because so much early work was on this chip. See also CP/M References External links Intel and other manufacturers' 8080 CPU images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de Scan of the Intel 8080 data book at datasheetarchive.com | Intel_8080 |@lemmatized amd:1 clone:2 nec:3 second:3 source:8 intel:15 early:7 microprocessor:8 design:12 manufacture:3 bit:39 release:1 april:1 run:4 mhz:1 instruction:21 per:3 generally:2 consider:1 first:8 truly:1 usable:1 implement:4 use:33 non:3 saturate:2 enhancement:2 load:5 nmos:2 demand:3 extra:2 voltage:2 description:2 program:2 model:2 microarchitecture:1 successor:5 basic:3 set:8 develop:4 computer:19 terminal:5 corporation:2 code:4 compatible:10 predecessor:2 add:3 handy:1 operation:6 well:2 large:7 pin:16 dip:1 packaging:1 permit:1 provide:4 address:21 bus:15 data:17 allow:3 easy:1 access:8 kilobyte:1 memory:20 register:16 processor:38 seven:1 b:3 c:1 e:4 h:1 l:2 accumulator:3 six:2 could:7 either:2 byte:11 three:3 pair:5 bc:2 de:4 hl:10 depend:1 particular:1 also:14 enable:2 limit:5 stack:9 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7,093 | Mobilian_Jargon | Mobilian Jargon (also Mobilian trade language, Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Choctaw trade language, Yamá) was a pidgin used as a lingua franca among Native American groups living along the Gulf of Mexico around the time of European settlement of the region. The name refers to the Mobile Indians of the central Gulf Coast. Mobilian Jargon facilitated trade between tribes speaking different languages. European exploring parties, such as that of de Soto, often had Mobilian-speaking guides along as interpreters. Distribution Mobilian was used from the Florida northwest coast and area of the current Alabama-Georgia border westward as far as eastern Texas and in the north from the lower Mississippi Valley (currently south and central Illinois) to the southern Mississippi River Delta region in the south. It is known to have been used by the Alabama, Apalachee, Biloxi, Chacato, Pakana, Pascagoula, Taensa, and Tunica. Origins Mobilian is a pidginized form of Choctaw and Chickasaw (both Western Muskogean) that also contains elements of Eastern Muskogean languages such as Alabama and Koasati, colonial languages including Spanish, French, and English, and perhaps Algonquian and/or other languages. Pamela Munro has argued that Choctaw is the major contributing language (not both Choctaw and Chickasaw) although this has been challenged by Emanuel Drechsel. Grammar It has a simplified syllable and sound structure and a simplified grammar as compared to Choctaw, its primary parent language. Bibliography Munro, Pamela. (1984). On the Western Muskogean source for Mobilian. International Journal of American Linguisics, 50, 438-450. Drechsel, Emanuel. (1987). On determining the role of Chickasaw in the history and origin of Mobilian Jargon. International Journal of American Linguisics, 53, 21-29. Drechsel, Emanuel. (1997). Mobilian Jargon: Linguistic and Sociohistorical Aspects of a Native American Pidgin. Oxford University Press | Mobilian_Jargon |@lemmatized mobilian:10 jargon:5 also:2 trade:4 language:8 chickasaw:4 choctaw:5 yamá:1 pidgin:2 use:3 lingua:1 franca:1 among:1 native:2 american:4 group:1 live:1 along:2 gulf:2 mexico:1 around:1 time:1 european:2 settlement:1 region:2 name:1 refers:1 mobile:1 indian:1 central:2 coast:2 facilitate:1 tribe:1 speak:1 different:1 explore:1 party:1 de:1 soto:1 often:1 speaking:1 guide:1 interpreter:1 distribution:1 florida:1 northwest:1 area:1 current:1 alabama:3 georgia:1 border:1 westward:1 far:1 eastern:2 texas:1 north:1 low:1 mississippi:2 valley:1 currently:1 south:2 illinois:1 southern:1 river:1 delta:1 know:1 apalachee:1 biloxi:1 chacato:1 pakana:1 pascagoula:1 taensa:1 tunica:1 origin:2 pidginized:1 form:1 western:2 muskogean:3 contain:1 element:1 koasati:1 colonial:1 include:1 spanish:1 french:1 english:1 perhaps:1 algonquian:1 pamela:2 munro:2 argue:1 major:1 contributing:1 although:1 challenge:1 emanuel:3 drechsel:3 grammar:2 simplify:1 syllable:1 sound:1 structure:1 simplified:1 compare:1 primary:1 parent:1 bibliography:1 source:1 international:2 journal:2 linguisics:2 determine:1 role:1 history:1 linguistic:1 sociohistorical:1 aspect:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 |@bigram mobilian_jargon:4 lingua_franca:1 gulf_mexico:1 de_soto:1 choctaw_chickasaw:2 |
7,094 | Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel | Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel () (August 27, 1770 – November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher, and with Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, one of the creators of German Idealism. Hegel influenced writers of widely varying positions, including both his admirers (Bauer, Feuerbach, Marx, Bradley, Dewey, Sartre, Küng, Kojève, Žižek), and his detractors (Schelling, Kierkegaard, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Peirce, Russell). Hegel developed a comprehensive philosophical framework, or "system", to account in an integrated and developmental way for the relation of mind and nature, the subject and object of knowledge, and psychology, the state, history, art, religion, and philosophy. In particular, he developed a concept of mind or spirit that manifested itself in a set of contradictions and oppositions that it ultimately integrated and united, such as those between nature and freedom, and immanence and transcendence, without eliminating either pole or reducing it to the other. His influential conceptions are of speculative logic or "dialectic," "absolute idealism," "Spirit," negativity, sublation (Aufhebung in German), the "Master/Slave" dialectic, "ethical life," and the importance of history. Life Early years Childhood Hegel was born on August 27, 1770 in Stuttgart, in the Duchy of Württemberg in southwestern Germany. Christened Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father, Georg Ludwig, was Rentkammersekretär (secretary to the revenue office) at the court of Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg. Pinkard, Hegel: A Biography, pp. 2-3; p. 745. Hegel's mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa (née Fromm), was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Württemberg court. She died when Hegel was thirteen of a "bilious fever" (Gallenfieber) which Hegel and his father also caught but narrowly survived. Ibid., 3, incorrectly gives the date as September 20, 1781, and describes Hegel as aged eleven. Cf. the index to Pinkard's book and his "Chronology of Hegel's Life", which correctly give the date as 1783 (pp. 773, 745); see also German Wikipedia. Hegel had a sister, Christiane Luise (1773-1832), and a brother, Georg Ludwig (1776-1812), who was to perish as an officer in Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812. Ibid., 4. At the age of three Hegel went to the "German School". When he entered the "Latin School" aged five, he already knew the first declension, having been taught it by his mother. In 1776 Hegel entered Stuttgart's Gymnasium Illustre. During his adolescence Hegel read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary. Authors he read include the poet Klopstock and writers associated with the Enlightenment such as Christian Garve and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Hegel's studies at the Gymnasium were concluded with his Abiturrede ("graduation speech") entitled "The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey." Tübingen (1788-93) At the age of eighteen Hegel entered the Tübinger Stift (a Protestant seminary attached to the University of Tübingen), where two fellow students were to become vital to his development—his exact contemporary, the poet Friedrich Hölderlin, and the younger brilliant philosopher-to-be Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling. Sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each other's ideas. They watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with shared enthusiasm. Schelling and Hölderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on Kantian philosophy, from which Hegel remained aloof. Hegel at this time envisaged his future as that of a Popularphilosoph, i.e., a "man of letters" who serves to make the abstruse ideas of philosophers accessible to a wider public; his own felt need to engage critically with the central ideas of Kantianism did not come until 1800. Hegel engaged critically by himself. Berne (1793-96) and Frankfurt (1797-1801) Having received his theological certificate (Konsistorialexamen) from the Tübingen Seminary, Hegel became Hofmeister (house tutor) to an aristocratic family in Berne (1793-96). During this period he composed the text which has become known as the "Life of Jesus" and a book-length manuscript entitled "The Positivity of the Christian Religion". His relations with his employers having become strained, Hegel gladly accepted an offer mediated by Hölderlin to take up a similar position with a wine merchant's family in Frankfurt, where he moved in 1797. Here Hölderlin exerted an important influence on Hegel's thought. Ibid., 80. While in Frankfurt Hegel composed the essay "Fragments on Religion and Love". In 1799 he wrote another essay entitlted "The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate" which was not published during his lifetime. Career years Jena, Bamberg and Nuremberg: 1801-1816 In 1801 Hegel came to Jena with the encouragement of his old friend Schelling, who was Extraordinary Professor at the University there. Hegel secured a position at the University as a Privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer) after submitting a Habilitationsschrift (dissertation) allegedly on the orbits of the planets. Later in the year Hegel's first book, The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems of Philosophy, appeared. He lectured on "Logic and Metaphysics" and, with Schelling, gave joint lectures on an "Introduction to the Idea and Limits of True Philosophy" and held a "Philosophical Disputorium". In 1802 Schelling and Hegel founded a journal, the Kritische Journal der Philosophie ("Critical Journal of Philosophy") to which they each contributed pieces until the collaboration was ended by Schelling's departure for Würzburg in 1803. In 1805 the University promoted Hegel to the position of Extraordinary Professor (unsalaried), after Hegel wrote a letter to the poet and minister of culture Johann Wolfgang von Goethe protesting at the promotion of his philosophical adversary Jakob Friedrich Fries ahead of him. Ibid., 223. Hegel attempted to enlist the help of the poet and translator Johann Heinrich Voß to obtain a post at the newly renascent University of Heidelberg, but failed; to his chagrin, Fries was later in the same year made Ordinary Professor (salaried) there. Ibid., 224-5. His finances drying up quickly, Hegel was now under great pressure to deliver his book, the long-promised introduction to his System. Hegel was putting the finishing touches to this book, now called the Phenomenology of Spirit, as Napoleon engaged Prussian troops on October 14, 1806, in the Battle of Jena on a plateau outside the city. On the day before the battle, Napoleon entered the city of Jena. Hegel recounted his impressions in a letter to his friend Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer: I saw the Emperor – this world-soul – riding out of the city on reconnaissance. It is indeed a wonderful sensation to see such an individual, who, concentrated here at a single point, astride a horse, reaches out over the world and masters it [...] this extraordinary man, whom it is impossible not to admire. Ibid., 228. Although Napoleon chose not to close down Jena as he had other universities, the city was devastated and students deserted the university in droves, making Hegel's financial prospects even worse. The following February Hegel's landlady Christiana Burkhardt (who had been abandoned by her husband) gave birth to their son Georg Ludwig Friedrich Fischer (1807-31). Ibid., 192. In March 1807, aged 37, Hegel moved to Bamberg, where Niethammer had declined and passed on to Hegel an offer to become editor of a newspaper, the Bamberger Zeitung. Hegel, unable to find more suitable employment, reluctantly accepted. Ludwig Fischer and his mother (whom Hegel may have offered to marry following the death of her husband) stayed behind in Jena. Ibid., 238. He was then, in November 1808, again through Niethammer, appointed headmaster of a Gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post he held until 1816. While in Nuremberg Hegel adapted his recently published Phenomenology of Mind for use in the classroom. Part of his remit being to teach a class called "Introduction to Knowledge of the Universal Coherence of the Sciences", Hegel developed the idea of an encyclopedia of the philosophical sciences, falling into three parts (logic, philosophy of nature, and philosophy of spirit). Ibid., 337. Hegel married Marie Helena Susanna von Tucher (1791-1855), the eldest daughter of a Senator, in 1811. This period saw the publication of his second major work, the Science of Logic (Wissenschaft der Logik; 3 vols., 1812, 1813, 1816), and the birth of his two legitimate sons, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm (1813-1901) and Immanuel Thomas Christian (1814-1891). Heidelberg and Berlin: 1816-1831 Having received offers of a post from the Universities of Erlangen, Berlin, and Heidelberg, Hegel chose Heidelberg, where he moved in 1816. Soon after, in April 1817, his illegitimate son Ludwig Fischer (now ten years old) joined the Hegel household, having thus far spent his childhood in an orphanage. Ibid., 354-5. (Ludwig's mother had died in the meantime.) Ibid., 356. Hegel published The Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sentences in Outline (1817) as a summary of his philosophy for students attending his lectures at Heidelberg. In 1818 Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy at the University of Berlin, which had remained vacant since Fichte's death in 1814. Here he published his Philosophy of Religion (1821). Hegel's efforts were primarily directed at delivering his lectures; his lecture courses on aesthetics, the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of history, and the history of philosophy were published posthumously from lecture notes taken by his students. His fame spread and his lectures attracted students from all over Germany and beyond. Hegel was appointed Rector of the University in 1830, when he was 60. He was deeply disturbed by the riots for reform in Berlin in that year. In 1831 Frederick William III decorated him for his service to the Prussian state. In August 1831 a cholera epidemic reached Berlin and Hegel left the city, taking up lodgings in Kreuzberg. Now in a weak state of health, Hegel went out little. As the new semester began in October, Hegel returned to Berlin, with the (mistaken) impression that the epidemic had largely subsided. By November 14 Hegel was dead. The physicians pronounced the cause of death as cholera, but it is likely he died from a different gastrointestinal disease. Ibid., 658-9. He is said to have uttered the last words "And he didn't understand me" before expiring. Norman Davies, Europe: A history p. 687 In accordance with his wishes, Hegel was buried on November 16 in the Dorotheenstadt Cemetery next to Fichte and Solger. Hegel's son Ludwig Fischer had died shortly before while serving with the Dutch army in Batavia; the news of his death never reached his father. Pinkard, Hegel: A Biography, p. 548. Early the following year Hegel's sister Christiane committed suicide by drowning. Hegel's sons Karl, who became a historian, and Immanuel, who followed a theological path, lived long lives during which they safeguarded their father's Nachlaß and produced editions of his works. Works Hegel published only four books during his life: the Phenomenology of Spirit (or Phenomenology of Mind), his account of the evolution of consciousness from sense-perception to absolute knowledge, published in 1807; the Science of Logic, the logical and metaphysical core of his philosophy, in three volumes, published in 1811, 1812, and 1816 (revised 1831); Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences, a summary of his entire philosophical system, which was originally published in 1816 and revised in 1827 and 1830; and the Elements of the Philosophy of Right, his political philosophy, published in 1822. In the latter, he criticized von Haller's reactionary work, which claimed that laws were not necessary. He also published some articles early in his career and during his Berlin period. A number of other works on the philosophy of history, religion, aesthetics, and the history of philosophy were compiled from the lecture notes of his students and published posthumously. Hegel's works have a reputation for their difficulty and for the breadth of the topics they attempt to cover. Hegel introduced a system for understanding the history of philosophy and the world itself, often described as a progression in which each successive movement emerges as a solution to the contradictions inherent in the preceding movement. For example, the French Revolution for Hegel constitutes the introduction of real individual political freedom into European societies for the first time in recorded history. But precisely because of its absolute novelty, it is also absolutely radical: on the one hand the upsurge of violence required to carry out the revolution cannot cease to be itself, while on the other, it has already consumed its opponent. The revolution therefore has nowhere to turn but onto its own result: the hard-won freedom is consumed by a brutal Reign of Terror. History, however, progresses by learning from its mistakes: only after and precisely because of this experience can one posit the existence of a constitutional state of free citizens, embodying both the benevolent organizing power of rational government and the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality. Hegel's remarks on the French revolution led German poet Heinrich Heine to label him "The Orléans of German Philosophy". Hegel's writing style is difficult to read; he is described by Bertrand Russell in the History of Western Philosophy as the single most difficult philosopher to understand. This is partly because Hegel tried to develop a new form of thinking and logic, which he called "speculative reason" and which includes the more famous concept of "dialectic", to try to overcome what he saw as the limitations of both common sense and of traditional philosophy at grasping philosophical problems and the relation between thought and reality. His thought Freedom Hegel's thinking can be understood as a constructive development within the broadly Platonic tradition that includes Aristotle and Kant. To this list one could add Proclus, Meister Eckhart, Leibniz, Spinoza, Plotinus, Jakob Boehme, and Rousseau. What all these thinkers share, which distinguishes them from materialists like Epicurus, the Stoics, and Thomas Hobbes, and from empiricists like David Hume, is that they regard freedom or self-determination both as real and as having important ontological implications, for soul or mind or divinity. This focus on freedom is what generates Plato's notion (in the Phaedo, Republic, and Timaeus) of the soul as having a higher or fuller kind of reality than inanimate objects possess. While Aristotle criticizes Plato's "Forms", he preserves Plato's preoccupation with the ontological implications of self-determination, in his conceptions of ethical reasoning, the hierarchy of soul in nature, the order of the cosmos, and the prime mover. Kant, likewise, preserves this preoccupation of Plato's in his notions of moral and noumenal freedom, and God. In his discussion of "Spirit" in his Encyclopedia, Hegel praises Aristotle's On the Soul as "by far the most admirable, perhaps even the sole, work of philosophical value on this topic" (par. 378). And in his Phenomenology of Spirit and his Science of Logic, Hegel's concern with Kantian topics such as freedom and morality, and with their ontological implications, is pervasive. Rather than simply rejecting Kant's dualism of freedom versus nature, Hegel aims to subsume it within "true infinity", the "Concept" (or "Notion": Begriff), "Spirit", and "ethical life" in such a way that the Kantian duality is rendered intelligible (as mentioned above), rather than remaining a brute "given." The reason why this subsumption takes place in a series of concepts is that Hegel's method, in his Science of Logic and his Encyclopedia, is to begin with ultra-basic concepts like Being and Nothing, and to develop these through a long sequence of elaborations, including those mentioned in the previous paragraph. In this manner, a solution that is reached, in principle, in the account of "true infinity" in the Science of Logic'''s chapter on "Quality", is repeated in new guises at later stages, all the way to "Spirit" and "ethical life", in the third volume of the Encyclopedia. In this way, Hegel intends to defend the germ of truth in Kantian dualism against reductive or eliminative programs like those of materialism and empiricism (which one can see at work in many of Hegel's critics, including Nietzsche and Russell). Like Plato, with his dualism of soul versus bodily appetites, Kant wants to insist on the mind's ability to question its felt inclinations or appetites and to come up with a standard of "duty" (or, in Plato's case, "good") which goes beyond them. Hegel preserves this essential Platonic and Kantian concern in the form of infinity's going beyond the finite (a process that Hegel in fact relates to "freedom" and the "ought" See Science of Logic, trans. Miller [Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities, 1989], pp. 133-136 and 138, top ), the universal's going beyond the particular (in the Concept), and Spirit's going beyond Nature. And Hegel renders these dualities intelligible by (ultimately) his argument in the "Quality" chapter of the Science of Logic that the finite has to become infinite in order to achieve "reality." This is because, as Hegel suggests by his introduction of the concept of "reality", Ibid., 111 what determines itself rather than depending on its relations to other things for its essential character, is more fully "real" (following the Latin etymology of "real": more "thing-like") than what does not. Finite things don't determine themselves, because, as "finite" things, their essential character is determined by their boundaries, over against other finite things. So, in order to become "real", they must go beyond their finitude ("finitude is only as a transcending of itself" Ibid., 145 ). The result of this argument is that finite and infinite—and, by extension, particular and universal, nature and freedom—don't face one another as two independent realities, but instead the latter (in each case) is the self-transcending of the former. See Ibid., 146, top Thus rather than being merely "given", without explanation, the relationship between finite and infinite (and particular and universal, and nature and freedom) becomes intelligible. And a challenge is issued to reductive and eliminative programs like materialism and empiricism: What kind of "reality" do your fundamental entities or data possess? Progress The obscure writings of Jakob Böhme had a strong effect on Hegel. Böhme had written that the Fall of Man was a necessary stage in the evolution of the universe. This evolution was, itself, the result of God's desire for complete self-awareness. Hegel was fascinated by the works of Kant, Rousseau, and Goethe, and by the French Revolution. Modern philosophy, culture, and society seemed to Hegel fraught with contradictions and tensions, such as those between the subject and object of knowledge, mind and nature, self and Other, freedom and authority, knowledge and faith, the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Hegel's main philosophical project was to take these contradictions and tensions and interpret them as part of a comprehensive, evolving, rational unity that, in different contexts, he called "the absolute idea" or "absolute knowledge". According to Hegel, the main characteristic of this unity was that it evolved through and manifested itself in contradiction and negation. Contradiction and negation have a dynamic quality that at every point in each domain of reality—consciousness, history, philosophy, art, nature, society—leads to further development until a rational unity is reached that preserves the contradictions as phases and sub-parts by lifting them up (Aufhebung) to a higher unity. This whole is mental because it is mind that can comprehend all of these phases and sub-parts as steps in its own process of comprehension. It is rational because the same, underlying, logical, developmental order underlies every domain of reality and is ultimately the order of self-conscious rational thought, although only in the later stages of development does it come to full self-consciousness. The rational, self-conscious whole is not a thing or being that lies outside of other existing things or minds. Rather, it comes to completion only in the philosophical comprehension of individual existing human minds who, through their own understanding, bring this developmental process to an understanding of itself. (Note: "Mind" and "Spirit" are the common English translations of Hegel's use of the German "Geist." Some have argued that either of these terms overly "psychologize" Hegel, implying a kind of disembodied, solipsistic consciousness like ghost or "soul." Geist combines the meaning of spirit—as in god, ghost or mind—with an intentional force.) Central to Hegel's conception of knowledge and mind (and therefore also of reality) was the notion of identity in difference, that is that mind externalizes itself in various forms and objects that stand outside of it or opposed to it, and that, through recognizing itself in them, is "with itself" in these external manifestations, so that they are at one and the same time mind and other-than-mind. This notion of identity in difference, which is intimately bound up with his conception of contradiction and negativity, is a principal feature differentiating Hegel's thought from that of other philosophers. Civil society See also: Civil societyHegel made the distinction between civil society and state in his Elements of the Philosophy of Right. Etext of Philosophy of Right Hegel, 1827 (translated by Dyde, 1897) In this work, civil society (Hegel used the term "buergerliche Gesellschaft" though it is now referred to as Zivilgesellschaft in German to emphasize a more inclusive community) was a stage on the dialectical relationship between Hegel's perceived opposites, the macro-community of the state and the micro-community of the family. Pelczynski, A.Z.; 1984; 'The Significane of Hegel's speration of the state and civil society' pp1-13 in Pelczynski, A.Z. (ed.); 1984; The State and Civil Society; Cambridge University Press Broadly speaking, the term was split, like Hegel's followers, to the political left and right. On the left, it became the foundation for Karl Marx's civil society as an economic base to the right it became a description for all non-state aspects of society, expanding out of the economic rigidity of Marxism into culture, society and politics ibid . This modern liberal distinction between political society and civil society was followed also by Alexis de Tocqueville. Hegel and Heraclitus According to Hegel, "Heraclitus is the one who first declared the nature of the infinite and first grasped nature as in itself infinite, that is, its essence as process. The origin of philosophy is to be dated from Heraclitus. He is the persistent Idea that is the same in all philosophers up to the present day, as it was the Idea of Plato and Aristotle." For Hegel, Heraclitus's great achievements were to have understood the nature of the infinite, which for Hegel includes understanding the inherent contradictoriness and negativity of reality, and to have grasped that reality is becoming or process, and that "being" and "nothingness" are mere empty abstractions. According to Hegel, Heraclitus's "obscurity" comes from his being a true (in Hegel's terms "speculative") philosopher who grasped the ultimate philosophical truth and therefore expressed himself in a way that goes beyond the abstract and limited nature of common sense and is difficult to grasp by those who operate within common sense. Hegel asserted that in Heraclitus he had an antecedent for his logic: "... there is no proposition of Heraclitus which I have not adopted in my logic." Hartnack quotes Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy Volume I. Hegel cites a number of fragments of Heraclitus in his Lectures on the History of Philosophy. One to which he attributes great significance is the fragment he translates as "Being is not more than Non-being", which he interprets to mean Sein und Nichts sei dasselbeBeing and non-being are the same. Heraclitus does not form any abstract nouns from his ordinary use of "to be" and "to become" and in that fragment seems to be opposing any identity A to any other identity B, C, etc., which is not-A. Hegel, however, interprets not-A as not existing at all, not nothing at all, which cannot be conceived, but indeterminate or "pure" being without particularity or specificity. Pure being and pure non-being or nothingness are for Hegel pure abstractions from the reality of becoming, and this is also how he interprets Heraclitus. This interpretation of Heraclitus cannot be ruled out, but even if present is not the main gist of his thought. For Hegel, the inner movement of reality is the process of God thinking as manifested in the evolution of the universe of nature and thought; that is, Hegel argued that, when fully and properly understood, reality is being thought by God as manifested in man's comprehension of this process in and through philosophy. Since man's thought is the image and fulfillment of God's thought, God is not ineffable (so incomprehensible as to be unutterable) but can be understood by an analysis of thought and reality. Just as man continually corrects his concepts of reality through a dialectical process so God himself becomes more fully manifested through the dialectical process of becoming. For his god Hegel does not take the logos of Heraclitus but refers rather to the nous of Anaxagoras, although he may well have regarded them the same, as he continues to refer to god's plan, which is identical to God. Whatever the nous thinks at any time is actual substance and is identical to limited being, but more remains to be thought in the substrate of non-being, which is identical to pure or unlimited thought. The universe as becoming is therefore a combination of being and non-being. The particular is never complete in itself but to find completion is continually transformed into more comprehensive, complex, self-relating particulars. The essential nature of being-for-itself is that it is free "in itself"; that is, it does not depend on anything else, such as matter, for its being. The limitations represent fetters, which it must constantly be casting off as it becomes freer and more self-determining. The notable Introduction to Philosophy of History expresses the historical aspects of the dialectic. Although Hegel began his philosophizing with commentary on the Christian religion and often expresses the view that he is a Christian, his ideas of God are not at home among some Christians, although he has had a major influence on 19th- and 20th-century theology. At the same time, an atheistic version of his thought was adopted instead by some Marxists, who, stripping away the concepts of divinity, styled what was left dialectical materialism, which some saw as originating in Heraclitus. Influence There are views of Hegel's thought as a representation of the summit of early 19th century Germany's movement of philosophical idealism. It would come to have a profound impact on many future philosophical schools, including schools that opposed Hegel's specific dialectical idealism, such as Existentialism, the historical materialism of Karl Marx, historicism, and British Idealism. Hegel's influence was immense both within philosophy and in the other sciences. Throughout the 19th century many chairs of philosophy around Europe were held by Hegelians, and Kierkegaard, Feuerbach, Marx, and Engels--among many others—were all deeply influenced by, but also strongly opposed to, many of the central themes of Hegel's philosophy. After less than a generation, Hegel's philosophy was suppressed and even banned by the Prussian right-wing, and was firmly rejected by the left-wing in multiple official writings. After the period of Bruno Bauer, Hegel's influence did not make itself felt again until the philosophy of British Idealism and the 20th century Hegelian Western Marxism that began with Georg Lukács. The more recent movement of communitarianism has a strong Hegelian influence. Hegel's legacy (interpretation) Reading Hegel Some of Hegel's writing was intended for those with advanced knowledge of philosophy, although his "Encyclopedia" was intended as a textbook in a university course. Nevertheless, like many philosophers, Hegel assumed that his readers would be well-versed in Western philosophy, up to and including Descartes, Hume, Kant, Fichte, and Schelling. For those wishing to read his work without this background, introductions to and commentaries about Hegel can contribute to comprehension, although the reader is faced with multiple interpretations of Hegel's writings from incompatible schools of philosophy. The German philosopher Theodor W. Adorno devoted an essay to the difficulty of reading Hegel and asserted that there are certain passages where it is impossible to decipher what Hegel meant. Difficulties within Hegel's language and thought are magnified for those reading Hegel in translation, since his philosophical language and terminology in German often do not have direct analogues in other languages. For example, the German word "Geist" has connotations of both "mind" and "spirit" in English. English translators have to use the "phenomenology of mind" or "the phenomenology of spirit" to render Hegel's "Phaenomenologie des Geistes", thus altering the original meaning. Hegel himself argued, in his "Science of Logic", that the German language was particularly conducive to philosophical thought and writing. One especially difficult aspect of Hegel's work is his innovation in logic. In response to Immanuel Kant's challenge to the limits of Pure Reason, Hegel developed a radically new form of logic, which he called speculation, and which is today popularly called dialectics. The difficulty in reading Hegel was perceived in Hegel's own day, and persists into the 21st century. To understand Hegel fully requires paying attention to his critique of standard logic, such as the law of contradiction and the law of the excluded middle, and, whether one accepts or rejects it, at least taking it seriously. Many philosophers who came after Hegel and were influenced by him, whether adopting or rejecting his ideas, did so without fully absorbing his new speculative or dialectical logic. If one wanted to provide a big piece of the Hegel puzzle to the beginner, one might present the following statement from Part One of the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences: The Logic: "... a much misunderstood phenomenon in the history of philosophy — the refutation of one system by another, of an earlier by a later. Most commonly the refutation is taken in a purely negative sense to mean that the system refuted has ceased to count for anything, has been set aside and done for. Were it so, the history of philosophy would be, of all studies, most saddening, displaying, as it does, the refutation of every system which time has brought forth. Now although it may be admitted that every philosophy has been refuted, it must be in an equal degree maintained that no philosophy has been refuted. And that in two ways. For first, every philosophy that deserves the name always embodies the Idea: and secondly, every system represents one particular factor or particular stage in the evolution of the Idea. The refutation of a philosophy, therefore, only means that its barriers are crossed, and its special principle reduced to a factor in the completer principle that follows." Left and Right Hegelianism Another confusing aspect about the interpretation of Hegel's work is the fact that past historians have spoken of Hegel's influence as represented by two opposing camps. The Right Hegelians, the allegedly direct disciples of Hegel at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (now known as the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin), advocated a Protestant orthodoxy and the political conservatism of the post-Napoleon Restoration period. The Left Hegelians, also known as the Young Hegelians, interpreted Hegel in a revolutionary sense, leading to an advocation of atheism in religion and liberal democracy in politics. In more recent studies, however, this old paradigm has been questioned. Karl Löwith, From Hegel to Nietzsche: The Revolution in Nineteenth-Century Thought, translated by David E. Green, New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. For one thing, no Hegelians of the period ever referred to themselves as Right Hegelians. That was a term of insult that David Strauss (a self-styled Left Hegelian) hurled at Bruno Bauer (who has most often been classified by historians as a Left Hegelian, but who rejected both titles for himself). For another thing, many Left Hegelians, like Moses Hess, did not describe themselves as followers of Hegel. Several Left Hegelians openly repudiated or insulted the legacy of Hegel's philosophy. The critiques of Hegel offered from the Left Hegelians radically diverted Hegel's thinking into new directions. Eventually they came to form a disproportionately large part of the literature on and about Hegel. Perhaps the main reason that so much writing about Hegel emerges from the so-called Left Hegelians is that the Left Hegelians spawned Marxism, which inspired a global movement lasting more than 150 years, encompassing the Russian Revolution, the Chinese Revolution and even more national-liberation movements of the 20th century. Yet those movements, to be precise, are not a direct result of Hegel's philosophy. Twentieth-century interpretations of Hegel were mostly shaped by one-sided schools of thought: British Idealism, logical positivism, Marxism, Fascism and postmodernism. With reference to Fascism, Italy's Giovanni Gentile "...holds the honor of having been the most rigorous neo-Hegelian in the entire history of Western philosophy and the dishonor of having been the official philosopher of Fascism in Italy." Benedetto Croce, Guide to Aesthetics, Translated by Patrick Romanell, "Translator's Introduction", The Library of Liberal Arts, The Bobbs–Merrill Co., Inc., 1965 However, since the fall of the USSR, a new wave of Hegel scholarship arose in the West, without the preconceptions of the prior schools of thought. Walter Jaeschke and Otto Pöggeler in Germany, as well as Peter Hodgson and Howard Kainz in America, are notable for their many contributions to post-USSR thinking about Hegel as published by the Hegel Society of America. Perhaps the most challenging publication from that source has been the new English edition of Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (1818-1831) which has challenged most 20th century views about Hegel. Triads In previous modern accounts of Hegelianism (to undergraduate classes, for example), especially those formed prior to the Hegel renaissance, Hegel's dialectic was most often characterized as a three-step process, "thesis, antithesis, synthesis"; namely, that a "thesis" (e.g. the French Revolution) would cause the creation of its "antithesis" (e.g. the Reign of Terror that followed), and would eventually result in a "synthesis" (e.g. the Constitutional state of free citizens). However, Hegel used this classification only once, and he attributed the terminology to Immanuel Kant. The terminology was largely developed earlier by Johann Fichte the neo-Kantian. It was spread by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus in a popular account of Hegelian philosophy, and since then the misfit terms have stuck . What is wrong with the "thesis-antithesis-synthesis" approach is that it gives the sense that things or ideas are contradicted or opposed by things that come from outside them. To the contrary, the fundamental notion of Hegel's dialectic is that things or ideas have internal contradictions. From Hegel's point of view, analysis or comprehension of a thing or idea reveals that underneath its apparently simple identity or unity is an underlying inner contradiction. This contradiction leads to the dissolution of the thing or idea in the simple form in which it presented itself and to a higher-level, more complex thing or idea that more adequately incorporates the contradiction. The triadic form that appears in many places in Hegel (e.g. being-nothingness-becoming, immediate-mediate-concrete, abstract-negative-concrete) is about this movement from inner contradiction to higher-level integration or unification. Believing that the traditional description of Hegel's philosophy in terms of thesis-antithesis-synthesis was mistaken, a few scholars, like Raya Dunayevskaya, a devout Marxist who was once Leon Trotsky's secretary, have attempted to discard the triadic approach altogether. According to their argument, although Hegel refers to "the two elemental considerations: first, the idea of freedom as the absolute and final aim; secondly, the means for realising it, i.e. the subjective side of knowledge and will, with its life, movement, and activity" (thesis and antithesis) he doesn't use "synthesis" but instead speaks of the "Whole": "We then recognised the State as the moral Whole and the Reality of Freedom, and consequently as the objective unity of these two elements." Furthermore, in Hegel's language, the "dialectical" aspect or "moment" of thought and reality, by which things or thoughts turn into their opposites or have their inner contradictions brought to the surface, what he called "aufhebung", is only preliminary to the "speculative" (and not "synthesizing") aspect or "moment", which grasps the unity of these opposites or contradiction. Thus for Hegel, reason is ultimately "speculative", not "dialectical". It is widely admitted today that the old-fashioned description of Hegel's philosophy in terms of "thesis-antithesis-synthesis" is inaccurate. Nevertheless, such is the persistence of this misnomer that the model and terminology survive in a number of scholarly works. Advocates According to J.N. Findlay, Hegel is the "Aristotle of modern times", and is, "the greatest of European thinkers, engaged in a self-critical enterprise..." (Foreword, Science of Logic, trans. 1969 by A.V. Miller). Oswald Spengler admired Hegel, contrasting what he saw as Hegel's authentically German philosophy with what he considered Marx's foreign and fraudulent ideology. "Hegel stands above, Marx below the level of historical actuality", claimed Spengler. "Take away Hegel's metaphysics and you will discover a political thinker with a sense of reality unequaled in modern philosophy. As a 'Prussian' by intellectual choice he placed the state at the center of his extraordinarily profound, well-nigh Goethean vision of historical development, whereas Marx, the Englishman by choice, assigned to the economic life the central role in his Darwinian and mechanistic theory of historical 'evolution' (he would call it 'progress')." Prussianism And Socialism by Oswald Spengler In the latter half of the 20th century, Hegel's philosophy underwent a major renaissance. This was due to: (a) the rediscovery and reevaluation of Hegel as a possible philosophical progenitor of Marxism by philosophically oriented Marxists; (b) a resurgence of the historical perspective that Hegel brought to everything; and (c) an increasing recognition of the importance of his dialectical method. The book that did the most to reintroduce Hegel into the Marxist canon was perhaps Georg Lukács' History and Class Consciousness. This sparked a renewed interest in Hegel reflected in the work of Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Ernst Bloch, Raya Dunayevskaya, Alexandre Kojève and Gotthard Günther among others. The Hegel renaissance also highlighted the significance of Hegel's early works, i.e. those published prior to the Phenomenology of Spirit. The direct and indirect influence of Kojève's lectures and writings (on the Phenomenology of Spirit, in particular) mean that it is not possible to understand most French philosophers from Jean-Paul Sartre to Jacques Derrida without understanding Hegel. Beginning in the 1960s, Anglo-American Hegel scholarship has attempted to challenge the traditional interpretation of Hegel as offering a metaphysical system: this has also been the approach of Z.A. Pelczynski and Shlomo Avineri. This view, sometimes referred to as the 'non-metaphysical option', has had a decided influence on many major English language studies of Hegel in the past 40 years. U.S. neoconservative political theorist Francis Fukuyama's controversial book The End of History and the Last Man was heavily influenced by Alexandre Kojève. Among modern scientists, the physicist David Bohm, the mathematician William Lawvere, the logician Kurt Gödel and the biologist Ernst Mayr have been interested in Hegel's philosophical work. A late 20th century literature in Western Theology that is friendly to Hegel includes such writers as Dale M. Schlitt (1984), Theodore Geraets (1985), Philip M. Merklinger (1991), Stephen Rocker (1995) and Cyril O'Regan (1995). The contemporary theologian Hans Küng has also advanced contemporary scholarship in Hegel studies. Recently, two prominent American philosophers, John McDowell and Robert Brandom (sometimes, half-seriously, referred to as the Pittsburgh Hegelians), have produced philosophical works exhibiting a marked Hegelian influence. Each is avowedly influenced by the late Wilfred Sellars, also of Pittsburgh, who referred to his seminal work, Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind, as a series of "incipient Méditations Hegeliennes" (in homage to Edmund Husserl's treatise, Meditations Cartesiennes). Beginning in the 1990s, after the fall of the USSR, a fresh reading of Hegel took place in the West. For these scholars, fairly well represented by the Hegel Society of America and in cooperation with German scholars such as Otto Pöggeler and Walter Jaeschke, Hegel's works should be read without preconceptions. Marx plays a minor role in these new readings, and some contemporary scholars have suggested that Marx's interpretation of Hegel is irrelevant to a proper reading of Hegel. Some American philosophers associated with this movement include Clark Butler, Vince Hathaway, Daniel Shannon, David Duquette, David MacGregor, Edward Beach, John Burbidge, Lawrence Stepelevich, Rudolph Siebert, Randall Jackwak, Theodore Geraets and William Desmond. Detractors Hegel used his system of dialectics to explain the whole of the history of philosophy, science, art, politics and religion, but he has had many critics over the centuries. Perhaps the most famous critics were the Left-Hegelians, including Ludwig Feuerbach, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and their followers in the 19th century. In Britain, Hegel exercised an influence on the philosophical school called "British Idealism", which included Francis Herbert Bradley and Bernard Bosanquet, in England, and Josiah Royce at Harvard. However, Analytic philosophy, which still continues to dominate philosophy departments in the United States and the United Kingdom, was virtually founded when G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell rejected British Idealism and their colleagues' admiration for Hegel. Hegel remains largely out of fashion in these departments even to this day. Logical Positivists such as Alfred Jules Ayer and the Vienna Circle criticized his ideas and their supporters such as F. H. Bradley. The trend towards criticism of Hegel has been widespread in the 19th and the 20th centuries, and has included individuals such as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Bertrand Russell, G.E. Moore, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Eric Voegelin, Alfred Ayer, and many others. In the late 20th century this trend was resisted by Professor Jon Stewart (Northwestern University, Illinois) in 1996 with his book, The Hegel Myths and Legends. Some 20th century critics suggested that Hegel glosses over the realities of history in order to fit it into his dialectical mold. Erich Heller opines in his The Disinherited Mind (1952) that Hegel was proved wrong — by the poets who succeeded him, not by the unfolding reality. Some newer philosophers who prefer to follow the tradition of British Philosophy have made similar statements. Obscurantism A well known charge of obscurantist "pseudo-philosophy" against Hegel was made by his contemporary Schopenhauer, who wrote that Hegel's philosophy is: Moreover, modern analytic and positivistic philosophers have considered Hegel a principal target because of what they consider the obscurantism of his philosophy. When the scientist Ludwig Boltzmann wanted to learn the profound answers to his questions about life and nature, the culture of his time directed him to Hegel's works. "To go straight to the deepest depths, I went for Hegel; what unclear thoughtless flow of words I was to find there!". Ludwig Boltzmann, Theoretical physics and philosophical problems: Selected writings, p. 155, D. Reidel, 1974, ISBN 90-277-0250-0 He soon turned his quest to the works of other philosophers. Another popular criticism of Hegel came from Bertrand Russell, who was one of the leading figures in analytical philosophy. As an advocate for clarity in language Russell has openly criticised and mocked Hegel in his book Unpopular Essays. Russell also targeted Hegel again, in his A History of Western Philosophy claiming that "...he...is the hardest to understand of all the great philosophers" but also admitting that "Even if [as I myself believe] almost all Hegel's doctrines are false, he still retains an importance...as the best representation of a certain kind of philosophy." Also like Schopenhauer, Russell notes that much of Hegel's philosophy is merely an elaboration of his mystic insight which Hegel was attracted to in his younger years. Russell also attacks Hegel calling his logic "obscure" and accusing him of making knowledge "metaphysically impossible" because of Hegel's attempt to get rid of the in-itself . Finally, although the centerpiece of his criticism was around Hegel's justification of the political arrangement he happened to live in (thus renouncing to apply his substantive critical skills to the Prussian state), and by extension to proto-totalitarian modes of social relationship, a significant component of Karl Popper's attack on Hegel has to do with the lack of clarity of his prose, leveling against him charges of mystification, pompousness and even intellectual dishonesty (as according to Popper, those features were purposefully used by Hegel to distract the reader's attention from some of the ugliest implications of his ideas). The Absolute Nietzsche criticized Hegel's claims about the Absolute.{{Quotation| Words are but symbols for the relations of things to one another and to us; nowhere do they touch upon absolute truth. ... Thus it is, today, after Kant, an audacious ignorance if here and there, especially among badly informed theologians who like to play philosopher, the task of philosophy is represented as being quite certainly "comprehending the Absolute with the consciousness", somewhat completely in the form "the Absolute is already present, how could it be sought somewhere else?" as Hegel has expressed it.|Friedrich Nietzsche|Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, § 11.}} Totalitarianism Kierkegaard, one of Hegel's earliest critics, criticized Hegel's "absolute knowledge" unity, not only because it was arrogant for a mere human to claim such a unity, but also because such a system negates the importance of the individual in favour of the whole unity. In Concluding Unscientific Postscript, one of Kierkegaard's main attacks of Hegel, he writes, under the pseudonym Johannes Climacus: In the 20th century, Popper suggested that Hegel's system formed a thinly veiled justification for the absolute rule of Frederick William III, and that Hegel's idea of the ultimate goal of history was to reach a state approximating that of 1830s Prussia. He argued that Hegel's philosophy eventually inspired both Marxism and fascism. This view of Hegel as an apologist of state power and precursor of 20th century totalitarianism was criticized by Herbert Marcuse in his Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory, on the grounds that Hegel was not an apologist for any state or form of authority simply because it existed: for Hegel the state must always be rational. Other scholars, e.g. Walter Kaufmann and Shlomo Avineri, have also criticized Popper's theories about Hegel. (See for instance Walter Kaufmann 1959, The Hegel Myth and Its Method.) An analysis against Popper's arguments can also be found in Joachim Ritter's influential work, Hegel and the French Revolution. Following Schopenhauer and Kierkegaard, Popper accused Hegel's philosophy of being essentially vacuous, labeling it "bombastic and mystifying cant." Santayana also interpreted Hegel as defending whoever held power, the position that might makes right. Hegel's relation to the Prussian government was described by Lange: Lange was referring to the Prussian Ministry of Education and Medicine's decree commanding the Royal Science Examinations Commission to suppress any "shallow and superficial" non–Hegelian philosophy. Lange, F.A.,History of Materialism, Book II, Section I, Chapter 2, Footnote 48 Fries accused Hegel of defending the existing order, and his own privileged position within it. He argued that, "Hegel's metaphysical mushroom has grown not in the gardens of science but on the dunghill of servility." G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991, pg 15-16 For Fries, Hegel's theories merely added up to a defence of the establishment and, specifically, the Prussian authorities. Natural Sciences Gauss, writing in hindsight, viewed Hegel's discussion of the Natural Sciences as inaccurate: Wilhelm Krug challenged Hegel to "deduce his quill (pen)." In other words, he dared Hegel to arrive at knowledge of a particular thing from the abstractions of Absolute idealism's philosophy of nature. Hegel later ridiculed Krug for missing the point of philosophy itself, stating that: Psychology The psychoanalyst Carl Jung associated Hegel with mental illness (Jung also made similar statements about James Joyce) when he wrote: Works Published during Hegel's lifetime Differenz des Fichteschen und Schellingschen Systems der Philosophie, 1801 The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems of Philosophy, tr. H. S. Harris and Walter Cerf, 1977 Phänomenologie des Geistes, 1807 Phenomenology of Mind, tr. J. B. Baillie, 1910; 2nd ed. 1931 Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, tr. A. V. Miller, 1977 Wissenschaft der Logik, 1812, 1813, 1816 Science of Logic, tr. W. H. Johnston and L. G. Struthers, 2 vols., 1929; tr. A. V. Miller, 1969 Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften, 1817; 2nd ed. 1827; 3rd ed. 1830 (Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences) (Pt. I:) The Logic of Hegel, tr. William Wallace, 1874, 2nd ed. 1892; tr. T. F. Geraets, W. A. Suchting and H. S. Harris, 1991 (Pt. II:) Hegel's Philosophy of Nature, tr. A. V. Miller, 1970 (Pt. III:) Hegel's Philosophy of Mind, tr. William Wallace, 1894; rev. by A. V. Miller, 1971 Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts, 1821 Elements of the Philosophy of Right, tr. T. M. Knox, 1942; tr. H. B. Bisnet, ed. Allen W. Wood, 1991 Published posthumously Lectures on Aesthetics Lectures on the Philosophy of History (also translated as Lectures on the Philosophy of World History) 1837 Lectures on Philosophy of Religion Lectures on the History of Philosophy Secondary literature General introductions Beiser, Frederick C., 2005. Hegel. Routledge Findlay, J. N., 1958. Hegel: A Re-examination. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-519879-4 Gouin, Jean-Luc, 2000. Hegel ou de la Raison intégrale, suivi de : « Aimer Penser Mourir : Hegel, Nietzsche, Freud en miroirs », Montréal (Québec), Éditions Bellarmin, 225 p. ISBN 2-89007-883-3 Houlgate, Stephen, 2005. An Introduction to Hegel. Freedom, Truth and History. Oxford: Blackwell Kainz, Howard P., 1996. G. W. F. Hegel. Ohio University Press. ISBN 0-8214-1231-0. Kaufmann, Walter, 1965. Hegel: A Reinterpretation. New York: Doubleday (reissued Notre Dame IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1978) Plant, Raymond, 1983. Hegel: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Singer, Peter, 2001. Hegel: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press (previously issued in the OUP Past Masters series, 1983) Stirling, James Hutchison, The Secret of Hegel: Being the Hegelian System in Origin Principle, Form and Matter Taylor, Charles, 1975. Hegel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29199-2. A comprehensive exposition of Hegel's thought and its impact on the central intellectual and spiritual issues of his and our time. Scruton, Roger, "Understanding Hegel" in The Philosopher on Dover Beach, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1990. ISBN 0-85635-857-6 Essays Beiser, Frederick C. (ed.), 1993. The Cambridge Companion to Hegel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-38711-6. A collection of articles covering the range of Hegel's thought. Adorno, Theodor W., 1994. Hegel: Three Studies. MIT Press. Translated by Shierry M. Nicholsen, with an introduction by Nicholsen and Jeremy J. Shapiro, ISBN 0-262-51080-4. Essays on Hegel's concept of spirit/mind, Hegel's concept of experience, and why Hegel is difficult to read. Biography Althaus, Horst, 1992. Hegel und die heroischen Jahre der Philosophie. Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag. Eng. tr. Michael Tarsh as Hegel: An Intellectual Biography, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000 Pinkard, Terry P., 2000. Hegel: A Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-49679-9. By a leading American Hegel scholar; aims to debunk popular misconceptions about Hegel's thought. Rosenkranz, Karl, 1844. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegels Leben. Still an important source for Hegel's life. Hondt, Jacques d', 1998. Hegel: Biographie. Calmann-Lévy Historical Rockmore, Tom, 1993. Before and After Hegel: A Historical Introduction to Hegel's Thought. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-648-3. Löwith, Karl, 1964. From Hegel to Nietzsche: The Revolution in Nineteenth-Century Thought. Translated by David E. Green. New York: Columbia University Press. Hegel's development Lukács, Georg, 1948. Der junge Hegel. Zürich and Vienna (2nd ed. Berlin, 1954). Eng. tr. Rodney Livingstone as The Young Hegel, London: Merlin Press, 1975. ISBN 0-262-12070-4 Harris, H. S., 1972. Hegel's Development: Towards the Sunlight 1770-1801. Oxford: Clarendon Press Harris, H. S., 1983. Hegel's Development: Night Thoughts (Jena 1801-1806). Oxford: Clarendon Press Dilthey, Wilhelm, 1906. Die Jugendgeschichte Hegels (repr. in Gesammelte Schriften, 1959, vol. IV) Haering, Theodor L., 1929, 1938. Hegel: sein Wollen und sein Werk, 2 vols. Leipzig (repr. Aalen: Scientia Verlag, 1963) Recent English-language literature Inwood, Michael, 1983. Hegel. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (Arguments of the Philosophers) Rockmore, Tom, 1986. Hegel's Circular Epistemology. Indiana University Press Pinkard, Terry P., 1988. Hegel's Dialectic: The Explanation of Possibility. Temple University Press Westphal, Kenneth, 1989. Hegel's Epistemological Realism. Kluwer Academic Publishers Forster, Michael N., 1989. Hegel and Skepticism. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-38707-4 Pippin, Robert B., 1989. Hegel's Idealism: the Satisfactions of Self-Consciousness. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37923-7. Advocates a stronger continuity between Hegel and Kant. Maker, William, 1994. Philosophy Without Foundations: Rethinking Hegel. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2100-7. Winfield, Richard Dien, 1989. Overcoming Foundations: Studies in Systematic Philosophy. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-07008-X. Phenomenology of Spirit (See also the article The Phenomenology of Spirit.) Stern, Robert, 2002. Hegel and the Phenomenology of Spirit. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-21788-1. An introduction for students. Cohen, Joseph, 2007. Le sacrifice de Hegel. (In French language). Paris, Galilée. An extensive study of the question of sacrifice in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit. Hyppolite, Jean, 1946. Genèse et structure de la Phénoménologie de l'esprit. Paris: Aubier. Eng. tr. Samuel Cherniak and John Heckman as Genesis and Structure of Hegel's "Phenomenology of Spirit", Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-8101-0594-2. A classic commentary. Kojève, Alexandre, 1947. Introduction à la lecture de Hegel. Paris: Gallimard. Eng. tr. James H. Nichols, Jr., as Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit, Basic Books, 1969. ISBN 0-8014-9203-3 Influential European reading of Hegel. Solomon, Robert C., 1983. In the Spirit of Hegel. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harris, H. S., 1995. Hegel: Phenomenology and System. Indianapolis: Hackett. A distillation of the author's monumental two-volume commentary Hegel's Ladder. Westphal, Kenneth R., 2003. Hegel's Epistemology: A Philosophical Introduction to the Phenomenology of Spirit. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-645-9 Russon, John, 2004. Reading Hegel's Phenomenology. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21692-3. Bristow, William, 2007. Hegel and the Transformation of Philosophical Critique. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199290644 Kalkavage, Peter, 2007. The Logic of Desire: An Introduction to Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit. Philadelphia: Paul Dry Books. ISBN 9781589880375. This work provides insights on Hegel's complex work as a whole as well as serving as a sure guide for every chapter and for virtually every paragraph. Scruton, Roger, "Understanding Hegel" in The Philosopher on Dover Beach, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1990. ISBN 0-85635-857-6 Logic (See also the article Science of Logic.) Hartnack, Justus, 1998. An Introduction to Hegel's Logic. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-424-3 Schäfer, Rainer, 2001.Die Dialektik und ihre besonderen Formen in Hegels Logik. Hamburg/Meiner. ISBN 3-7873-1585-3. Wallace, Robert M., 2005. Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84484-3. Through a detailed analysis of Hegel's Science of Logic, Wallace shows how Hegel contributes to the broadly Platonic tradition of philosophy that includes Aristotle, Plotinus, and Kant. In the course of doing this, Wallace defends Hegel against major critiques, including the one presented by Charles Taylor in his Hegel. Winfield, Richard Dien, 2006. From Concept to Objectivity: Thinking Through Hegel's Subjective Logic. Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-5536-9. Politics Avineri, Shlomo, 1974. Hegel's Theory of the Modern State. Cambridge University Press. Best introduction to Hegel's political philosophy. Ritter, Joachim, 1984. Hegel and the French Revolution. MIT Press. Riedel, Manfred, 1984. Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy, Cambridge. Marcuse, Herbert, 1941. Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory. An introduction to the philosophy of Hegel, devoted to debunking the conception that Hegel's work included in nuce the Fascist totalitarianism of National Socialism; the negation of philosophy through historical materialism. Rose, Gillian, 1981. Hegel Contra Sociology. Athlone Press. ISBN 0-485-12036-4. Scruton, Roger, "Hegel as a conservative thinker" in The Philosopher on Dover Beach, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1990. ISBN 0-85635-857-6 Religion Desmond, William, 2003. Hegel's God: A Counterfeit Double?. Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-0565-5 O'Regan, Cyril, 1994. The Heterodox Hegel. State University of New York Press, Albany. ISBN 0-7914-2006-X. The most authoritative work to date on Hegel's philosophy of religion. Cohen, Joseph, 2005. Le spectre juif de Hegel (in French language); Preface by Jean-Luc Nancy. Paris, Galilée.An extensive study of the Jewish question in Hegel's Early Theological Writings. Dickey, Laurence, 1987. Hegel: Religion, Economics, and the Politics of Spirit, 1770–1807. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33035-1. A fascinating account of how "Hegel became Hegel", using the guiding hypothesis that Hegel "was basically a theologian manqué". Hegel's reputation Popper, Karl. The Open Society and Its Enemies, vol. 2: Hegel and Marx. An influential attack on Hegel. Stewart, Jon, ed., 1996. The Hegel Myths and Legends. Northwestern University Press. Volume numbers and divisions, translations For the volume numbers of his complete works (Gesammelte Werke) and the corresponding subjects of each volume, see Hegel's Works (includes a list of translation to English) Notes For additional reading: 1. Beiser, F.. Hegel (The Routledge Philosophers). New York: Routledge, 2005. 2. Pinkard, Terry. Hegel: A Biography. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. See also Thesis, antithesis, synthesis Political consciousness The Secret of Hegel Emil Fackenheim Gudrun Ensslin Truth Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus External links The new HegelWiki A superior biography of Hegel with graphics Hegel.net - resources available under the GNU FDL Hegel.net - wiki article on Hegel Alicia Farinati - Hegelian Works Several articles on Hegel. Available in English, Spanish and French Commented link list Discussion, Interpretations and Questions about Hegel Hegel mailing lists in the internet Explanation of Hegel, mostly in German Discussion of the Hegelian tradition, including the Left and Right schism The Hegel Society of America http://www.gwfhegel.org/ Hegel page in 'The History Guide' Is Hegel a Christian? 'The Spirit of the Age: Hegel and the Fate of Thinking' double issue of the journal Cosmos and History Erik Ringmar, "The Recognition Game: Soviet Russia Against the West," Cooperation & Conflict, 37:2, 2002. pp. 115–36. -- Hegel's model of recognition used to explain relations between the superpowers in the 20th century. 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7,095 | Interrupt | In computing, an interrupt is an asynchronous signal indicating the need for attention or a synchronous event in software indicating the need for a change in execution. A hardware interrupt causes the processor to save its state of execution via a context switch, and begin execution of an interrupt handler. Software interrupts are usually implemented as instructions in the instruction set, which cause a context switch to an interrupt handler similar to a hardware interrupt. Interrupts are a commonly used technique for computer multitasking, especially in real-time computing. Such a system is said to be interrupt-driven. http://www.sltf.com/articles/pein/pein9505.htm Basics of Interrupts An act of interrupting is referred to as an interrupt request (IRQ). Overview Hardware interrupts were introduced as a way to avoid wasting the processor's valuable time in polling loops, waiting for external events. They may be implemented in hardware as a distinct system with control lines, or they may be integrated into the memory subsystem. If implemented in hardware, an interrupt controller circuit such as the IBM PC's Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC) may be connected between the interrupting device and the processor's interrupt pin to multiplex several sources of interrupt onto the one or two CPU lines typically available. If implemented as part of the memory controller, interrupts are mapped into the system's memory address space. Interrupts can be categorized into: maskable interrupt (IRQ), non-maskable interrupt (NMI), interprocessor interrupt (IPI), software interrupt, and spurious interrupt. A maskable interrupt (IRQ) is a hardware interrupt that may be ignored by setting a bit in an interrupt mask register's (IMR) bit-mask. Likewise, a non-maskable interrupt (NMI) is a hardware interrupt that does not have a bit-mask associated with it - meaning that it can never be ignored. NMIs are often used for timers, especially watchdog timers. An interprocessor interrupt is a special case of interrupt that is generated by one processor to interrupt another processor in a multiprocessor system. A software interrupt is an interrupt generated within a processor by executing an instruction. Software interrupts are often used to implement System calls because they implement a subroutine call with a CPU ring level change. A spurious interrupt is a hardware interrupt that is unwanted. They are typically generated by system conditions such as electrical interference on an interrupt line or through incorrectly designed hardware. Processors typically have an internal interrupt mask'' which allows software to ignore all external hardware interrupts while it is set. This mask may offer faster access than accessing an interrupt mask register (IMR) in a PIC, or disabling interrupts in the device itself. In some cases, such as the x86 architecture, disabling and enabling interrupts on the processor itself acts as a memory barrier, in which case it may actually be slower. An interrupt that leaves the machine in a well-defined state is called a precise interrupt. Such an interrupt has four properties: The Program Counter (PC) is saved in a known place. All instructions before the one pointed to by the PC have fully executed. No instruction beyond the one pointed to by the PC has been executed (that is no prohibition on instruction beyond that in PC, it is just that any changes they make to registers or memory must be undone before the interrupt happens). The execution state of the instruction pointed to by the PC is known. An interrupt that does not meet these requirements is called an imprecise interrupt. The phenomenon where the overall system performance is severely hindered by excessive amounts of processing time spent handling interrupts is called an interrupt storm. Types of Interrupts Level-triggered A level-triggered interrupt is a class of interrupts where the presence of an unserviced interrupt is indicated by a high level (1), or low level (0), of the interrupt request line. A device wishing to signal an interrupt drives the line to its active level, and then holds it at that level until serviced. It ceases asserting the line when the CPU commands it to or otherwise handles the condition that caused it to signal the interrupt. Typically, the processor samples the interrupt input at predefined times during each bus cycle such as state T2 for the Z80 microprocessor. If the interrupt isn't active when the processor samples it, the CPU doesn't see it. One possible use for this type of interrupt is to minimize spurious signals from a noisy interrupt line: a spurious pulse will often be so short that it is not noticed. Multiple devices may share a level-triggered interrupt line if they are designed to. The interrupt line must have a pull-down or pull-up resistor so that when not actively driven it settles to its inactive state. Devices actively assert the line to indicate an outstanding interrupt, but let the line float (do not actively drive it) when not signalling an interrupt. The line is then in its asserted state when any (one or more than one) of the sharing devices is signalling an outstanding interrupt. This class of interrupts is favored by some because of a convenient behavior when the line is shared. Upon detecting assertion of the interrupt line, the CPU must search through the devices sharing it until one requiring service is detected. After servicing this device, the CPU may recheck the interrupt line status to determine whether any other devices also need service. If the line is now de-asserted, the CPU avoids checking the remaining devices on the line. Since some devices interrupt more frequently than others, and other device interrupts are particularly expensive, a careful ordering of device checks is employed to increase efficiency. There are also serious problems with sharing level-triggered interrupts. As long as any device on the line has an outstanding request for service the line remains asserted, so it is not possible to detect a change in the status of any other device. Deferring servicing a low-priority device is not an option, because this would prevent detection of service requests from higher-priority devices. If there is a device on the line that the CPU does not know how to service, then any interrupt from that device permanently blocks all interrupts from the other devices. The original PCI standard mandated shareable level-triggered interrupts. The rationale for this was the efficiency gain discussed above. (Newer versions of PCI allow, and PCI Express requires, the use of message-signalled interrupts.) Edge-triggered An edge-triggered interrupt is a class of interrupts that are signalled by a level transition on the interrupt line, either a falling edge (1 to 0) or a rising edge (0 to 1). A device wishing to signal an interrupt drives a pulse onto the line and then releases the line to its quiescent state. If the pulse is too short to be detected by polled I/O then special hardware may be required to detect the edge. Multiple devices may share an edge-triggered interrupt line if they are designed to. The interrupt line must have a pull-down or pull-up resistor so that when not actively driven it settles to one particular state. Devices signal an interrupt by briefly driving the line to its non-default state, and let the line float (do not actively drive it) when not signalling an interrupt. This type of connection is also referred to as open collector. The line then carries all the pulses generated by all the devices. However, interrupt pulses from different devices may merge if they occur close in time. To avoid losing interrupts the CPU must trigger on the trailing edge of the pulse (e.g. the rising edge if the line is pulled up and driven low). After detecting an interrupt the CPU must check all the devices for service requirements. Edge-triggered interrupts do not suffer the problems that level-triggered interrupts have with sharing. Service of a low-priority device can be postponed arbitrarily, and interrupts will continue to be received from the high-priority devices that are being serviced. If there is a device that the CPU does not know how to service, it may cause a spurious interrupt, or even periodic spurious interrupts, but it does not interfere with the interrupt signalling of the other devices. However, it is fairly easy for an edge triggered interrupt to be missed - for example if interrupts have to be masked for a period - and unless there is some type of hardware latch that records the event it is impossible to recover. Such problems caused many "lockups" in early computer hardware because the processor did not know it was expected to do something. More modern hardware often has one or more interrupt status registers that latch the interrupt requests; well written edge-driven interrupt software often checks such registers to ensure events are not missed. The elderly Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus uses edge-triggered interrupts, but does not mandate that devices be able to share them. The parallel port also uses edge-triggered interrupts. Many older devices assume that they have exclusive use of their interrupt line, making it electrically unsafe to share them. However, ISA motherboards include pull-up resistors on the IRQ lines, so well-behaved devices share ISA interrupts just fine. Hybrid Some systems use a hybrid of level-triggered and edge-triggered signalling. The hardware not only looks for an edge, but it also verifies that the interrupt signal stays active for a certain period of time. A common use of a hybrid interrupt is for the NMI (non-maskable interrupt) input. Because NMIs generally signal major – or even catastrophic – system events, a good implementation of this signal tries to ensure that the interrupt is valid by verifying that it remains active for a period of time. This 2-step approach helps to eliminate false interrupts from affecting the system. Message-signalled A message-signalled interrupt does not use a physical interrupt line. Instead, a device signals its request for service by sending a short message over some communications medium, typically a computer bus. The message might be of a type reserved for interrupts, or it might be of some pre-existing type such as a memory write. Message-signalled interrupts behave very much like edge-triggered interrupts, in that the interrupt is a momentary signal rather than a continuous condition. Interrupt-handling software treats the two in much the same manner. Typically, multiple pending message-signalled interrupts with the same message (the same virtual interrupt line) are allowed to merge, just as closely-spaced edge-triggered interrupts can merge. Message-signalled interrupt vectors can be shared, to the extent that the underlying communication medium can be shared. No additional effort is required. Because the identity of the interrupt is indicated by a pattern of data bits, not requiring a separate physical conductor, many more distinct interrupts can be efficiently handled. This reduces the need for sharing. Interrupt messages can also be passed over a serial bus, not requiring any additional lines. PCI Express, a serial computer bus, uses message-signalled interrupts exclusively. Doorbell In a push button analogy applied to computer systems, the term doorbell or doorbell interrupt is often used to describe a mechanism whereby a software system can signal or notify a hardware device that there is some work to be done. Typically, the software system will place data in some well known and mutually agreed upon memory location(s), and "ring the doorbell" by writing to a different memory location. This different memory location is often called the doorbell region, and there may even be multiple doorbells serving different purposes in this region. It's this act of writing to the doorbell region of memory that "rings the bell" and notifies the hardware device that the data is ready and waiting. The hardware device would now know that the data is valid and can be acted upon. It would typically write the data to a hard disk drive, or send it over a network, or encrypt it, etc. The term doorbell interrupt is usually a misnomer. It's similar to an interrupt because it causes some work to be done by the device, however the doorbell region is sometimes implemented as a polled region, sometimes the doorbell region writes through to physical device registers, and sometimes the doorbell region is hardwired directly to physical device registers. When either writing through or directly to physical device registers, this may, but not necessarily, cause a real interrupt to occur at the device's central processor unit (CPU), if it has one. Doorbell interrupts can be compared to Message Signaled Interrupts, as they have some similarities. Difficulty with sharing interrupt lines Multiple devices sharing an interrupt line (of any triggering style) all act as spurious interrupt sources with respect to each other. With many devices on one line the workload in servicing interrupts grows in proportion to the square of the number of devices. It is therefore preferred to spread devices evenly across the available interrupt lines. Shortage of interrupt lines is a problem in older system designs where the interrupt lines are distinct physical conductors. Message-signalled interrupts, where the interrupt line is virtual, are favoured in new system architectures (such as PCI Express) and relieve this problem to a considerable extent. Some devices with a badly-designed programming interface provide no way to determine whether they have requested service. They may lock up or otherwise misbehave if serviced when they do not want it. Such devices cannot tolerate spurious interrupts, and so also cannot tolerate sharing an interrupt line. ISA cards, due to often cheap design and construction, are notorious for this problem. Such devices are becoming much rarer, as hardware logic becomes cheaper and new system architectures mandate shareable interrupts. Typical uses Typical uses of interrupts include the following: system timers, disks I/O, power-off signals, and traps. Other interrupts exist to transfer data bytes using UARTs or Ethernet; sense key-presses; control motors; or anything else the equipment must do. A classic system timer interrupt interrupts periodically from a counter or the power-line. The interrupt handler counts the interrupts to keep time. The timer interrupt may also be used by the OS's task scheduler to reschedule the priorities of running processes. Counters are popular, but some older computers used the power line frequency instead, because power companies in most Western countries control the power-line frequency with a very accurate atomic clock. A disk interrupt signals the completion of a data transfer from or to the disk peripheral. A process waiting to read or write a file starts up again. A power-off interrupt predicts or requests a loss of power. It allows the computer equipment to perform an orderly shutdown. Interrupts are also used in typeahead features for buffering events like keystrokes. Interrupt routine example Microchip PIC 18Fxxxx Microcontroller, compiled under MPLAB C18 compiler. The routine displays the number of interrupts occurred on port A, while it keeps toggling LEDs on port D: //************************************************************** /* * Name : Interrupt.c * * Compiler : C18 * * PIC : 18F Familly * * AUTHOR : BENKORICH Abdellah * * University : Boumerdes, ALGERIA */ //*************************************************************/ #include <p18f4550.h> /* for the special function register declarations , you may include yours here */ #include <portb.h> /* for the RB0/INT0 interrupt */ /* Set configuration bits for use with ICD2 / PICDEM2 PLUS Demo Board: * - set HS oscillator * - disable watchdog timer * - disable low voltage programming * - enable background debugging */ #pragma config WDT = OFF #pragma config LVP = OFF #pragma config DEBUG = ON #define FOSC 40e6 void delay(long time) ; int state=1; //The state of A0. /* * For high interrupts, control is transferred to address 0x8. */ void update_cnt (void); /* prototype needed for 'goto' below */ #pragma code HIGH_INTERRUPT_VECTOR = 0x8 void high_ISR (void) { _asm goto update_cnt _endasm } #pragma code /* allow the linker to locate the remaining code */ #pragma interrupt update_cnt void update_cnt (void) { PORTA =state; state ++ ; INTCONbits.INT0IF = 0; /* clear flag to avoid another interrupt */ } void EnableHighInterrupts (void) { RCONbits.IPEN = 1; /* enable interrupt priority levels */ INTCONbits.GIEH = 1; /* enable all high priority interrupts */ } // delay Function void delay (long time){ long i; for (i=0; i<time; i++){ } } // main function void main (void) { TRISA = 0x00; //Set port A as output LATA=0; //Initialize Port A. ADCON1 = 0b00001111; //All ADC disabled TRISD = 0x00; //Set port D as output LATD=0; //Initialize Port D. EnableHighInterrupts ( ); OpenRB0INT (PORTB_CHANGE_INT_ON & /* enable the RB0/INT0 interrupt */ PORTB_PULLUPS_ON & /* configure the RB0 pin for input */ FALLING_EDGE_INT); /* trigger interrupt upon S3 button depression */ while (1) { PORTD = 0x00; delay(FOSC/5000); PORTD = 0xFF; delay(FOSC/5000); } } See also Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller BIOS interrupt call Programmable Interrupt Controller Inter-processor interrupt Interrupt handler Interrupt latency Non-maskable interrupt Ralf Brown's Interrupt List External links A real down to earth explanation of interrupts and interrupt-controllers Interrupts Made Easy coLinux and int 0x80 on Windows Timer routines can be found in: http://sjriek.nl/?page_id=56 schematic: http://www.mecanique.co.uk/products/usb/schematic-small.gif References | Interrupt |@lemmatized compute:2 interrupt:171 asynchronous:1 signal:22 indicate:5 need:5 attention:1 synchronous:1 event:6 software:10 change:4 execution:4 hardware:19 cause:7 processor:13 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7,096 | Napster | The Napster corporate logo Napster was an online music file sharing service created by Shawn Fanning while he was attending Northeastern University in Boston and operating between June 1999 and July 2001 Napster's High and Low Notes - Businessweek - August 14, 2000 . Its technology allowed people to easily copy and distribute MP3 files among each other, bypassing the established market for such songs and thus leading to the music industry's accusations of massive copyright violations. Although the original service was shut down by court order, it paved the way for decentralized peer-to-peer file-distribution programs, which have been much harder to control. The service was named Napster after Fanning's hairstyle-based nickname. Napster's brand and logo were purchased after the company closed its doors and continue to be used by a pay service. They also maintain: http://free.napster.com/ Origins Napster 2.0 Beta 7's file transfer screen during Napster's heyday. Note the Search, Library and Transfer buttons, prototypical of the many peer-to-peer systems to follow. Shawn Fanning and Sean Parker first released the original Napster in June of 1999. Sonic Boom: Napster, MP3, and the New Pioneers of Music; John Alderman, pg. 103 Fanning wanted an easier method of finding music than by searching IRC or Lycos. John Fanning of Hull, Massachusetts, Shawn's uncle, ran all aspects of the company's operations for a period from their office on Nantasket Beach. The final agreement gave Shawn 30% control of the company, with the rest going to his uncle. It was the first of the massively popular peer-to-peer file distribution systems, although it was not fully peer-to-peer since it used central servers to maintain lists of connected systems and the files they provided, while actual transactions were conducted directly between machines. Although there were already networks that facilitated the distribution of files across the Internet, such as IRC, Hotline, and USENET, Napster specialized exclusively in music in the form of MP3 files and presented a friendly user interface. The result was a system whose popularity generated an enormous selection of music to download. Although the recording industry denounced music "sharing" as equivalent to theft, many Napster users felt justified in using the service for a number of reasons. Many believed that the quality of new albums had decreased by the late 1990s, with the typical bestselling album containing only one or two good songs bundled with many low-quality "filler" songs. At the same time, the cost of the CD format had decreased immensely, but the price of CD albums had stayed constant. People praised Napster because it enabled them to freely obtain hit songs without having to buy an entire album. Napster also made it relatively easy for music enthusiasts to download copies of songs that were otherwise difficult to obtain, like older songs, unreleased recordings, and songs from concert bootleg recordings. Some users felt justified in downloading digital copies of recordings they had already purchased in other formats, like LP and cassette tape, before the compact disc emerged as the dominant format for music recordings. Irrespective of these justifications, many other users simply enjoyed trading and downloading music for free. With the files obtained through Napster, people frequently made their own compilation albums on recordable CDs, without paying any royalties to the artist/composer or the estate of the artist/composer. High-speed networks in college dormitories became overloaded , with as much as 80% of external network traffic consisting of MP3 file transfers. Many colleges blocked its use for this reason , even before concerns about liability for facilitating copyright violations on campus. The service and software program were initially Windows-only, but in 2000 Black Hole Media wrote a Macintosh client called Macster. Macster was later bought by Napster and designated the official Mac Napster client, at which point the Macster name was discontinued. Official Napster Client For Mac OS, OS X || The Mac Observer Even before the acquisition of Macster, the Macintosh community had a variety of independently developed 3rd party Napster clients. Most notably was the open source client called MacStar, released by Squirrel Software in early 2000. The release of MacStar's source code paved the way for 3rd party Napster clients across all computing platforms, of which gave users advertisement-free music sharing options. Legal challenges Napster peaked in February 2001. Heavy metal band Metallica discovered that a demo of their song ‘I Disappear’ had been circulating across the network, even before it was released. This eventually led to the song being played on several radio stations across America and brought to Metallica’s attention that their entire back catalogue of studio material was also available. The band responded in 2000 by filing a lawsuit against the service offered by Napster. A month later, rapper Dr. Dre, who shared a litigator and legal firm with Metallica, filed a similar lawsuit after Napster wouldn't remove his works from their service, even after he issued a written request. Separately, both Metallica and Dr. Dre later delivered thousands of usernames to Napster who they believed were pirating their songs. One year later, Napster settled both suits, but this came after being shut down by the Ninth Circuit Court in a separate lawsuit from several major record labels (see below). Also in 2000, Madonna, who had previously met with Napster executives to discuss a possible partnership, became irate when her single "Music" leaked out on to the web and Napster prior to its commercial release, causing widespread media coverage. Verified Napster use peaked with 26.4 million users worldwide in February 2001. Jupiter Media Metrix (July 20, 2001). Global Napster Usage Plummets, But New File-Sharing Alternatives Gaining Ground. Press Release. In 2000, A&M records and several other recording companies sued Napster (A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.) for contributory and vicarious copyright infringement under the US Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). 17 U.S.C. A&M Records. Inc. v. Napster. Inc. 114 F. Supp. 2d 896 (N. D. Cal. 2000). The music industry made the following claims against Napster: (1) That its users were directly infringing the plaintiff's copyright; (2) That Napster was liable for contributory infringement of the plaintiff's copyright; and (3) That Napster was liable for vicarious infringement of the plaintiff's copyright. Napster lost the case in the District Court and appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Although the Ninth Circuit found that Napster was capable of commercially significant non-infringing uses, it affirmed the District Court's decision. On remand, the District Court ordered Napster to monitor the activities of its network and to block access to infringing material when notified of that material's location. Napster was unable to do this, and so shut down its service in July 2001. Napster finally declared itself bankrupt in 2002 and sold its assets. It had already been offline since the previous year owing to the effect of the court rulings. .A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., 239 F.3d 1004 (9th Cir. 2001). For a summary and analysis, see Guy Douglas, Copyright and Peer-To-Peer Music File Sharing: The Napster Case and the Argument Against Legislative Reform http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v11n1/douglas111.html Promotional power Along with the accusations that Napster was hurting the sales of the record industry, there were those who felt just the opposite, that file trading on Napster actually stimulated, rather than hurt, sales. Some evidence may have come in July 2000 when tracks from English rock band Radiohead's album Kid A found their way to Napster three months before the CD's release. Unlike Madonna, Dr. Dre or Metallica, Radiohead had never hit the top 20 in the US. Furthermore, Kid A was an experimental album without any singles, and received relatively little radio airplay. By the time of the record's release, the album was estimated to have been downloaded for free by millions of people worldwide, and in October 2000 Kid A captured the number one spot on the Billboard 200 sales chart in its debut week. According to Richard Menta of MP3 Newswire, the effect of Napster in this instance was isolated from other elements that could be credited for driving sales, and the album's unexpected success suggested that Napster was a good promotional tool for music. One of the most successful bands to owe its success to Napster was Dispatch. Being an independent band, they had no formal promotion or radio play, yet they were able to tour to cities they had never played and sell out concerts, thanks to the spread of their music on Napster. In July 2007, the band became the first independent band to ever headline New York City's Madison Square Garden, selling it out for three consecutive nights. The band members were avid supporters of Napster, promoting it at their shows, playing a Napster show around the time of the Congressional hearings, and attending the hearings themselves. Shawn Fanning, the founder of Napster, is a known Dispatch fan. Since 2000, many musical artists, particularly those not signed to major labels and without access to traditional mass media outlets such as radio and television, have said that Napster and successive Internet file-sharing networks have helped get their music heard, spread word of mouth, and may have improved their sales in the long term. One such musician to publicly defend Napster as a promotional tool for independent artists was Dj xealot, who became directly involved in the 2000 A&M Records Lawsuit. Chuck D from Public Enemy also came out and publicly supported Napster. Although some underground musicians and independent labels have expressed support for Napster and the p2p model it popularized, others have criticized the unregulated and extra-legal nature of these networks, and some seek to implement models of Internet promotion in which they can control the distribution of their own music, such as providing free tracks for download or streaming from their official websites, or co-operating with pay services such as Insound, Rhapsody and Apple's iTunes Store. Shutdown Napster's facilitation of transfer of copyrighted material raised the ire of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), which almost immediately — on December 7, 1999 — filed a lawsuit against the popular service. A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., 114 F. Supp. 2d 896 (N.D. Cal. 2000), aff'd in part, rev'd in part, 239 F.3d 1004 (9th Cir. 2001) The service would only get bigger as the trial, meant to shut down Napster, also gave it a great deal of publicity. Soon millions of users, many of them college students, flocked to it. After a failed appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court, an injunction was issued on March 5, 2001 ordering Napster to prevent the trading of copyrighted music on its network. 2001 US Dist. LEXIS 2186 (N.D. Cal. Mar. 5, 2001), aff’d, 284 F. 3d 1091 (9th Cir. 2002). In July 2001, Napster shut down its entire network in order to comply with the injunction. On September 24, 2001, the case was partially settled. Napster agreed to pay music creators and copyright owners a $26 million settlement for past, unauthorized uses of music, as well as an advance against future licensing royalties of $10 million. In order to pay those fees, Napster attempted to convert their free service to a subscription system. Thus traffic to Napster was reduced. A prototype solution was tested in the spring of 2002: the Napster 3.0 Alpha, using the ".nap" secure file format from PlayMedia Systems and audio fingerprinting technology licensed from Relatable. Napster 3.0 was, according to many former Napster employees, ready to deploy, but it had significant trouble obtaining licenses to distribute major-label music. On May 17,2002, Napster announced that its assets would be acquired by German media firm Bertelsmann for $85 million. Pursuant to terms of that agreement, on June 3 Napster filed for Chapter 11 protection under United States bankruptcy laws. On September 3, 2002, an American bankruptcy judge blocked the sale to Bertelsmann and forced Napster to liquidate its assets according to Chapter 7 of the U.S. bankruptcy laws. Current status After a $2.43 million takeover offer by the Private Media Group, an adult entertainment company, Napster's brand and logos were acquired at bankruptcy auction by the company Roxio, Inc. which used them to rebrand the pressplay music service as Napster 2.0. In September 2008, Napster was purchased by US electronics retailer Best Buy for $US 121 million. Napster in popular culture In the 2003 remake of The Italian Job, a flashback depicts Shawn Fanning (playing himself) stealing the program from a computer expert played by Seth Green while the latter is napping, providing a humorous folk etymology for the name. Later in the movie on the Los Angeles traffic control boards we see the phrase "You will never shut down the real Napster". An episode of animated television series Futurama, "I Dated a Robot", centers on the illegal distribution of robotic celebrity clones over the Internet. The organization responsible for this was thought to be named "Nappster," a reference to Napster. It was later revealed, however, that the full name was "Kidnappster" with a piece of tapestry covering "Kid" from the logo. In the South Park episode "Christian Rock Hard", Stan, Kyle, and Kenny illegally download music for inspiration for their band 'Moop.' They are then caught by police and shown the "horrors" music pirating does to musicians. After seeing this, they start a strike and famous musicians/bands join them, among them are Rancid, Master P, Ozzy Osbourne, Meat Loaf (all four also playing in Chef Aid), Blink-182, Horny Toad, Metallica, Britney Spears, Missy Elliott, Alanis Morissette and The Lords of the Underworld (minus Timmy). In a 2001 episode of the animated Disney series, The Proud Family, Penny becomes addicted to a site named EZ Jackster, a parody of Napster that allows music to be downloaded illegally. A tribute song to file sharing "Napster and Gnutella" was written to the tune of "Puff, the Magic Dragon" and distributed via OpenNap servers during the lawsuit. Musical parodist Johnny Crass satirised the 2000 Metallica v Napster conflict in his song "Internet Sandman", a parody of Metallica's "Enter Sandman". Crass takes a heavily anti-Metallica stance in the parody, and depicts the band and co-founder Lars Ulrich in particular as vengeful property-protectors whose actions over the controversy "screw the fans". Tom Smith wrote a song called "I Want my Music on Napster". "Weird Al" Yankovic references Napster and other file-sharing sites in his single "Don't Download This Song". See also Napster Bad! OpenNap Snocap – Company founded by Shawn Fanning and other Ex-Napster Employees TekNap - A console napster client to administer open source napster protocol servers imeem – Founded and developed by ex-Napster employees, in February 2008 it purchased SNOCAP. Notes Bibliography InsightExpress. 2000. Napster and its Users Not violating Copyright Infringement Laws, According to a Survey of the Online Community. External links Napster, Inc. Website - Formerly Roxio, Inc. 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7,097 | Edwin_Austin_Abbey | Edwin Austin Abbey (April 1, 1852 – August 1, 1911) was an American artist, illustrator, and painter. He flourished at the beginning of what is now referred to as the "golden age" of illustration, and is best known for his drawings and paintings of Shakespearean and Victorian subjects, as well as for his painting of Edward VII's coronation." Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 2 . His most famous work, The Quest of the Holy Grail, resides in the Boston Public Library. Biography Abbey was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1852. He studied art at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts under Christian Schuessele. Abbey began as an illustrator, producing numerous illustrations and sketches for such magazines as Harper's Weekly and Scribner's Magazine. His illustrations began appearing in Harper's Weekly at an early age: before Abbey was twenty years old. Abbey was an illustrator with Harper's Weekly from 1871-1874. He moved to England in 1878 where he was made a full member of the Royal Academy in 1898. In 1902 he was chosen to paint the coronation of King Edward VII. It was the official painting of the occasion and, hence, resides at Buckingham Palace. In 1907 he declined an offer of knighthood in order to retain his U.S. citizenship. Friendly with other expatriate American artists, he summered at Broadway, Worcestershire, England, where he painted and vacationed alongside John Singer Sargent at the home of Francis Davis Millet. He completed murals for the Boston Public Library in the 1890s. The frieze for the Library was titled "The Quest for the Holy Grail." It took Abbey eleven years to complete this series of murals in his England studio. In 1908-1909, Abbey painted a number of murals and other artworks for the rotunda of the new Pennsylvania State Capitol in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. His works in that building include allegorical medallions representing Science, Art, Justice, and Religion in the Capitol Rotunda, large lunette murals underneath the Capitol dome, and a number of works in the House Chamber. Unfortunately, Abbey became ill with cancer in 1911 slowing his work. At the time, he was working on the "Reading of the Declaration of Independence Mural" which was later installed in the House Chamber. Abbey was so ill, that his studio assistant, Ernest Board completed the work with little supervision from Abbey. Later in 1911, Abbey died, leaving his commission for the State Capitol of Pennsylvania unfinished. John Singer Sargent, a friend and neighbor of Abbey, and studio assistant Board completed the "Reading of the Declaration of Independence Mural." Abbey's works were installed in the Rotunda and House Chamber. Two rooms from Abbey's commission were left undone, and the remainder of the commission was given to Violet Oakley. Oakley completed the works from start to finish using her own designs. Abbey was elected to the National Academy of Design and The American Academy of Arts and Letters. In 1937 Yale University became the home for a sizable collection of Abbey's works, the result of a bequest from Abbey's widow. Works by Abbey References http://www.columbia.edu/cu/record/archives/vol19/vol19_iss24/record1924.33 Nancy Mendes. "Edwin Austin Abbey: A Capital Artist." Pennsylvania Heritage magazine 32, no. 3 (Summer 2006): 6-15. External links Jim Vadeboncoeur's biography of Edwin Austin Abbey Pennsylvania Capitol Preservation Committee's E.A. 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7,098 | John,_King_of_England | John (24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216 Some sources indicate he died on 18 October ), King of England, reigned from 6 April 1199 until his death. He acceded to the throne as the younger brother of King Richard I, who died without issue. John was the youngest of five sons of King Henry II of England and Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine, and was their second surviving son to ascend the throne; thus, he was a Plantagenet or Angevin king of England. During his lifetime John acquired two epithets. One was "Lackland" (), because, as his father's youngest son, he did not inherit land out of his family's holdings, and because as king he lost English territories to France. The other was "Soft-sword", for his alleged military ineptitude. Apart from entering popular legend as the enemy of Robin Hood, he is perhaps best-known for having acquiesced —to the barons of English nobility— to seal Magna Carta, a document which limited kingly power in England and which is popularly thought as an early first step in the evolution of modern democracy. Early life While John was his father's favourite son, as the youngest he could expect no inheritance. His family life was tumultuous, as his older brothers all became involved in rebellions against Henry. His mother, Eleanor, was imprisoned by Henry in 1173, when John was about 7. As a child, John was betrothed to Alais (pronounced 'Alice'), daughter and heiress of Humbert III of Savoy. It was hoped that by this marriage the Angevin dynasty would extend its influence beyond the Alps, because John was promised the inheritance of Savoy, the Piemonte, Maurienne, and the other possessions of Count Humbert. King Henry promised his young son castles in Normandy which had been previously promised to his brother Geoffrey, which was for some time a bone of contention between King Henry and his son Geoffrey. Alais made the trip over the Alps and joined Henry's court, but she died before being married. Gerald of Wales relates that King Henry had a curious painting in a chamber of Winchester Castle, depicting an eagle being attacked by three of its chicks, while a fourth chick crouched, waiting for its chance to strike. When asked the meaning of this picture, King Henry said: "The four young ones of the eagle are my four sons, who will not cease persecuting me even unto death. And the youngest, whom I now embrace with such tender affection, will someday afflict me more grievously and perilously than all the others." Before his accession, John had already acquired a reputation for treachery, having conspired sometimes with and sometimes against his elder brothers, Henry, Richard and Geoffrey. In 1184, John and Richard both claimed that they were the rightful heir to Aquitaine, one of many unfriendly encounters between the two. In 1185, John became the ruler of Ireland, whose people grew to despise him, causing John to leave after only eight months. Richard's absence During Richard's absence on the Third Crusade from 1190 to 1194, John attempted to overthrow William Longchamp, the Bishop of Ely and Richard's designated justiciar. This was one of the events that inspired later writers to cast John as the villain in their reworking of the legend of Robin Hood. John was more popular than Longchamp in London, and in October 1191 the leading citizens of the city opened the gates to him while Longchamp was confined in the tower. John promised the city the right to govern itself as a commune in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive. Stephen Inwood, 'A History of London', London: Macmillan, 1998, p.58. While returning from the Crusade, Richard was captured by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, and imprisoned by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor. Meanwhile, John had joined forces with the King of France Philip Augustus and they are said to have sent a letter to Henry asking him to keep Richard away from England for as long as possible, and offering payment to keep Richard imprisoned. Henry declined their offer, and once Richard's ransom was paid, he was set free. Upon the release, John pled forgiveness from Richard, who granted it and named him heir presumptive. Reign Dispute with Arthur When Richard died, John did not gain immediate universal recognition as king. Some regarded his young nephew, Arthur of Brittany, the son of John's late brother Geoffrey, as the rightful heir. Arthur fought his uncle for the throne, with the support of King Philip II of France. The conflict between Arthur and King John had fatal consequences. By the May 1200 Treaty of Le Goulet, Philip recognised John over Arthur, and the two came to terms regarding John's vassalage for Normandy and the Angevin territories. However, the peace was ephemeral. The war upset the barons of Poitou enough for them to seek redress from the King of France, who was King John's feudal overlord with respect to certain territories on the Continent. In 1202, John was summoned to the French court to answer the charges one of which was his marriage to Isobel of Angouleme who was already engaged to Guy de Lusignan. John was called to Phillip's court after the Lusignans pleaded for his help. John refused, and, under feudal law, because of his failure of service to his lord, the French King claimed the lands and territories ruled by King John as Count of Poitou, declaring all John's French territories except Gascony in the southwest forfeit. The French promptly invaded Normandy; King Philip II invested Arthur with all fiefs King John once held (except for Normandy) and betrothed him to his daughter Marie. Needing to supply a war across the English Channel, in 1203 John ordered all shipyards (including inland places such as Gloucester) in England to provide at least one ship, with places such as the newly-built Portsmouth being responsible for several. He made Portsmouth the new home of the navy. (The Anglo-Saxon kings, such as Edward the Confessor, had royal harbours constructed on the south coast at Sandwich, and most importantly, Hastings.) By the end of 1204, he had 45 large galleys available to him, and from then on an average of four new ones every year. He also created an Admiralty of four admirals, responsible for various parts of the new navy. During John's reign, major improvements were made in ship design, including the addition of sails and removable forecastles. He also created the first big transport ships, called buisses. John is sometimes credited with the founding of the modern Royal Navy. What is known about this navy comes from the Pipe Rolls, since these achievements are ignored by the chroniclers and early historians. In the hope of avoiding trouble in England and Wales while he was away fighting to recover his French lands, in 1205, John formed an alliance by marrying off his illegitimate daughter, Joan, to the Welsh prince Llywelyn the Great. As part of the war, Arthur attempted to kidnap his own grandmother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, at Mirebeau, but was defeated and captured by John's forces. Arthur was imprisoned first at Falaise and then at Rouen. No one is certain what happened to Arthur after that. According to the annals of Margam Abbey, Wales, where John would lodge on his trips between England and Ireland: On 3 April 1203 "After King John had captured Arthur and kept him alive in prison for some time in the castle of Rouen... when John was drunk he slew Arthur with his own hand and tying a heavy stone to the body cast it into the Seine." However, Hubert de Burgh, the officer commanding the Rouen fortress, claimed to have delivered Arthur around Easter 1203 to agents of the King sent to castrate him and that Arthur had died of shock. Hubert later retracted his statement and claimed Arthur still lived, but no one saw Arthur alive again, and the supposition that he was murdered caused Brittany, and later Normandy, to rebel against King John. Besides Arthur, John also captured his niece, Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany. Eleanor remained a prisoner the rest of her life (which ended in 1241); through deeds such as these, John acquired a reputation for ruthlessness. Dealings with Bordeaux In 1203, John exempted the citizens and merchants of Bordeaux from the Grande Coutume, which was the principal tax on their exports. In exchange, the regions of Bordeaux, Bayonne and Dax pledged support against the French Crown. The unblocked ports gave Gascon merchants open access to the English wine market for the first time. The following year, John granted the same exemptions to La Rochelle and Poitou. Hugh Johnson, Vintage: The Story of Wine p.142. Simon and Schuster 1989 Dispute with the Pope Pope Innocent III and King John had a disagreement about who would become Archbishop of Canterbury which lasted from 1205 until 1213. When Archbishop of Canterbury Hubert Walter died on 13 July 1205, John became involved in a dispute with Pope Innocent III. The Canterbury Cathedral chapter claimed the sole right to elect Hubert's successor and favoured Reginald, a candidate out of their midst. However, both the English bishops and the king had an interest in the choice of successor to this powerful office. The king wanted John de Gray, one of his own men, so he could influence the church more. When their dispute could not be settled, the Chapter secretly elected one of their members as Archbishop. A second election imposed by John resulted in another nominee. When they both appeared in Rome, Innocent disavowed both elections, and his candidate, Stephen Langton, was elected over the objections of John's observers. John was supported in his position by the English barons and many of the English bishops and refused to accept Langton. John expelled the Chapter in July 1207, to which the Pope reacted by imposing the interdict on the kingdom. John immediately retaliated by closing down the churches. Although he issued instructions for the confiscation of all church possessions, individual institutions were able to negotiate terms for managing their own properties and keeping the produce of their estates. After his excommunication John tightened these measures and he accrued significant sums from the income of vacant sees and abbeys: for example, it was calculated that the church lost 100,000 marks to the Crown in 1213. The Pope, realising that too long a period without church services could lead to loss of faith, gave permission for some churches to hold Mass behind closed doors in 1209. In 1212, they allowed last rites to the dying. While the interdict was a burden to many, it did not result in rebellion against John. In November 1209 John was excommunicated, and in February 1213, Innocent threatened stronger measures unless John submitted. The papal terms for submission were accepted in the presence of the papal legate Pandulph in May 1213 (according to Matthew Paris, at the Templar Church at Dover); Knights Templar Church at English Heritage website in addition, John offered to surrender the Kingdom of England to God and the Saints Peter and Paul for a feudal service of 1,000 marks annually, 700 for England and 300 for Ireland. With this submission, formalised in the Bulla Aurea (Golden Bull), John gained the valuable support of his papal overlord in his new dispute with the English barons. Dispute with the barons Coming to terms with Llywelyn I, Prince of Gwynedd, following the Welsh Uprising of 1211 and settling his dispute with the papacy, John turned his attentions back to his overseas interests. The European wars culminated in defeat at the Battle of Bouvines (1214), which forced the king to accept an unfavourable peace with France. This finally turned the barons against him (some had already rebelled against him after he was excommunicated), and he met their leaders at Runnymede, near London on 15 June 1215 to seal the Great Charter, called in Latin Magna Carta. Because he had signed under duress, however, John received approval from his overlord the Pope to break his word as soon as hostilities had ceased, provoking the First Barons' War and an invited French invasion by Prince Louis of France (whom the majority of the English barons had invited to replace John on the throne). John travelled around the country to oppose the rebel forces, including a personal two-month siege of the rebel-held Rochester Castle. Death John's tomb effigy Retreating from the French invasion, John took a safe route around the marshy area of the Wash to avoid the rebel held area of East Anglia. His slow baggage train (including the Crown Jewels), however, took a direct route across it and was lost to the unexpected incoming tide. This dealt John a terrible blow, which affected his health and state of mind. Succumbing to dysentery and moving from place to place, he stayed one night at Sleaford Castle before dying on 18 October (or possibly 19 October) 1216, at Newark Castle (then in Lincolnshire, now on Nottinghamshire's border with that county). Numerous, possibly fictitious, accounts circulated soon after his death that he had been killed by poisoned ale, poisoned plums or a "surfeit of peaches". He was buried in Worcester Cathedral in the city of Worcester. His nine-year-old son succeeded him and became King Henry III of England (1216–72), and although Louis continued to claim the English throne, the barons switched their allegiance to the new king, forcing Louis to give up his claim and sign the Treaty of Lambeth in 1217. Legacy King John's tomb King John's reign has been traditionally characterised as one of the most disastrous in English history: it began with defeats—he lost Normandy to Philip Augustus of France in his first five years on the throne—and ended with England torn by civil war and himself on the verge of being forced out of power. In 1213, he made England a papal fief to resolve a conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, and his rebellious barons forced him to sign Magna Carta in 1215, the act for which he is best remembered. As far as the administration of his kingdom went, John functioned as an efficient ruler, but he lost approval of the English barons by taxing them in ways that were outside those traditionally allowed by feudal overlords. The tax known as scutage, payment made instead of providing knights (as required by feudal law), became particularly unpopular. John was a very fair-minded and well informed king, however, often acting as a judge in the Royal Courts, and his justice was much sought after. Also, John's employment of an able Chancellor and certain clerks resulted in the first proper set of records—the Pipe Rolls. Tudor historiography was particularly interested in him, for his independence from the papacy (or lack of it) - this atmosphere produced not only Shakespeare's own King John but also its model The Troublesome Reign of King John and John Bale's Kynge Johan. Winston Churchill summarised the legacy of John's reign: "When the long tally is added, it will be seen that the British nation and the English-speaking world owe far more to the vices of John than to the labours of virtuous sovereigns". Humes, James C. (1994). The Wit & Wisdom of Winston Churchill: p.155 Medieval historian C. Warren Hollister called John an "enigmatic figure": ...talented in some respects, good at administrative detail, but suspicious, unscrupulous, and mistrusted. He was compared in a recent scholarly article, perhaps unfairly, with Richard Nixon. His crisis-prone career was sabotaged repeatedly by the halfheartedness with which his vassals supported him—and the energy with which some of them opposed him. In 2006, he was selected by the BBC History Magazine as the 13th century's worst Briton. BBC Depictions in fiction King John as shown in Cassell's History of England (1902)These reflect the overwhelming view of his reputation: King John was the subject of a Shakespearean play, The Life and Death of King John. King John is a central figure in the 1819 historical romance Ivanhoe, by Sir Walter Scott. Philip José Farmer, a science fiction author, featured King John as one of several historical figures in his Riverworld Saga. John and one of his Justices in Eyre, the Sheriff of Nottingham, are portrayed as villain and henchman in the Robin Hood legends. These usually place the Robin Hood stories in the latter part of Richard I's reign, when Richard was in captivity and John was acting as unofficial regent. Among the screen incarnations of John in versions of the Robin Hood story are: Sam De Grasse in Robin Hood (1922). Claude Rains in The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938). Donald Pleasence in the 1950s ITV television series The Adventures of Robin Hood. The animated Prince John in the 1973 Disney movie Robin Hood, in which he is depicted as an anthropomorphic lion voiced by Peter Ustinov, who sucks his thumb and cries for his "mummy" whenever Robin Hood (a fox) steals his gold. In one scene, he laments, "Mother always did like Richard best". Phil Davis in the 1980s television series Robin of Sherwood. Richard Lewis in Robin Hood: Men in Tights (1993). Toby Stephens from episode 6, series 3 onwards of Robin Hood (having been mentioned in the previous two-and-a-half series whilst remaining an off-screen character) John was impersonated by Kamelion in a plot by the Master in The King's Demons, a 1983 serial of the British science fiction series, Doctor Who. John is a character in James Goldman's 1966 play The Lion in Winter, which dramatises Henry II's struggles with his wife and sons over the rule of his empire. John is portrayed as a spoiled, simpleminded pawn in the machinations of his brothers and Philip II. In the 1968 film he is portrayed by Nigel Terry. In the 2003 film, he is portrayed by Rafe Spall. Sharon Penman's Here Be Dragons deals with the reign of John, the development of Wales under Llewelyn's rule, and Llewelyn's marriage to John's illegitimate daughter, Joan, who is depicted in the novel as "Joanna". Other novels of hers which feature John as a prominent character are The Queen's Man, Cruel as the Grave, The Dragon's Lair, and Prince of Darkness, a series of fictional mysteries set during the time of Richard's imprisonment. John is featured in several books by Elizabeth Chadwick including Lords of the White Castle, The Champion and The Scarlet Lion. The Devil and King John by Philip Lindsay is a highly speculative but relatively sympathetic account. King John appeared in The Time Tunnel episode entitled "The Revenge of Robin Hood". Once again, John is depicted as a villain. At the end of the episode, John puts his seal on the Magna Carta but clearly he is not happy about it. He is portrayed by character actor John Crawford. King John is the subject of A. A. Milne's poem for children which begins "King John was not a good man". Princess of Thieves, a 2001 telemovie concerning Robin Hood's supposed daughter, depicts Prince John trying to seize the throne from the rightful heir, Prince Phillip, an illegitimate son of King Richard. King John is one of two subjects - the other being Richard I - in the Steely Dan song Kings, from the 1972 LP release, Can't Buy a Thrill. Marriage and issue In 1189, John was married to Isabel of Gloucester, daughter and heiress of William Fitz Robert, 2nd Earl of Gloucester (she is given several alternative names by history, including Avisa, Hawise, Joan, and Eleanor). They had no children, and John had their marriage annulled on the grounds of consanguinity, some time before or shortly after his accession to the throne, which took place on 6 April 1199, and she was never acknowledged as queen. (She then married Geoffrey de Mandeville as her second husband and Hubert de Burgh as her third). John remarried, on 24 August 1200, Isabella of Angoulême, who was twenty years his junior. She was the daughter of Aymer Taillefer, Count of Angouleme. John had kidnapped her from her fiancé, Hugh X of Lusignan. Isabella bore five children: Henry III (1207-1272), King of England. Richard (1209-1272), 1st Earl of Cornwall. Joan (1210-1238), Queen Consort of Alexander II of Scotland. Isabella (1214-1241), Consort of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. Eleanor (1215-1275), who married William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, and later married Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester. John is given a great taste for lechery by the chroniclers of his age, and even allowing some embellishment, he did have many illegitimate children. Matthew Paris accuses him of being envious of many of his barons and kinsfolk, and seducing their more attractive daughters and sisters. Roger of Wendover describes an incident that occurred when John became enamoured of Margaret, the wife of Eustace de Vesci and an illegitimate daughter of King William I of Scotland. Eustace substituted a prostitute in her place when the king came to Margaret's bed in the dark of night; the next morning, when John boasted to Vesci of how good his wife was in bed, Vesci confessed and fled. John had the following illegitimate children: Joan, Lady of Wales, the wife of Prince Llywelyn Fawr of Wales, (by a woman named Clemence) Richard Fitz Roy, (by his cousin, Adela, daughter of his uncle Hamelin de Warenne) Oliver FitzRoy, (by a mistress named Hawise) who accompanied the papal legate Pelayo to Damietta in 1218, and never returned. By an unknown mistress (or mistresses) John fathered: Geoffrey FitzRoy, who went on expedition to Poitou in 1205 and died there. John FitzRoy, a clerk in 1201. Henry FitzRoy, who died in 1245. Osbert Gifford, who was given lands in Oxfordshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Sussex, and is last seen alive in 1216. Eudes FitzRoy, who accompanied his half-brother Richard on Crusade and died in the Holy Land in 1241. Bartholomew FitzRoy, a member of the order of Friars Preachers. Maud FitzRoy, Abbess of Barking, who died in 1252. Isabel FitzRoy, wife of Richard Fitz Ives. Philip FitzRoy, found living in 1263. (The surname of FitzRoy is Norman-French for son of the king.) Ancestors </center> Alleged illiteracy For a long time, schoolchildren have been told that King John had to approve Magna Carta by attaching his seal to it because he could not sign it, lacking the ability to read or write. This textbook inaccuracy ignored the fact that King John had a large library he treasured until the end of his life. Whether the original authors of these errors knew better and oversimplified because they wrote for children, or whether they had been misinformed themselves, is unknown. As a result of these writings, generations of adults remembered mainly two things about "wicked King John," both of them wrong (the other being his supposed association with Robin Hood). King John did actually sign the draft of the Charter that the negotiating parties hammered out in the tent on Charter Island at Runnymede on 15 June–18 June 1215, but it took the clerks and scribes working in the royal offices some time after everyone went home to prepare the final copies, which they then sealed and delivered to the appropriate officials. In those days, legal documents were made official by seals, not by signatures. When William the Conqueror (and his wife) signed the Accord of Winchester (Image) in 1072, for example, they and all the bishops signed with crosses, as illiterate people would later do, but they did so in accordance with current legal practice, not because the bishops could not write their own names. Henry II had at first intended that John would receive an education to go into the Church, which would have meant Henry did not have to give him any land. In 1171, however, Henry began negotiations to betroth John to the daughter of Count Humbert III of Savoy (who had no son yet and so wanted a son-in-law.) After that, talk of making John a cleric ceased. John's parents had both received a good education — Henry spoke some half dozen languages, and Eleanor had attended lectures at what would soon become the University of Paris — in addition to what they had learned of law and government, religion, and literature. John himself had received one of the best educations of any king of England. Some of the books the records show he read included: De Sacramentis Christianae Fidei by Hugh of St. Victor, Sentences by Peter Lombard, The Treatise of Origen, and a history of England—potentially Wace's Roman de Brut, based on Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae. Notes References King John, by W.L. Warren ISBN 0-520-03643-3 The Feudal Kingdom of England 1042–1216, by Frank Barlow ISBN 0-582-49504-0 Medieval Europe: A Short History (Seventh Edition), by C. Warren Hollister ISBN 0-07-029637-5 External links Graphic of family tree of the children of John King John at Find-A-Grave |- | John,_King_of_England |@lemmatized john:121 december:1 october:5 source:1 indicate:1 die:12 king:58 england:18 reign:8 april:3 death:5 accede:1 throne:8 young:8 brother:7 richard:25 without:2 issue:3 five:3 son:14 henry:20 ii:8 eleanor:8 duchess:1 aquitaine:3 second:3 survive:1 ascend:1 thus:1 plantagenet:1 angevin:3 lifetime:1 acquire:3 two:7 epithet:1 one:18 lackland:1 father:3 inherit:1 land:6 family:3 holding:1 lose:5 english:14 territory:5 france:7 soft:1 sword:1 alleged:1 military:1 ineptitude:1 apart:1 enter:1 popular:2 legend:3 enemy:1 robin:16 hood:15 perhaps:2 best:4 know:4 acquiesce:1 baron:12 nobility:1 seal:6 magna:5 carta:5 document:2 limit:1 kingly:1 power:2 popularly:1 think:1 early:3 first:8 step:1 evolution:1 modern:2 democracy:1 life:5 favourite:1 could:6 expect:1 inheritance:2 tumultuous:1 old:2 become:8 involve:2 rebellion:2 mother:2 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7,099 | Musical_theatre | The Black Crook (1866), considered by some historians to be the first musical Morley 1987, p.15. Musical theatre is a form of theatre combining music, songs, spoken dialogue and dance. The emotional content of the piece – humor, pathos, love, anger – as well as the story itself, is communicated through the words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called simply, "musicals". Musicals are performed all around the world. They may be presented in large venues, such as big budget West End and Broadway theatre productions in London and New York City, or in smaller Fringe Theatre, Off-Broadway or regional productions, on tour, or by amateur groups in schools, theatres and other performance spaces. In addition to Britain and North America, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in many countries in Europe, Latin America and Asia. Some famous musicals include Show Boat, Oklahoma!, West Side Story, The Fantasticks, Hair, A Chorus Line, Les Misérables, The Phantom of the Opera, Rent, and The Producers. Definitions The three main components of a musical are the music, the lyrics, and the book. The book of a musical refers to the story of the show – in effect its spoken (not sung) lines; however, "book" can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to (as in opera) as the libretto (Italian for “little book”). The music and lyrics together form the score of the musical. The interpretation of the musical by the creative team heavily influences the way that the musical is presented. The creative team includes a director, a musical director and usually a choreographer. A musical's production is also creatively characterized by technical aspects, such as set, costumes, stage properties, lighting, etc. that generally change from production to production (although some famous production aspects tend to be retained from the original production, for example, Bob Fosse's choreography in Chicago). The 20th century "book musical" has been defined as a musical play where the songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story, with serious dramatic goals, that is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter. Everett 2002, p. 137 There is no fixed length for a musical, and it can range from a short one-act entertainment to several acts and several hours in length (or even a multi-evening presentation); however, most musicals range from one and a half hours to three hours. Musicals today are typically presented in two acts, with one intermission ten to twenty minutes in length. The first act is almost always somewhat longer than the second act, and generally introduces most of the music. A musical may be built around four to six main theme tunes that are reprised throughout the show, or consist of a series of songs not directly musically related. Spoken dialogue is generally interspersed between musical numbers, although the use of "sung dialogue" or recitative is not unknown, especially in so-called "sung-through" musicals such as Les Misérables and Evita. A Gaiety Girl (1893) was one of the first hit musicals. Musical theatre is closely related to another theatrical performance art, opera. These forms are usually distinguished by weighing a number of factors. Musicals generally have a greater focus on spoken dialogue (though some musicals are entirely accompanied and sung through, such as Jesus Christ Superstar and Les Misérables; and on the other hand some operas, such as Die Zauberflöte, and most operettas, have some unaccompanied dialogue), on dancing (particularly by the principal performers as well as the chorus), on the use of various genres of popular music (or at least popular singing styles), and on the avoidance of certain operatic conventions. In particular, a musical is almost never performed in any but the language of its audience. Musicals produced in London or New York, for instance, are invariably sung in English, even if they were originally written in another language (again, Les Misérables, originally written in French, is a good example). While an opera singer is primarily a singer and only secondarily an actor (and rarely needs to dance at all), a musical theatre performer is usually an actor first and then a singer and dancer. Someone who is equally accomplished at all three is referred to as a "triple threat". Composers of music for musicals often consider the vocal demands of roles with musical theatre performers in mind, and theatres staging musicals generally use amplification of the actors' singing voices in a way that would normally be disapproved of in an operatic context. Some works (e.g. by Leonard Bernstein and Stephen Sondheim) have received both "musical theatre" and "operatic" productions. Similarly, some older operettas or light operas (such as The Pirates of Penzance by Gilbert and Sullivan) have had modern productions or adaptations that treat them as musicals. Sondheim said: "I really think that when something plays Broadway it's a musical, and when it plays in an opera house it's opera. That's it. It's the terrain, the countryside, the expectations of the audience that make it one thing or another." White 2003. This article primarily concerns musical theatre works that are distinctively "non-operatic", but there inescapably remains some overlap between lighter operatic forms and the more musically complex or ambitious musicals: a grey area, in which production styles are almost as important as actual musical or dramatic content in defining into which art form the piece falls. In isolation, at least, none of these features is truly "defining", and in practice it is often difficult to distinguish among the various kinds of light musical theatre, including "operetta", "comic opera", "light opera", "burletta", "musical play", "musical comedy", "extravaganza", "burlesque", "music hall" and "revue". A "book" musical's moments of greatest dramatic intensity are often performed in song. Proverbially, "when the emotion becomes too strong for speech (or recitative) you sing; when it becomes too strong for song, you dance." A song is ideally crafted to suit the character (or characters) and their situation within the story; although there have been times in the history of the musical (e.g. the 1890s and 1920s) when this integration between music and story has been tenuous. As New York Times critic Ben Brantley described the ideal of song in theatre in reviewing the 2008 revival of Gypsy, "There is no separation at all between song and character, which is what happens in those uncommon moments when musicals reach upward to achieve their ideal reasons to be." Brantley 2008. A musical often opens with a song that sets the tone of the show, introduces some or all of the major characters, and shows the setting of the play. Within the compressed nature of the musical, the writers must develop the characters and the plot. Music provides a means to express emotion. However, typically, many fewer words are sung in a five-minute song than are spoken in a five-minute block of dialogue. Therefore there is less time to develop drama than in a straight play of equivalent length, since a musical usually devotes more time to music than to dialogue. The material for musicals is often original, but many musicals are adapted from novels (Wicked and Man of La Mancha), plays (Hello, Dolly!), classic legends (Camelot), historical events (Evita) or films (The Producers and Hairspray). On the other hand, many familiar musical theatre works have been the basis for musical films, such as The Sound of Music, West Side Story, My Fair Lady, Beauty and the Beast and Chicago. India produces numerous musical films, referred to as "Bollywood" musicals, and Japan produces Anime-style musicals. Another recent genre of musicals, called "jukebox musicals" (Mamma Mia!), weaves songs written by (or introduced by) a popular artist or group into a story – sometimes based on the life or career of the person/group in question. History Antiquity to Middle Ages Musical theatre in Europe dates back to the theatre of the ancient Greeks, who included music and dance in their stage comedies and tragedies in the 5th century BCE Thornton 2007, p. 2. The dramatists Aeschylus and Sophocles composed their own music to accompany their plays and choreographed the dances of the chorus. The 3rd-century BCE Roman comedies of Plautus included song and dance routines performed with orchestrations. The Romans introduced technical innovations. For example, to make the dance steps more audible in large open air theatres, Roman actors attached metal chips called "sabilla" to their stage footwear – the first tap shoes. Flinn 1997, p. 22. By the Middle Ages, theatre in Europe consisted mostly of travelling minstrels and small performing troupes of performers singing and offering slapstick comedy. In the 12th and 13th centuries, religious dramas, such as The Play of Herod and The Play of Daniel taught the liturgy, set to church chants. Later "Mystery plays" were created that told a biblical story in a sequence of entertaining parts. Several pageant wagons (stages on wheels) would move about the city, and a group of actors would tell their part of the story. Once finished, the group would move on with their wagon, and the next group would arrive to tell its part of the story. These plays developed into an autonomous form of musical theatre, with poetic forms sometimes alternating with the prose dialogues and liturgical chants. The poetry was provided with modified or completely new melodies. Hoppin 1978, pp. 180-181. The musical theatre of India also dates back to Antiquity. Ancient Sanskrit drama had a highly stylized nature with an emphasis on spectacle, where music, dance and gesture combined "to create a vibrant artistic unit with dance and mime being central to the dramatic experience." Sanskrit dramas were known as natya, derived from the root word nrit (dance), characterizing them as spectacular dance-dramas. Traditional folk theatre became popular from around the 10th century with the decline of Sanskrit theatre. These regional traditions include the Yatra of Bengal, the Ramlila of Uttar Pradesh, and the Terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu. In particular, Parsi theatre "blended realism and fantasy, music and dance, narrative and spectacle, earthy dialogue and ingenuity of stage presentation, integrating them into a dramatic discourse of melodrama. The Parsi plays contained crude humour, melodious songs and music, sensationalism and dazzling stagecraft." These traditions in musical theatre have continued in modern Indian cinema, particularly in musical films produced by Bollywood. Gokulsing 2004, p. 98. Renaissance to the 1700s The Renaissance saw these forms evolve into commedia dell'arte, an Italian tradition where raucous clowns improvised their way through familiar stories, and from there, opera buffa. In England, Elizabethan and Jacobean plays frequently included music, with performances on organs, lutes, viols and pipes for up to an hour before and during the performance. Lord 2003, p. 41 Plays, perhaps particularly the heavier histories and tragedies, were frequently broken up with a short musical play, perhaps derived from the Italian intermezzo, with music, jokes and dancing, or were followed by an afterpiece known as a jigg, often consisting of scandalous or libellous dialogue set to popular tunes (anticipating the Ballad Opera). Lord 2003, p. 42 Court masques developed during the Tudor period. Masques were elaborate performances involving music, dancing, singing and acting, often with expensive costumes and a complex stage design, sometimes by a renowned architect such as Inigo Jones, presented a deferential allegory flattering to a noble or royal patron. Buelow 2004, p. 26 Ben Jonson wrote many masques, often collaborating with Jones. Shakespeare included masque-like sections in many of his plays. Shakespeare 1998, p. 44. The musical sections of masques developed into sung plays that are recognizable as English operas, the first usually being thought of as William Davenant's The Siege of Rhodes (1656), originally given in a private performance. Buelow 2004, p. 328 In France, meanwhile, Molière turned several of his farcical comedies into musical entertainments with songs (music provided by Jean Baptiste Lully) and dance in the late 1600s. His Psyche was the model for an English opera by Thomas Shadwell, The Miser produced in 1672. Carter and Butt 2005, p. 280 Davenant produced The Tempest in 1667, which was the first Shakespeare plot set to music, and which was then adapted by Shadwell into an opera in 1674 (composed by Matthew Locke and others). About 1683, John Blow composed Venus and Adonis, often considered the first true English-language opera. Parker 2001, p. 42. Blow was followed by Henry Purcell and a brief period of English opera. After the death of Charles II in 1685, English opera began to fall out of fashion. Buelow 2004, p. 328 Painting based on The Beggar's Opera, Scene V, William Hogarth, c. 1728 By the 1700s, two forms of musical theatre were popular in Britain, France and Germany: ballad operas, like John Gay's The Beggar's Opera (1728), that included lyrics written to the tunes of popular songs of the day (often spoofing opera), and comic operas, with original scores and mostly romantic plot lines, like Michael Balfe's The Bohemian Girl (1845). Other musical theatre forms developed by the 19th century, such as vaudeville, British music hall, melodrama and burlesque. Melodramas and burlettas, in particular, were popularized partly because most London theatres were licensed only as music halls and not allowed to present plays without music. In any event, what a piece was called did not necessarily define what it was. The Broadway extravaganza The Magic Deer (1852) advertised itself as "A Serio Comico Tragico Operatical Historical Extravaganzical Burletical Tale of Enchantment." Kenrick 2003. The first recorded long running play of any kind was The Beggar's Opera, which ran for 62 successive performances in 1728. It would take almost a century before the first play broke 100 performances, with Tom and Jerry, based on the book Life in London (1821), and the record soon reached 150 in the late 1820s. Gillan 2007. Colonial America did not have a significant theatre presence until 1752, when London entrepreneur William Hallam sent a company of twelve actors to the colonies with his brother Lewis as their manager. Wilmeth and Miller 1996, p. 182. They established a theatre in Williamsburg, Virginia and opened with The Merchant of Venice and The Anatomist. The company moved to New York in the summer of 1753, performing ballad-operas such as The Beggar’s Opera and ballad-farces like Damon and Phillida. By the 1840s, P.T. Barnum was operating an entertainment complex in lower Manhattan. Wilmeth and Miller 1996, p. 56. Theatre in New York moved from downtown gradually to midtown from around 1850, seeking less expensive real estate prices, and did not arrive in the Times Square area until the 1920s and 1930s. Broadway's first "long-run" musical was a 50 performance hit called The Elves in 1857. New York runs continued to lag far behind those in London, but Laura Keene's "musical burletta" Seven Sisters (1860) shattered previous New York records with a run of 253 performances. Allen 1991, p. 106. Development of musical comedy The first theatre piece that conforms to the modern conception of a musical, adding dance and original music that helped to tell the story, is generally considered to be The Black Crook, which premiered in New York on September 12, 1866. The production was a staggering five-and-a-half hours long, but despite its length, it ran for a record-breaking 474 performances. The same year, The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post was the first show to call itself a "musical comedy." At that time, in England, musical theatre consisted of mostly of music hall, adaptations of risqué French operetta and musical burlesques, notably at the Gaiety Theatre beginning in 1868. In reaction to these a few family-friendly entertainments were created, such as the German Reed Entertainments. Comedians Edward Harrigan and Tony Hart produced and starred in musicals on Broadway between 1878 (The Mulligan Guard Picnic) and 1885, with book and lyrics by Harrigan and music by his father-in-law David Braham. These musical comedies featured characters and situations taken from the everyday life of New York's lower classes and represented a significant step forward from vaudeville and burlesque, towards a more literate form. They starred high quality singers (Lillian Russell, Vivienne Segal, and Fay Templeton) instead of the ladies of questionable repute who had starred in earlier musical forms. Poster for an early production.The length of runs in the theatre changed rapidly around the same time that the modern musical was born. As transportation improved, poverty in London and New York diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of potential patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays could run longer and still draw in the audiences, leading to better profits and improved production values. The first play to achieve 500 consecutive performances was the London (non-musical) comedy Our Boys, opening in 1875, which set an astonishing new record of 1,362 performances. This run was not equaled on the musical stage until World War I, but musical theatre soon broke the 500 performance mark London, most notably by the series of more than a dozen long-running Gilbert and Sullivan family-friendly comic opera hits, including H.M.S. Pinafore in 1878 and The Mikado in 1885. The Chimes of Normandy, 1878 (adapted from the French Les Cloches de Corneville), ran for 705 performances in London, beating any of the Gilbert and Sullivan pieces. Its run was not exceeded by any other piece of musical theatre until Alfred Cellier and B. C. Stephenson's record-breaking 1886 hit, Dorothy (a show midway between comic opera and musical comedy), with 931 performances, which was chased (but not equaled) by several of the most successful London musicals of the 1890s. Other British composers of the period included Edward Solomon and F. Osmond Carr. The most popular of these shows also enjoyed profitable New York productions and tours of Britain, America, Europe, Australasia and South Africa. These shows were fare for "respectable" audiences, a marked contrast from the risqué burlesques, melodramas, bawdy music hall shows and badly translated French operettas that dominated the stage earlier in the 19th century and drew a sometimes seedy crowd looking for easy entertainment. Charles Hoyt's A Trip to Chinatown (1891) was Broadway's long-run champion (until Irene in 1919), running for 657 performances. Gilbert and Sullivan's comic operas were both pirated and imitated in New York by productions such as Reginald de Koven's Robin Hood (1891) and John Philip Sousa's El Capitan (1896). A Trip to Coontown (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by African Americans in a Broadway theatre (largely inspired by the routines of the minstrel shows), followed by the ragtime-tinged Clorindy the Origin of the Cakewalk (1898), and the highly successful In Dahomey (1902). Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 1900s composed of songs written in New York's Tin Pan Alley by composers such as Gus Edwards, John Walter Bratton and George M. Cohan (Little Johnny Jones (1904)). Still, New York runs continued to be relatively short, with a few exceptions, compared with London runs, until the 1920s. George Edwardes Meanwhile, musicals had spread to the London stage by the Gay Nineties. George Edwardes had left the management of Richard D'Oyly Carte's Savoy Theatre. He took over the Gaiety Theatre and, at first, he improved the quality of the old Gaiety Theatre burlesques. He perceived that audiences wanted a new alternative to the Savoy-style comic operas and their intellectual, political, absurdist satire. He experimented with a modern-dress, family-friendly musical theatre style, with breezy, popular songs, snappy, romantic banter, and stylish spectacle at the Gaiety, Daly's Theatre and other venues. These drew on the traditions of comic opera and also used elements of burlesque and of the Harrigan and Hart pieces. He replaced the bawdy women of burlesque with his "respectable" corps of dancing, singing Gaiety Girls to complete the musical and visual fun. The success of the first of these, In Town in 1892 and A Gaiety Girl in 1893, confirmed Edwardes on the path he was taking. These "musical comedies", as he called them, revolutionized the London stage and set the tone for the next three decades. Edwardes' early Gaiety hits included a series of light, romantic "poor maiden loves aristocrat and wins him against all odds" shows, usually with the word "Girl" in the title, including The Shop Girl (1894) and A Runaway Girl (1898), with music by Ivan Caryll and Lionel Monckton. These shows were immediately widely copied at other London theatres (and soon in America), and the Edwardian musical comedy swept away the earlier musical forms of comic opera and operetta. At Daly's Theatre, Edwardes presented slightly more complex comedy hits. The Geisha (1896) by Sidney Jones with lyrics by Harry Greenbank and Adrian Ross and then Jones' San Toy (1899) each ran for more than two years and also found great international success. The British musical comedy Florodora (1899) by Leslie Stuart and Paul Rubens made a splash on both sides of the Atlantic, as did A Chinese Honeymoon (1901), by British lyricist George Dance and American-born composer Howard Talbot, which ran for a record setting 1,074 performances in London and 376 in New York. The story concerns couples who honeymoon in China and inadvertently break the kissing laws (shades of The Mikado). The Belle of New York (1898) ran for 697 performances in London after a brief New York run, becoming the first American musical to run for over a year in London. After the turn of the century, Seymour Hicks (who joined forces with American producer Charles Frohman) wrote popular shows with composer Charles Taylor and others, and Edwardes and Ross continued to churn out hits like The Toreador (1901), A Country Girl (1902), The Orchid (1903), The Girls of Gottenberg (1907) and Our Miss Gibbs (1909). Other Edwardian musical comedy hits included The Arcadians (1909) and The Quaker Girl (1910). Operetta and World War I Probably the best known composers of operetta, beginning in the second half of the 19th century, were Jacques Offenbach and Johann Strauss II (usually played in bad, bawdy translations in London and New York). In England in the 1870s and 1880s, W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan created a family-friendly alternative to French operetta, styled British comic opera. Although British and American musicals of the 1890s and the first few years of the 20th century had virtually swept operetta and comic opera from the stage, operettas returned to the London and Broadway in 1907 with The Merry Widow, and operettas and musicals became direct competitors for a while. Victor Herbert In the early years of the 20th century, English-language adaptations of 19th century continental operettas, as well as operettas by a new generation of European composers, such as Franz Lehár and Oscar Straus, among others, spread throughout the English-speaking world, and Victor Herbert, whose work included some intimate musical plays with modern settings as well as his string of famous operettas (The Fortune Teller (1898), Babes in Toyland (1903), Mlle. Modiste (1905), The Red Mill (1906) and Naughty Marietta (1910)). These operetta composers were joined by British and American composers and librettists of the 1910s, including P. G. Wodehouse, Guy Bolton and Harry B. Smith (the "Princess Theatre" shows). Following in the footsteps of Gilbert and Sullivan, they paved the way for Jerome Kern's later work by showing that a musical could combine light, popular entertainment with continuity between its story and songs. Jones 2003, pp. 10–11 The winner of this competition between operetta and musicals was the theatre-going public, who needed escapist entertainment during the dark times of World War I and flocked to theatres for musical theatre hits like Maid of the Mountains, Irene (whose run of 670 performances was a Broadway record that held until 1938's Hellzapoppin) and especially Chu Chin Chow (whose run of 2,238 performances, more than twice as many as any previous musical, set a record that stood for nearly forty years until Salad Days) as well as popular revues like The Bing Boys Are Here. The legacy of the operetta composers served as an inspiration to the next generation of composers of operettas and musicals in the 1920s and 1930s, such as Rudolf Friml, Irving Berlin, Sigmund Romberg, George Gershwin, and Noel Coward, and these, in turn, influenced Rodgers, Sondheim, and many others later in the century. At the same time, the primacy of British musical theatre in the late 19th century faded and was gradually replaced by American innovation through the first decades of the 20th century, as George M. Cohan filled the theatres with lively musical entertainments, the Tin Pan Alley composers began to produce international hits, new musical styles such as ragtime and jazz were created, and the Shubert Brothers began to take control of the Broadway theatres. Musical theatre writer Andrew Lamb notes, "The triumph of American works over European in the first decades of the twentieth century came about against a changing social background. The operatic and theatrical styles of nineteenth-century social structures were replaced by a musical style more aptly suited to twentieth-century society and its vernacular idiom. It was from America that the more direct style emerged, and in America that it was able to flourish in a developing society less hidebound by nineteenth-century tradition." Lamb 1986, p. 47. The Roaring Twenties and the Great Depression The motion picture mounted a challenge to the stage. At first, films were silent and presented only a limited challenge to theatre. But by the end of the 1920s, films like The Jazz Singer could be presented with synchronized sound, and critics wondered if the cinema would replace live theatre altogether. The musicals of the Roaring Twenties, borrowing from vaudeville, music hall and other light entertainments, tended to ignore plot in favor of emphasizing star actors and actresses, big dance routines, and popular songs. Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, popular music was dominated by theatre writers. Many shows were revues with little plot. For instance, Florenz Ziegfeld produced annual spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets and elaborate costumes, but there was little to tie the various numbers together. In London, the Aldwych Farces were similarly successful, and stars such as Ivor Novello were popular. These spectacles also raised production values, and mounting a musical generally became more expensive. Sheet music from Sally, 1920Typical of the decade were lighthearted productions like Sally; Lady Be Good; Sunny; No, No, Nanette; Oh, Kay!; and Funny Face. Their books may have been forgettable, but they produced enduring standards from George Gershwin, Cole Porter, Jerome Kern, Vincent Youmans, and Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart, among others, and stars like Marilyn Miller and Fred Astaire. Audiences tapped their toes to these musicals on both sides of the Atlantic ocean while continuing to patronize the popular operettas that were continuing to come out of continental Europe and also from composers like Noel Coward in London and Sigmund Romberg and Rudolf Friml in America. Clearly, cinema had not killed live theatre. Leaving these comparatively frivolous entertainments behind, and taking the drama a giant step beyond Victor Herbert and sentimental operetta, Show Boat, which premiered on December 27, 1927 at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York, represented a far more complete integration of book and score, with dramatic themes, as told through the music, dialogue, setting and movement, woven together more seamlessly than in previous musicals. Show Boat, with a book and lyrics adapted from Edna Ferber's novel by Oscar Hammerstein II and P. G. Wodehouse, and music by Jerome Kern, presented a new concept that was embraced by audiences immediately. "Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy. Now... the play was the thing, and everything else was subservient to that play. Now... came complete integration of song, humor and production numbers into a single and inextricable artistic entity." Lubbock 2002. Despite some of its startling themes—miscegenation among them—the original production ran a total of 572 (or 575, depending on the source) performances. Still, Broadway runs lagged behind London's in general. By way of comparison, in 1920, The Beggar's Opera began an astonishing run of 1,463 performances at the Lyric Theatre in Hammersmith, England. 1930s Ethel Merman The Great Depression affected theatre audiences on both sides of the Atlantic, as people had little money to spend on entertainment. In addition, "talkie" films at low prices presented a strong challenge to theatre of all kinds. Only a few shows exceeded a run on Broadway or in London of 500 performances. Still, for those who could afford it, this was an exciting time in the development of musical theatre. Encouraged by the success of Show Boat, creative teams began following the "format" of that popular hit. Of Thee I Sing (1931), a political satire with music by George Gershwin and lyrics by Ira Gershwin and Morrie Ryskind, was the first musical to be awarded the Pulitzer Prize. The Band Wagon (1931), starred dancing partners Fred Astaire and his sister Adele. Porter's Anything Goes (1934) affirmed Ethel Merman's position as the First Lady of musical theatre – a title she maintained for many years. As Thousands Cheer (1933) was an Irving Berlin and Moss Hart success that marked Marilyn Miller's last show and the first Broadway show to star an African-American, Ethel Waters). Connema 2000. Gershwin's Porgy and Bess (1935) was a step closer to opera than Show Boat and the other musicals of the era, and in some respects it foreshadowed such "operatic" musicals as West Side Story and Sweeney Todd. The Cradle Will Rock (1937), with a book and score by Marc Blitzstein and directed by Orson Welles, was a highly political piece that, despite the controversy surrounding it, managed to run for 108 performances. Kurt Weill's Knickerbocker Holiday brought to the musical stage New York City's early history, using as its source writings by Washington Irving, while good-naturedly satirizing the good intentions of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Rodgers and Hart British writers such as Noel Coward and Ivor Novello continued to deliver old fashioned, sentimental musicals, such as The Dancing Years. Similarly, Rodgers & Hart returned from Hollywood to churn out a series of lighthearted Broadway hits, including On Your Toes (1936, with Ray Bolger, the first Broadway musical to make dramatic use of classical dance), Babes In Arms (1937), I'd Rather Be Right, a political satire with George M. Cohan as President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and The Boys From Syracuse (1938), and Cole Porter wrote a similar string of hits, including Anything Goes (1934) and DuBarry Was a Lady (1939). He later would go on to write scores for such classics as Can-Can (1953) and Silk Stockings (1955). But the longest running piece of musical theatre of the 1930s was Hellzapoppin (1938), a revue with audience participation, which played for 1,404 performances, setting a new Broadway record that was finally beaten by Oklahoma! Despite the economic woes and the competition from film, the musical survived. In fact, the move towards political satire in Of Thee I Sing, I'd Rather Be Right and Knickerbocker Holiday, together with the musical sophistication of the Gershwin, Kern, Rodgers and Weill musicals and the fast-paced staging and naturalistic dialogue style created by director George Abbott showed that musical theatre was finally evolving beyond the gags and showgirls musicals of the Gay Nineties and Roaring Twenties and the sentimental romance of operetta. The Golden Age (1940s to 1960s) Rodgers and Hammerstein (left and right) and Irving Berlin (center) 1940s The 1940s would begin with more hits from Porter, Irving Berlin, Rodgers and Hart, Weill and Gershwin, some with runs over 500 performances as the economy rebounded, but artistic change was in the air. Rodgers and Hammerstein's Oklahoma! completed the revolution begun by Show Boat, by tightly integrating all the aspects of musical theatre, with a cohesive plot, songs that furthered the action of the story, and featured dream ballets and other dances that advanced the plot and developed the characters, rather than using dance as an excuse to parade scantily-clad women across the stage. Rodgers and Hammerstein hired ballet choreographer Agnes de Mille, who used everyday motions to help the characters express their ideas. It defied musical conventions by raising its first act curtain not on a bevy of chorus girls, but rather on a woman churning butter, with an off-stage voice singing the opening lines of Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin'. It was the first "blockbuster" Broadway show, running a total of 2,212 performances, and was made into a hit film. It remains one of the most frequently produced of the team's projects. William A. Everett and Paul R. Laird wrote that this was a "show, that, like Show Boat, became a milestone, so that later historians writing about important moments in twentieth-century theatre would begin to identify eras according to their relationship to Oklahoma!" Everett 2002, p. 124. "After Oklahoma!, Rodgers and Hammerstein were the most important contributors to the musical-play form... The examples they set in creating vital plays, often rich with social thought, provided the necessary encouragement for other gifted writers to create musical plays of their own". The two collaborators created an extraordinary collection of some of musical theatre's best loved and most enduring classics, including Carousel (1945), South Pacific (1949), The King and I (1951), and The Sound of Music (1959). Some of these musicals, including Oklahoma!, Carousel, South Pacific and The King and I, treat more serious subject matter than most earlier shows: the villain in Oklahoma! is a suspected murderer and psychopath with a fondness for lewd post cards; Carousel deals with spousal abuse, thievery, suicide and the afterlife; South Pacific explores miscegenation even more thoroughly than Show Boat; and the hero of The King and I dies onstage. Americana was displayed on Broadway during the "Golden Age", as the wartime cycle of shows began to arrive. An example of this is On the Town (1944), written by Betty Comden and Adolph Green, composed by Leonard Bernstein and choreographed by Jerome Robbins. The musical is set during wartime, where a group of three sailors are on a 24 hour shore leave in New York. During their day, they each meet a wonderful woman. The women in this show have a specific power to them, as if saying, "Come here! I need a man!" The show also gives the impression of a country with an uncertain future, as the sailors also have with their women before leaving. Oklahoma! inspired others to continue the trend. Irving Berlin used sharpshooter Annie Oakley's career as a basis for his Annie Get Your Gun (1946, 1,147 performances); Burton Lane, E. Y. Harburg, and Fred Saidy combined political satire with Irish whimsy for their fantasy Finian's Rainbow (1947, 1,725 performances); and Cole Porter found inspiration in William Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew for Kiss Me, Kate (1948, 1,077 performances). The American musicals overwhelmed the old-fashioned British Coward/Novello-style shows, one of the last big successes of which was Novello's Perchance to Dream (1945, 1,021 performances). 1950s Julie Andrews Damon Runyon's eclectic characters were at the core of Frank Loesser's and Abe Burrows' Guys and Dolls, (1950, 1,200 performances); and the Gold Rush was the setting for Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe's Paint Your Wagon (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show didn't discourage Lerner and Loewe from collaborating again, this time on My Fair Lady (1956), an adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion starring Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews, which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood movies were made of all of these musicals. The Boy Friend (1954) ran for 2,078 performances in London, briefly becoming the third-longest running musical in West End or Broadway history (after Chu Chin Chow and Oklahoma!), until it was demoted by Salad Days. It marked Julie Andrews' American debut. Another record was set by The Threepenny Opera, which ran for 2,707 performances, becoming the longest-running off-Broadway musical until The Fantasticks. The production also broke ground by showing that musicals could be profitable off-Broadway in a small-scale, small orchestra format. This was confirmed in 1959 when a revival of Jerome Kern and P. G. Wodehouse's Leave it to Jane ran for more than two years. The 1959–1960 Off-Broadway season included a dozen musicals and revues including Little Mary Sunshine, The Fantasticks and Ernest in Love, a musical adaptation of Oscar Wilde's 1895 hit The Importance of Being Earnest. Suskin 2003. As in Oklahoma!, dance was an integral part of West Side Story (1957), which transported Romeo and Juliet to modern day New York City and converted the feuding Montague and Capulet families into opposing ethnic gangs, the Jets and the Sharks. The book was adapted by Arthur Laurents, with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by newcomer Stephen Sondheim. It was embraced by the critics but failed to be a popular choice for the "blue-haired matinee ladies," who preferred the small town River City, Iowa of Meredith Willson's The Music Man to the alleys of Manhattan's Upper West Side. Apparently Tony Award voters were of a similar mind, since they favored the former over the latter. West Side Story had a respectable run of 732 performances (1,040 in the West End), while The Music Man ran nearly twice as long, with 1,375 performances. However, the film of West Side Story was extremely successful. Laurents and Sondheim teamed up again for Gypsy (1959, 702 performances), with Jule Styne providing the music for a backstage story about the most driven stage mother of all-time, stripper Gypsy Rose Lee's mother Rose. The original production ran for 702 performances, and was given four subsequent revivals, with Angela Lansbury, Tyne Daly, Bernadette Peters and Patti LuPone later tackling the role made famous by Ethel Merman. Automotive companies and other types of corporations began to hire Broadway talent to write corporate musicals, private shows which were only seen by their employees or customers. The 1950s ended with Rodgers and Hammerstein's last hit, The Sound of Music, which also became another hit for Mary Martin. It ran for 1,443 performances and shared the Tony Award for Best Musical. Together with its extremely successful 1965 film version, it has become one of the most popular musicals in history. 1960s In 1960, The Fantasticks was first produced off-Broadway. This intimate allegorical show would quietly run for over 40 years at the Sullivan Street Theatre in Greenwich Village, becoming by far the longest-running musical in history. Its authors produced other innovative works in the 1960s, such as Celebration and I Do! I Do!, the first two-character Broadway musical. The 1960s would see a number of blockbusters, like Fiddler on the Roof (1964; 3,242 performances), Hello, Dolly! (1964; 2,844 performances), Funny Girl (1964; 1,348 performances), and Man of La Mancha (1965; 2,328 performances), and some more risqué pieces like Cabaret, before ending with the emergence of the rock musical. Two men had considerable impact on musical theatre history beginning in this decade, Stephen Sondheim and Jerry Herman. The first project for which Sondheim wrote both music and lyrics was A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962, 964 performances), with a book based on the works of Plautus by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart, and starring Zero Mostel. Sondheim moved the musical beyond its concentration on the romantic plots typical of earlier eras; his work tended to be darker, exploring the grittier sides of life both present and past. Some of his earlier works include Anyone Can Whistle (1964, which—at a mere nine performances, despite having star power in Lee Remick and Angela Lansbury—is an infamous flop), Company (1970), Follies (1971), and A Little Night Music (1973). He has found inspiration in the unlikeliest of sources—the opening of Japan to Western trade for Pacific Overtures, a legendary murderous barber seeking revenge in the Industrial Age of London for Sweeney Todd, the paintings of Georges Seurat for Sunday in the Park with George, fairy tales for Into the Woods, and a collection of individuals intent on eliminating the President of the United States in Assassins. While some critics have argued that some of Sondheim’s musicals are less popular with the public because of their unusual lyrical sophistication and musical complexity, others have praised these features of his work, as well as the interplay of lyrics and music in his shows. Some of Sondheim's notable innovations include a show presented in reverse (Merrily We Roll Along) and the above-mentioned Anyone Can Whistle, in which Act 1 ends with the cast informing the audience that they are mad. Jerry Herman played a significant role in American musical theatre, beginning with his first Broadway production, Milk and Honey (1961, 563 performances), about the founding of the state of Israel, and continuing with the smash hits Hello, Dolly! (1964, 2,844 performances), Mame (1966, 1,508 performances), and La Cage aux Folles (1983, 1,761 performances). Even his less successful shows like Dear World (1969) and Mack & Mabel (1974) have had memorable scores (Mack & Mabel was later reworked into a London hit). Writing both words and music, many of Herman's show tunes have become popular standards, including "Hello, Dolly!", "We Need a Little Christmas", "I Am What I Am", "Mame", "The Best of Times", "Before the Parade Passes By", "Put On Your Sunday Clothes", "It Only Takes a Moment", "Bosom Buddies", and "I Won't Send Roses", recorded by such artists as Louis Armstrong, Eydie Gorme, Barbra Streisand, Petula Clark and Bernadette Peters. Herman's songbook has been the subject of two popular musical revues, Jerry's Girls (Broadway, 1985), and Showtune (off-Broadway, 2003). The musical started to diverge from the relatively narrow confines of the 1950s. Rock music would be used in several Broadway musicals, beginning with Hair, which featured not only rock music but also nudity and controversial opinions about the Vietnam War, race relations and other social issues. Social themes After Show Boat and Porgy and Bess, and as the struggle in America and elsewhere for minorities' civil rights progressed, Hammerstein, Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg and others were emboldened to write more musicals and operas which aimed to normalize societal toleration of minorities and urged racial harmony. Early Golden Age works that focused on racial tolerance included Finian's Rainbow, South Pacific, and The King and I. Towards the end of the Golden Age, several shows tackled Jewish subjects and issues, such as Fiddler on the Roof, Milk and Honey, Blitz! and later Rags. The original concept that became West Side Story was set in the Lower East Side during Easter-Passover celebrations; the rival gangs were to be Jewish and Italian Catholic. The creative team later decided that the Polish (white) vs. Puerto Rican conflict was fresher. Laurents 1957. Tolerance as an important theme in musicals has continued in recent decades. The final expression of West Side Story left a message of racial tolerance. By the end of the '60s, musicals became racially integrated, with black and white cast members even covering each others' roles, as they did in Hair. Horn 1991, p. 134. Casting in some musicals is an attempt to represent the community at the subject of the drama, as in Rent and In the Heights. Homosexuality has been explored in such musicals, beginning with Hair, and even more overtly in La Cage aux Folles and Falsettos. Parade is a sensitive exploration of both anti-Semitism and historical American racism. More recent eras 1970s After the success of Hair, rock musicals flourished in the 1970s, with Jesus Christ Superstar, Godspell, The Rocky Horror Show and Two Gentlemen of Verona. Some of these rock musicals began with "concept albums" and then moved to film or stage, such as Tommy. Others had no dialogue or were otherwise reminiscent of opera, with dramatic, emotional themes; these sometimes started as concept albums and were referred to as rock operas. The musical also went in other directions. Shows like Raisin, Dreamgirls, Purlie, and The Wiz brought a significant African-American influence to Broadway. More varied musical genres and styles were incorporated into musicals both on and especially off-Broadway. 1975 brought one of the great contemporary musicals to the stage. A Chorus Line emerged from recorded group therapy-style sessions Michael Bennett conducted with Gypsies — those who sing and dance in support of the leading players —from the Broadway community. From hundreds of hours of tapes, James Kirkwood, Jr. and Nick Dante fashioned a book about an audition for a musical, incorporating into it many of the real-life stories of those who had sat in on the sessions — and some of whom eventually played variations of themselves or each other in the show. With music by Marvin Hamlisch and lyrics by Edward Kleban, A Chorus Line first opened at Joseph Papp's Public Theater in lower Manhattan. Advance word-of-mouth— that something extraordinary was about to explode — boosted box office sales, and after critics ran out of superlatives to describe what they witnessed on opening night, what initially had been planned as a limited engagement eventually moved to the Shubert Theatre uptown for a run that seemed to last forever. The show swept the Tony Awards and won the Pulitzer Prize, and its hit song, What I Did for Love, became an instant standard. Clearly, Broadway audiences were eager to welcome musicals that strayed from the usual style and substance. John Kander and Fred Ebb explored the rise of Nazism in Germany in Cabaret and Prohibition-era Chicago, which relied on old vaudeville techniques to tell its tale of murder and the media. Pippin, by Stephen Schwartz, was set in the days of Charlemagne. Federico Fellini's autobiographical film 8½ became Maury Yeston's Nine. At the end of the decade, Evita gave a more serious political biography than audiences were used to at musicals, and Sweeney Todd was the precursor to the darker, big budget musicals of the 1980s like Les Misérables, Miss Saigon, and The Phantom of the Opera, that depended on dramatic stories, sweeping scores and spectacular effects. But during this same period, old-fashioned values were still embraced in such hits as Annie, 42nd Street, My One and Only, and popular revivals of No, No, Nanette and Irene. 1980s and 1990s The 1980s and 1990s saw the influence of European "mega-musicals" or "pop operas," which typically featured a pop-influenced score and had large casts and sets and were identified as much by their notable effects—a falling chandelier (in Phantom), a helicopter landing on stage (in Miss Saigon)—as they were by anything else in the production. Many were based on novels or other works of literature. The most important writers of mega-musicals include the French team of Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil, responsible for Les Misérables, which became the longest-running international musical hit in history. The team, in collaboration with Richard Maltby, Jr., continued to produce hits, including Miss Saigon (inspired by the Puccini opera Madame Butterfly). Elaine Paige The British composer Andrew Lloyd Webber, saw similar mega-success with Evita, based on the life of Argentina's Eva Perón, and Cats, derived from the poems of T. S. Eliot, both of which musicals originally starred Elaine Paige, who with continued success has become known as the First Lady of British Musical Theatre. Other Lloyd Webber musical successes include Starlight Express, famous for being performed on roller skates; The Phantom of the Opera, derived from the novel "Le Fantôme de l'Opéra" written by Gaston Leroux; and Sunset Boulevard (from the classic film of the same name). Several of these mega-musicals ran (or are still running) for decades in both New York and London. The 90s also saw the influence of large corporations on the production of musicals. The most important has been The Walt Disney Company, which began adapting some of its animated movie musicals—such as Beauty and the Beast and The Lion King—for the stage, and also created original stage productions like Aida, with music by Elton John. Disney continues to create new musicals for Broadway and West End theatres, such as, Tarzan, a stage adaptation of the classic Mary Poppins, and, most recently, a stage version of 1989's The Little Mermaid. With the growing scale (and cost) of musicals, style was sometimes emphasized in favor of substance during the last two decades of the 20th century. At the same time, however, many writers broke from this pattern and began to create smaller scale, but critically-acclaimed and financially successful musicals, such as Falsettoland, Passion, Little Shop of Horrors, Bat Boy: The Musical, and Blood Brothers. The topics vary widely, and the music ranges from rock to pop, but they often are produced off-Broadway (or for smaller London theatres) and feature smaller casts and generally less expensive productions. Some of these have been noted as imaginative and innovative. Shaw 2006. The cost of tickets to Broadway and West End musicals was escalating beyond the budget of many theatregoers, and the trend was for these musicals to be viewed by a smaller and smaller audience. Jonathan Larson's musical Rent (based on the opera La Bohème) was marketed to increase the popularity of musicals among a younger audience. It featured a young cast, and the score is heavily rock-influenced. The musical became a hit. Its young fans, many of them students, calling themselves RENTheads, lined up at the Nederlander Theatre hours early in hopes of winning the lottery for $20 front row tickets, and some have seen the show more than 50 times. Other writers who have attempted to bring a taste of modern rock music to the stage include Jason Robert Brown. Also, a majority of shows on Broadway have now followed Rent'''s lead by offering heavily discounted day-of-performance or standing-room tickets, although often the discounts are offered only to students. Blank 2009. 2000s Recent trends In recent years, familiarity has been embraced by producers and investors anxious to guarantee that they recoup their considerable investments, if not show a healthy profit. Some took (usually modest-budget) chances on the new and unusual, such as Urinetown (2001), Bombay Dreams (2002), Avenue Q (2003), The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee (2005) and In the Heights (2007). But most took a safe route with revivals of familiar fare, such as Fiddler on the Roof, A Chorus Line, South Pacific, Gypsy, Hair, West Side Story and Grease, or with other proven material, such as films (The Producers, Spamalot, Hairspray, Legally Blonde, Billy Elliot, The Color Purple, Young Frankenstein, Shrek and the forthcoming 9 to 5) or literature (Little Women, The Scarlet Pimpernel, Dracula, and Wicked) hoping that the shows will have a built-in audience as a result. The reuse of plots, especially those from The Walt Disney Company (such as Mary Poppins in 2004 and The Little Mermaid in 2008), has been considered by some critics to be a redefinition of Broadway: rather than a creative outlet, it has become a tourist attraction. It is less likely today that a sole producer—a David Merrick or a Cameron Mackintosh—backs a production. Corporate sponsors dominate Broadway, and often alliances are formed to stage musicals which require an investment of $10 million or more. In 2002, the credits for Thoroughly Modern Millie listed ten producers, and among those names were entities composed of several individuals. Typically, off-Broadway and regional theatres tend to produce smaller and therefore less expensive musicals, and development of new musicals has increasingly taken place outside of New York and London or in smaller venues. For example, Spring Awakening and Grey Gardens were developed off-Broadway before being launched on Broadway. Several musicals returned to the spectacle format that was successful in the 1980s in such shows as Phantom of the Opera and Starlight Express, recalling extravaganzas that have been presented at times, throughout theatre history, since the ancient Romans staged mock sea battles. Examples are seen in the musical adaptations of Gone With the Wind (2008) and The Lord of the Rings in London (2007), billed as the biggest stage production in musical theatre history. The expensive productions lost money. Conversely, The Drowsy Chaperone, The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee, Xanadu and others are part of a Broadway trend to present musicals uninterrupted by an intermission, with short running time of less than two hours. The latter two, together with works like Avenue Q, also represent a trend towards presenting smaller-scale, smaller-cast musicals that are able to show a good profit in a smaller house. Jukebox musicals Another trend has been to create a minimal plot to fit a collection of songs that have already been hits. Following the earlier success of Buddy - The Buddy Holly Story, these have included Movin' Out (2002, based on the tunes of Billy Joel), Good Vibrations (the Beach Boys), All Shook Up (Elvis Presley), Jersey Boys (2006, The Four Seasons), The Times They Are A-Changin' (2006, Bob Dylan), and many others. This style is often referred to as the "jukebox musical." Similar but more plot-driven musicals have been built around the canon of a particular pop group including Mamma Mia! (1999, featuring songs by ABBA), Our House (2002, based on the songs of Madness), and We Will Rock You (2002, based on the works of Queen). Renaissance of the movie-musical and TV "musicals" After the 1996 film of Evita, the first successful movie musical in nearly two decades, Baz Luhrmann continued the revival of the movie musical with Moulin Rouge! (2001). This was followed by a number of film successes, including Chicago in 2002, Phantom of the Opera in 2004, Dreamgirls in 2006, Hairspray, Sweeney Todd in 2007, and Mamma Mia! in 2008. Dr. Seuss's How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (2000) and The Cat in the Hat (2003), made the children's book into live-action movie musicals, and Disney and other animated musicals and more adult animated musical films, like South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut (1999), paved the way for the revival of the movie musical. In addition, India is producing numerous "Bollywood" film musicals, and Japan is producing "Anime" film musicals. "Made for TV" movies, in musical format, were popular in the 1990s (for example, Gypsy (1993), and Cinderella (1997)). Several made-for-TV musical movies in the 2000s were actually adaptations of the stage version, such as South Pacific in 2001, The Music Man in 2003 and Once Upon A Mattress in 2005, and a televised version of the stage musical Legally Blonde in 2007. Additionally, several musicals were filmed on stage and broadcast on Public Television, for example Contact in 2002 and Kiss Me Kate and Oklahoma! in 2003. Some recent television shows have set episodes as a musical. Examples include episodes of Ally McBeal, Xena, Buffy the Vampire Slayer's episode Once More, with Feeling, That's So Raven, Daria's episode Daria!, Oz's Variety, Scrubs (one episode was written by the creators of Avenue Q), and the 100th episode of That '70s Show). Others have included scenes where characters suddenly begin singing and dancing in a musical-theatre style during an episode, such as in several episodes of The Simpsons, 30 Rock, Hannah Montana, South Park and Family Guy. The television series Cop Rock, extensively used the musical format as does the series The Mighty Boosh. There have also been musicals made for the internet, including Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog, about a low-rent super-villain played by Neil Patrick Harris. It was written during the WGA writer's strike. Roush 2008. Several reality TV shows have been used to help market musical revivals by holding a competition to cast leads. These include How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?, Grease: You're the One that I Want! and Legally Blonde - The Musical: The Search for Elle Woods. International musicals The U.S. and Britain were the most active sources of book musicals from the 19th century through much of the 20th century (although Europe produced various forms of popular light opera and operetta, for example Spanish Zarzuela, during that period and even earlier). However, the light musical stage in other countries has become more active in recent decades. Musicals from other English-speaking countries (notably Australia and Canada) often do well locally, and occasionally even reach Broadway or the West End (e.g., The Boy from Oz and The Drowsy Chaperone). South Africa has an active musical theatre scene, with revues like African Footprint and Umoja and book musicals, such as Kat and the Kings and Sarafina! touring internationally. Locally, musicals like Vere, Love and Green Onions, Over the Rainbow: the all-new all-gay... extravaganza and Bangbroek Mountain and In Briefs - a queer little Musical have been produced successfully. Successful musicals from continental Europe include shows from (among other countries) Germany (Elixier and Ludwig II), Austria (Tanz der Vampire and Elisabeth), Czech Republic (Angelika), France (Notre Dame de Paris, Les Misérables, Angélique, Marquise des Anges and Romeo & Juliette) and Spain (Hoy No Me Puedo Levantar). Japan has recently seen the growth of an indigenous form of musical theatre, both animated and live action, mostly based on Anime and Manga, such as Kiki's Delivery Service and Tenimyu. The popular Sailor Moon metaseries has had twenty-nine Sailor Moon musicals, spanning thirteen years. Beginning in 1914, a series of popular revues have been performed by the all-female Takarazuka Revue, which currently fields five performing troupes. Elsewhere in Asia, the Indian Bollywood musical, mostly in the form of motion pictures, is tremendously successful. Hong Kong's first modern musical, produced in both Mandarin and Cantonese, is Snow.Wolf.Lake. Other countries with an especially active musicals scene include the Netherlands, Italy, Sweden, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Russia, Turkey and China. Relevance The Broadway League (formerly "The League of American Theatres and Producers") announced that in the 2007–08 season, 12.27 million tickets were purchased for Broadway shows for a gross sale amount of almost a billion dollars. Broadway League 2008. The League further reported that during the 2006-07 season, approximately 65% of Broadway tickets were purchased by tourists, and that foreign tourists were 16% of attendees. Broadway League 2007. (This does not include off-Broadway and smaller venues.) The Society of London Theatre reported that 2007 set a record for attendance in London. Total attendees in the major commercial and grant-aided theatres in Central London were 13.6 million, and total ticket revenues were £469.7 million. Society of London Theatre 2008. Also, as noted above, the international musicals scene has been particularly active in recent years. However, Stephen Sondheim has been less than optimistic: The success of original material like Avenue Q, Urinetown, and Spelling Bee, as well as creative re-imaginings of film properties, including Thoroughly Modern Millie, Hairspray, Billy Elliot and The Color Purple, and plays-turned-musicals, such as Spring Awakening prompts Broadway historian John Kenrick to write: "Is the Musical dead? ...Absolutely not! Changing? Always! The musical has been changing ever since Offenbach did his first rewrite in the 1850s. And change is the clearest sign that the musical is still a living, growing genre. Will we ever return to the so-called "golden age," with musicals at the center of popular culture? Probably not. Public taste has undergone fundamental changes, and the commercial arts can only flow where the paying public allows." See also Yakshagana -- a musical drama from India involves dance, songs, dialogues, costumes and makeup Related forms Cast recording Chinese Opera Classical Indian dance Show tunes Industrial musical Yakshagana (Indian art form) General List of musicals List of musicals by composer List of musical theatre composers List of the 100 Longest-Running Broadway shows Long-running musical theatre productions List of Tony Award and Olivier Award winning musicals List of choreographers AFI's 100 Years of Musicals Notes References Further Reading Bauch, Marc. The American Musical. Marburg, Germany: Tectum Verlag, 2003. ISBN 382888458X (described here) Bauch, Marc. Themes and Topics of the American Musical after World War II. Marburg, Germany: Tectum Verlag, 2001. ISBN 3828811418 described here Ganzl, Kurt. The Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre (3 Volumes). New York: Schirmer Books, 2001. Traubner, Richard. Operetta: A Theatrical History''. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1983 Article on history of musical theatre, focusing on American musicals History of the musical at History.com External links General Broadway.com - extensive theater site with news, photos and more The Broadway Musical Home Internet Broadway Database (ibdb.com) Long running plays (over 400 performances) on Broadway, Off-Broadway, London, Toronto, Melbourne, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin Playbill.com Stacy's Musical Village - large musical theatre site News and information Australia's leading musical theatre website (aussietheatre.com) British musical theatre publication The Gaiety and related publications, available articles Edwardian theatre site with numerous midi files and other information Guide to musical theatre detailing synopsis, cast lists, song lists and rights holder Musical Cast Album Database (castalbumdb.com) StageAgent.com - Synopses & character descriptions for most major musicals "TIME Magazine" collection of Broadway's evolution Ticket sources Guide to Broadway Theatre.com - extensive theatre site with London news, photos and more Producers and Unions Actors' Equity Association The Broadway League (formerly the League of American Theatres and Producers) The Dramatists Guild of America | Musical_theatre |@lemmatized black:4 crook:2 consider:5 historian:3 first:38 musical:261 morley:1 p:23 theatre:100 form:20 combine:4 music:53 song:28 speak:3 dialogue:15 dance:29 emotional:2 content:2 piece:10 humor:2 pathos:1 love:6 anger:1 well:9 story:27 communicate:1 word:6 movement:2 technical:3 aspect:4 entertainment:13 integrated:1 whole:1 since:5 early:14 century:26 stage:31 work:16 generally:9 call:10 simply:1 perform:9 around:6 world:7 may:3 present:15 large:5 venue:4 big:6 budget:4 west:16 end:13 broadway:63 production:30 london:37 new:37 york:25 city:6 small:16 fringe:1 regional:3 tour:3 amateur:1 group:9 school:1 performance:53 space:1 addition:3 britain:4 north:1 america:10 vibrant:2 scene:6 many:18 country:7 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